exam

31. Types of metaphor

Absolute: A metaphor in which one of the terms (the tenor) can't be readily distinguished from the other (the vehicle). Complex: A metaphor in which the literal meaning is expressed through more than one figurative term (a combination of primary metaphors). Conceptual: A metaphor in which one idea (or conceptual domain) is understood in terms of another. Conventional: A familiar comparison that doesn't call attention to itself as a figure of speech. Creative: An original comparison that calls attention to itself as a figure of speech. Dead: A figure of speech that has lost its force and imaginative effectiveness through frequent use. Extended: A comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or lines in a poem. Mixed: A succession of incongruous or ludicrous comparisons. Primary: A basic intuitively understood metaphor such as "knowing is seeing" or "time is motion" that may be combined with other primary metaphors to produce complex metaphors. Root: An image, narrative, or fact that shapes an individual's perception of the world and interpretation of reality. Submerged: A type of metaphor in which one of the terms (either the vehicle or tenor) is implied rather than stated explicitly. Therapeutic: A metaphor used by a therapist to assist a client in the process of personal transformation. Visual: The representation of a person, place, thing, or idea by way of a visual image that suggests a particular association or point of similarity. Organizational: A figurative comparison used to define the key aspects of an organization and/or explain its methods of operation.

Stylistic Devices of Using Adverbs

Adverbs as one of the means of communicating intensity may be: stylistically neutral, typical of both written and oral speech (exceedingly, quite, too, utterly): stylistically marked, typical of oral speech only (awfully, terribly, dreadfully etc.). The latter are close to intensifying particles. Forma! differentiation of suffix and non-suffix adverbs in Modern English is supported by their stylistic usage. The use of non-suffix adverbs is typical of the oral form of speech

4. The Notion of Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.

All stylistic means of a language can be divided into expressive means (EM),which are used in some specific way, and special devices called stylistic devices (SD). The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. The most powerful expressive means of any language are phonetic. The human voice can indicate subtle nuances of meaning that no other means can attain. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means in intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically. A stylistic device(SD) is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalised pattern. Expressive means 1.Language elements of various levels which are stylistically marked within the given language level 2, Stylistic meaning is usually allotted to an expressive means 3.Stylistic meaning is stipulated by paradigmatic relations of the elements of one level.

38. Figures of opposition.

Antithesis (Greek - opposition) is a stylistic device which presents two contrasting ideas in close proximity in order to stress the contrast. There are several variants of antithesis based on different relations of the ideas expressed: 1) opposition of features possessed by the same referent, e.g. Some people have much to live on, and little to live for (O.Wilde); 2) opposition of two or more different referents having contrasting features, e.g. Their pre-money wives did not go together with their post-money daughters /E.Hemingway/; 3) opposition of referents having not only contrasting feature but embracing a wider range of features, e.g. New England had a native literature, while Virginia had none; numerous industries, while Virginia was all agricultural /Th.Dreiser/. Antithesis often goes along with other stylistic features: anaphoric repetition, parallelism, chiasmus, in particular. It is widely used in all kinds of speech: fiction, publicistic, scientific, and colloquial English. It performs various stylistic functions: stressing the contrast and rhythmically organizing the utterance. Due to the last quality antithesis is widely used in poetry in combination with anaphora, epiphora, and alliteration. Oxymoron - (Greek: oxymoron - witty - foolish) is also a combination of opposite meanings which exclude each other. But in this case, the two semantically contrasting ideas are expressed by syntactically interdependent words (in predicative, attributive or adverbial phrases)

28. Figures of quantity.

Figures of speech based on the comparison of two different object or phenomena having a common feature expressed with a certain degree of intensity Hyperbole - is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration aimed at intensifying one of the features of the object in question. F: Is mainly used to intensify physical qualities of objects or people: size, colour, age, quantity is used to intensify a statement Meiosis - is a figure of speech opposite to hyperbole. This is a deliberate understatement or underestimation of some feature of an object or phenomena with the aim of intensifying the expressiveness of speech. Liotes - presents a statement in the form of negation.It has a specific semantic and syntactic structure: the usage of not before a word before a negative preffics ( not dishonest)

3. Basic notions of stylistics

Basic notions: Style - 1)Individual manner of expression determined by personal factors, such as educational background, professional experience, sense of humour 2)A variety of the national language traditionally used in one of the socially identifiable spheres of life that is characterised by a particular set of linguistic features, including vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Norm- a set standard Context-the words that are used with a certain word or phrase and that help to explain its meaning Image - a piece of speech carrying imaginative information the meaning of which is not equal to the meaning of separate elements of this piece Imagery - the feelings and associated stimuli to a particular text Synonymy -havings the same or almost the same meaning as another word or phrase in the same language) or the fact that words or phrases are synonymous: Expressive means of a language are those linguistic forms and properties that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic or expressive. These can be found on all levels - phonetic, graphical, morphological, lexical or syntactical. Sytlistic devices- is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalised pattern.

Stylistic Devices of Using Pronouns.

Being very abstract, pronouns in contrast with nouns and adjectives are rarely used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive. Pronouns may acquire stylistic value if they denote persons or objects that have not been named or introduced but are still represented as familiar 1) when we is used instead of I (/ -> we transposition): / => one transposition which gives an utterance a more general, impersonal character; / => you transposition which frequently occurs in reported speech and some descriptions; / => he/she transposition that takes place when: When you is replaced by one, the statement becomes generalized When I is substituted by he, she or nouns, the speaker either tries to analyse his own actions with the eyes of a stranger, or he is ironical about himself. +Use of archaic pronouns thou, thy, thine creates the atmosphere of solemnity and elevation, or brings us back to ancient times.

37. Figures of inequality

Climax is stylistic device consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration. In order to create antithesis (paradox or oxymoron) we use antonyms or their contextual equivalents. In climax we deal with string of synonyms or at least semantically related words. The special organization of the utterance (or text) increases its stylistic effect and impact on the addressee. Anticlimax is closely connected with paradox. A lot of witty sayings and proverbs, jokes and anecdotes are based on both paradox and anticlimax. Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices which consist in play on words and operate on the linguistic mechanism of polysemy: the realization of different meanings of one and the same word, or the principle of semantic incompatibility of language units used in the utterance. The effect of these stylistic devices is humorous. Both of them are highly characteristic for English prose and poetry. Zeugma and pun are very alike from semantic point of view. But they differ structurally. Pun is a variant of zeugma. But pun is more independent structurally. It does not need a basic component like in zeugma. It is just play on words based either upon polysemy or homonymy.

45. Literary Colloquial style in Modern English

Colloquial (Conversational) Style. The main function of this style is communicative. We use this style in everyday life. There are some extra-linguistic features characteristic of this style: e.g. informality, spontaneous character of speech, interpersonal contact. When we use the colloquial style we attract gestures, different facial expression, body movements. Stylistic features of this style include: familiarity, ellipsis, concrete character of speech, interruption and logical inconsistency of the speech, emotiveness, efficacy. Secondary stylistic features may include: idiomatic and patterned character, "personal" type of speech presentation. There are oral and written varieties of this style. In it we distinguish between two forms of speech: dialogue (simple dialogue, when 2 people participate in the conversation and polylogue) and monologue. Colloquial style has substyles and genres: literary conversational style (talks, conversations, interviews), familiar-conversational style (communication between family members - mummy, daddy, granny..., friends - hey, chap!, children's talk-mummy, granny, doggy...), low colloquial (quarrels, scandal). We use non-bookish means of the language and colloquial elements on all language levels. There are several language means peculiar colloquial style: · graphic means. Here we find graphic signals of the change of communicative roles; · phonetic means, such as intensive modification of sounds in fluent speech, positional phonemic interchange (in a word - at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the word, stressed or unstressed position, and so on). Positional changes: reduction or weakening of vowels in unstressed syllables and partial devoicing of consonants at the end of the word before a pause. Complete reduction: apokopa (the drop of the final consonant or final part of the word), synkopa (there is a drop of a vowel or several sounds in other positions, e.g. I`m I`ve it isn`t, and so on). · Vocabulary means: conversational or everyday life vocabulary, wide use of non-literary vocabulary, expressive-emotional vocabulary, means of verbal imagery, wide use of stylistic devices, including pun (There isn`t a single man in the hotel); · grammatical means: in morphology there are a lot of pronouns and particles, wide use of variety of aspect and tense forms of the verb (Present Continuos, Present Indefinite, Present Perfect), in syntax: variety in the use of communicative types of the sentence, priority of short sentences, wide use of expressive constructions (e.g. in familiar-conversational style we can use "how, when, where" with the word "ever" or with "the hell" "the devil" and so on. E.g. Why the hell do you ask?); · compositional peculiarities: different types of dialogue (question - answer, exclamation - reply, an so on).

8. Stylistic Devices of Using Adjectives.

The violation of morphemic combinability of adjectivies which express different degree of comparison are typical of ad techniques the most Italian coffee: the pleasingest grint The meaning of comparison can be expressed differently (senior- junior) or through -ish

21. Expressive means based on the deliberate reduction of some elements of the sentence structure.

Ellipsis is a typical phenomenon in conversation, arising out of the situation. Ellipsis- is the omission of a word necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence, but not necessary for understanding. The stylistic function of ellipsis used in author's narration is to change its tempo, to connect its structure. e. g. You feel all right? Anything wrong or what? Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis)is a sudden break in the narration. It has the function to reveal agitated state of the speaker. Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used. e.g. He couldn't go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels. That is connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. It's a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they would be normally used. Nominative sentencesare one-memberd sentences where predicate is omitted. The nominative sentences may include components which are connected with nucleuos not only with the help of coordination and subordination but opposition. e.g. Mr.George Sampson, a friend of the family. Nominative sentences may be used in introductory descriptioon aquarimg the reader with the place of a story or presenting the background of the action. e.g. He stopped. No light from beneath. No sound from within.

32. Epithet and its types.

Epithet is a stylistic device emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. Its function is to reveal the evaluating subjective attitude of the writer towards the thing described. Fixed epithet. The repeated use of a word or phrase for the same person, place, or object. Also called the Homeric epithet, fixed epithets are commonly used in epic poetry. Argumentative epithet. Epithets that hint at a warning. Argumentative epithets are commonly used by orators to suggest a possible outcome. Kenning. A specific epithet that's a two-word phrase that metaphorically describes an object. Kennings are commonly found in Old English and Old Norse poetry

20. The notion of expressive means and stylistic devices on the syntactical level.

Expressive Means - phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. All these forms have neutral synonyms. Syntactical expressive means: constructions, which reveal a certain degree of logical and emotional emphasis. Stylistic Device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structure and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model. Stylistic devices function in texts as marked units and always carry additional information Detached construction is a SD in which one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated parts. A variant of detached construction is parenthesis - a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, etc. which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it Parallel construction is a device, which deals not so much with a sentence but with supra-phrasal units and paragraphs. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical or similar structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession. Chiasmus (reversed parallel constructions) is a SD based on the repetition of a syntactic pattern of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence, in which the word-order of one of the sentences is inverted as compared to that of the other. Repetition is an EMs of the language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion Repetition is classified according to compositional patterns: Anaphora - the repeated word comes at the beginning of two or more sentences. (e.g. above) Epiphora - the repeated unit is placed at the end of the consecutive sentences. Framing - repetition arranged in the form of a frame: Climax (Gradation)is an arrangement of sentences (or of homogeneous parts of one sentence) so that each in turn has a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance:

46. Familiar Colloquial style in Modern English

Familiar-Colloquial Style and Slang Besides the standard, literary-colloquial speech, there is also a non¬standard (or substandard) style of speech, mostly represented by a special vocabulary. Such is the familiar-colloquial style (a 'lower' variant of colloquial style) used in very free, friendly, informal situations of communication (between close friends, members of one family, etc.). Here we find emotionally coloured words, low-colloquial vocabulary and slang words. This style admits also of the use of rude and vulgar vocabulary, including expletives/obscene words/four-letter words/swearwords . See some examples of familiar-colloquial/low-colloquial words (also called 'slang'): Rot/trash/stuff ( = smth. bad); the cat's pyjamas (=just the right/suitable thing); bread-basket (= stomach); grass/pot (=* marijuana, narcotic drugs); tipsy/under the influence (affluence)/ under the table/has had a drop (=drunk); cute/great! (Am) (=very good); wet blanket (^uninteresting person); hot stuff! (smth. extremely good); You're damn right! (= quite right); Besides denoting low-colloquial (familiar-colloquial) words, it is also used to denote special social jargons/cants, i.e. words typically used by particular social groups to show that the speaker belongs to this group, as different from other people. Originally jargons were used to preserve secrecy within the social group, to make speech incomprehensible to others — such is the thieves' jargon/cant. There is also teenagers' slang/jargon, school slang, army slang, prison slang, etc. See examples of American army slang: to take felt (= to retire from the army, literally — put on a felt hat); fly boy (=pilot); coffin (= unreliable aeroplane); Molotov cocktail (= bottles with explosive materials); But often words from a particular jargon spread outside its social group and become general slang. See examples of general British slang: crackers (= crazy), the year dot (= long ago), drip (= uninteresting person without a character), get the hump ( = get angry), mac (~ Scotsman), mug (=fool), nipper (= young child), ratted (= drunk), snout (= tobacco). Some examples of general American slang: buddy (= fellow), buck (= dollar), cabbage ( = money), John (= lavatory), jerk ( = stupid person) Juice (= wine); joker (= man); glued (= arrested); give smb. wings (= teach to use drugs); stag party (= мальчиш¬ник); top dog ( = boss); like a million dollars (-very good); to nip (=steal), smash (= a drink). There is also professional slang/jargon, i.e. words which are used by people in their professional activity: tin-fish ( = submarine); block-buster (= a bomb- in military use, or a very successfitlfilm — in show business); piper (= a specialist decorating к. cakes with cream and using a pipe); see also some professional slang words for a 'blow' in boxing: an outer (= a knock-out blow), a right-hander (=one made with the right hand); an uppercut; a clinch (position of boxing very close, with body pressed to body).

39. The problem of speech functional style classification

Functional Style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be recoquized by one or more leading features which are especially conspicuous. For instance the use of special terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be recognized. A style of language can be fined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter-coordinated language means intended to full-fill a specific function of communication and aiming at a defined effect. Style of language is a historical category. The English literary system has evolved a number of styles easily distinguishable one from another. They are not homogeneous and fall into several variants of having some central point of resemblance or better to say all integrated by the invariant - i.e. the abstract ideal system. They are: 1) Official (documents and papers); 2) Scientific (brochures, articles, other scientific publications); 3) Publicistic (essay, public speech); 4) Newspaper style (mass media); 5) Belles-lettres style (genre of creative writing); Each of mentioned here styles can be expressed in two forms: written and oral. Stylistics is a sides that examines the complex of stylistically marked elements of any language level.

Stylistic functions of conversational words.

Generally, colloquial words according to their usage may be divided into three big groups: 1) literary colloquial, 2) familiar colloquial: 3) low colloquial. According to the relations between their form and meaning, all colloquial words may be divided into three subgroups: 1) words which are based on the change of their phonetic or morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic meaning: a) clipping (shortening): serge - sergeant, caff - cafeteria; b) contamination of a word combination: leggo - let's go, kinda - kind of, c'mon - come on; [gimme, dunno, gonna, wanna] c) contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go, there's, we're going. 2) words which are the result of the change of both their form and lexico-stylistic meaning; a) the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps - very many, a handful — a person causing a lot of trouble; b) the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence of another lexico-stylistic meaning through: affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie; compounding: backroom boy, dip-joint: conversion: to bag, teach-in; telescopy: swellegant, flush, fruice; shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald); compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty, 3) words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-stylistic meaning without changing their form. c) words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny — a waitress, colt-team - young team; d) words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise to a new connotative meaning: affair - business, to have an affair- to be in love, beggar - poor person, lucky beggar- lucky person; e) words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely different from their former meanings: chanter (poetic) - a singer; chanter (col.) - a person who sells horses at the market. Slang is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms. We can distinguish two varieties of slang: general slang (interjargon) special slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary (phone, flu, sky-scraper). Novelty is the most impressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose their expressiveness. Vulgarisms are the words which are not generally used in public. However, they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were tabooed or marked by the initial letters only. Dialectal words ('ud - would, 'im - him, 'aseen - have seen, canna - cannot, dinna-don't, sportin - sporting) are used to intensify the emotive and expressive colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or geographical environmen

6. Graphic - phonetic Stylistic Device

Graphical means - are the system of the outer organization of a text, that is ways of arrangement of elements and fragments of the text ( paragraphes, headlines, subtitles) and other graphic devices that make text expressive. GM: spacing out usage of different font dot capitalised words changing of spelling Graphon - effective means of supplying information about the speaker's origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. The main functions of graphon are: to express the author's attitude to the characters, e.g. butler Yellowplush impresses his listeners with the learned words pronouncing them as "sellybrated" (celebrated), "bennyviolent" (benevolent). to show the physical defects of the speakers, e.g. the stuttering "The b-b-b-b-bas-tud - he seen me c--c-c-c-coming", to convey the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act, e.g. "gimme" (give me), "lemme" (let me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), etc

2. Initial notions of stylistics.

Initial notions: language-speech-speech activity language and speech units paradigmatics and syntagmatics opposition and contrast marked and unmarked members of opposition invariant and variant selection and combination We have to distinguish 3 aspects Language- is the system of signs, the relations between them and the rules of their usage Speech activity is the process of converting the language system into speech in accordance with fixed rules and patterns Speech is materialization of language in communication

23. Expressive means based on the violation of word order in the sentence structure

Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds of inversion: Inversion may be of two types: 1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin); 2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police they will go (A.Christie). Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasising it, e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence arose (A.Christie). Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically connected.

34. Irony and its types.

Irony is an implied discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. The device is based on the interaction of two logical meanings: dictionary and contextual. Modern theories of rhetoric distinguish between three types of irony: verbal, dramatic and situational. Verbal irony is a disparity of expression and intention: when a speaker says one thing but means another, or when a literal meaning is contrary to its intended effect. Dramatic irony is a disparity of expression and awareness: when words and actions possess a significance that the listener or audience understands, but the speaker or character does not. Situational irony is the disparity of intention and result: when the result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected effect. Irony can be understood in two senses: broad and narrow. In a narrow sense irony is the use of a word having positive connotative meaning to express a negative evaluation of something. In a broad sense an utterance is considered ironical if testifying to a positive or neutral attitude of the speaker towards some fact it implies his negative evaluation of it. Some words and phrases have a definite ironical connotative meaning, which they preserve in all contexts.

Stylistic functions of literary words. The difference between historic and archaic words, lexical and stylistic neologisms.

Literary words of the English language can be classified into the following groups: -poetic diction -archaic words - barbarisms and foreign words - bookish (learned) words. Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists. Poetic words are diverse; they include: 1) archaic words (commix - mix) archaic forms (vale - valley) historic words (argosy - large merchant ship) poetic words proper (anarch, brine), Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus distinguishing it from non-fiction texts. In modern poetry such words are seldom used. Their stylistic meaning gets more vivid when they are contrasted to neutral words. Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided into two groups: a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognised in modern English. They were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely changed (troth - faith, losel - worthless); b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead of annoyance. Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist. Historical words (yeoman, thane, baldric, goblet) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern synonyms. Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser, shopping, pop promo, killer, satellite). Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole - a spy who successfully infiltrates an organisation; ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age)

29. Figures of quality.

Metaphor - expressive renaming on the basis of similarity, likeness, or affinity (real or imaginary) of two objects: the real object of speech and the one whose name is actually used. Metaphors can be classified 1. according to their unexpectedness: - genuine metaphors - absolutely unexpected; - trite (dead, traditional) metaphors - are constantly used in speech and therefore are often fixed in dictionaries as expressive means (a ray of hope, floods of tears, a flight of imagination) 2. according to the function: - nominative - when one name is substituted by another in order to extract a new name from the old word stock - the apple of the eye; - cognitive - when objects are ascribed features of different objects - Time flies; - generalizing - is used in naming some products - Burn; - imaginary - presupposes that identifying lexical units are transferred into a predicate slot and as predicate units refer to other objects or a class of objects. In this case metaphor is a means of individualization, evaluation and discrimination of the shades of meaning - If Aitken found out about us the NY job would go up in a smoke. 3. according to their structure: - simple - which is based on the actualization of one or several features common for two objects. - sustained or prolonged - which is not limited to one feature that forms the central image but also comprises other features that develop the image in context. Personification - is attributing human properties to lifeless objects, mostly to abstract notions, such as thoughts, actions, intentions, emotions, seasons of the year etc. ("the face of London", or "the pain of the ocean".) The stylistic purposes of personification are varied. In poetry and fiction the purpose of personification is to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic force to it or to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer. Antonomasia - using a proper name as a common noun and vice versa using a descriptive word-combination instead of a proper noun. It can be of two types: 5. a usage of a proper name for a common noun (He is a real Sherlock Holms); 6. a usage of common nouns or their parts as proper names (Mr.Known-All); Allegory - is a means of expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures. The purpose of allegory as a stylistic device is to intensify the influence of logical contents of speech by adding to it an element of emotional character.

33. Metonymical group.

Metonymical group: the transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity/nearness of two objects, on the real association of the object of nomination with the object whose name is transferred Metonymy - lexical, contextual transfer of meaning Synechdoche - naming the whole object by mentioning part of it; Periphrasis - a substitution of the word for the word combination, which describes its most essential and characteristic features; Euphemism - a replacement of and unpleasantly sounding word or phrase TYPES OF EUPHEMISMS: 1. religious God - Lord, Goodness, Heaven, Almighty Devil - the dickens, the deuce, Old Nick, Gentleman 2. moral to die = to join the majority, to pass away, to breathe one's last, to go West dead = late, deceased, departed We were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way. (Ch. Dickens) 3.medical mental hospital = lunatic asylum, mentally challenged = idiot 4. political relocation centres - concentration camps incursion- invasion anti-personnel weapons - bombs conflict - war

41. The style of Official documents in Modern English.

Official documents are written in a formal, "cold" or matter-of-fact style of speech. The style of official documents, or 'officialese' as it is sometimes called, is not homogeneous and is represented by the following sub-styles, or varieties: 1. the language of business documents, 2. the language of legal documents, 3. the language of diplomacy, 4. the language of military documents. General features of the style of English of documents' writing are the following: conventionality of expression; absence of emotiveness; encoded character of the language system (including abbreviations); general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence. The syntactical pattern of business correspondence style is made up from compositional patterns of variants of this style which have their own designs. The form of a document itself is informative, because it tells something about the matter dealt with. From the viewpoint of its stylistic structure, the whole document is one sentence. It looks like separate, shaped clauses often divided by commas or semicolons, and not by full stops, often numbered. Every predicate construction begins with a capital letter in the form of a participial or an infinitive construction.

24. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of syntactical constructions of several contact clauses or sentences.

Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial. Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order of the sentence or clause that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched me, I sat and watched him (D.Hammett). The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasise this or that part of the utterance , to break the rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited for me to say something, I waited for him (D. Hammett). Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g. Ergo, she didn't. Ergo, there never was such a bet. Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to get hold of those chocolates for some reason other than he stated (A.Berkley). Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative. Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g. / come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the level. Be on the level (D. Hammett).

25. Stylistic devices based on the transformation of types and means of syntactic connection

Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a pause and a period. F: specification of some concepts or facts characterization of the character's' emotional state description of the events or giving the character's portrayal Coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show different planes of the narrative Coordination markers - and, but

5. Stylistic Phonetic Devices

Phoneme is the main unit of the phonological level. Its main function is to differentiate meaningful units. The patterns of sound arrangment: versification instrumentation. There are 3 main modes of sound arrangement in instrumentation: alliteration - is a phonetic stylistic device which consists in a deliberate repetition of the same or similar sounds and sounds combinations. It is often used in proverbs, saings ( seldom seen soon forgotten: safe and sound) assonance - is a phonetic SD which consists of deliberate repetition of the same or similar vowels for creating a specific sound Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky onomatopoeia - is is a phonetic SD which consists of deliberate repetition ofsounds produced in nature ( squealing)

43. The Publicist style in Modern English .

Publicistic style exists in two forms: written and oral. Essays and articles appear in written form; speeches, oratories appear in oral form. The aim of the publicistic style is to influence the public opinion, to convince readers and listeners of something and make them accept the point of view expressed in the speech, article or essay. This can be reached both by logical argumentation and emotional appeal. A. Oratory and Speeches Their aim is to inform and convince the audience to evoke a desired reaction on its part and to stimulate it to some activity. The main features are: the direct address to the audience (ladies & gentlemen, honorable members); the use of contracted forms (I'll, you've, he's, don't); the use of the 2d person pronoun "you"; intonations, pronunciation & gestures are of great importance; the vocabulary comprises a great number of formal bookish words and terms; the excessive use of emotionally coloured language, stylistic devices which are mainly trite, not genuine (metaphors, similes, periphrasis, rhetorical questions, repetitions). B. The Essay It is a short prose composition on philosophical, aesthetic or literary subject. The style of the essay depends on the author's individuality. The main features are: moderate length; the use of the 1st person of pronouns; the use of lexical stylistic devices; literary vocabulary; logical argumentation; the use of logical language of scientific fiction together with the emotional language of fiction. C. Articles The main aim of the articles is to interpret the news, to comment on the political & cultural events of the day, to explain and to convince the reader. The style of an article depends on the newspaper or magazine chosen for its publication, and on the subject matter treated. In an article dealing with sociopolitical life we find a lot of bookish literary words, terms and abstract notions. Literary reviews are richer in emotionally colored vocabulary and expressive means.

36. Figures of identity.

Relations of identity are realized in context where close or synonymous units referring to the same object, or phenomenon are used. Here we refer simile and two kinds of synonyms - specifying and substituting ones. Simile (Latin: simile - similar) is a partial identification of two objects belonging to different spheres or bringing together some of their qualities. The objects compared are not identical, though they have some resemblance, some common features. Emphasizing their partial identity gives new characteristics to the referent. Synonyms-substitutes (substituting synonyms) are words used to denote objects or action, supplementing new additional details, which helps to avoid monotonous repetitions, e.g. But he had no words to express his feelings and to relieve them would utter an obscene jest; it was as though his emotion was so violent that he needed vulgarity to break the tension. Mackintosh observed this sentiment with an icy disdain /W.S.Maugham/. Substituting synonyms are characterized by contextual similarity giving rise to emotive-evaluative meaning. That is why some synonyms can be treated as such only in context. Synonyms-substitutes are widely used in publicist style. They are also regarded as situational synonyms. Synonyms-specifiers (specifying synonyms) are used as a chain of words which express similar meanings. Such synonyms are used for a better and more detailed description of an object or person, when every other synonym adds new information about it. There are two ways of using specifying synonyms: 1) as paired synonyms, and 2) as synonymic variations, e.g. ...the intent of which perjury being to rob a poor native widow and her helpless family of a plantation-patch, their only stay and support in their bereavement and desolation /M.Twain/. These synonyms specify the utterance, adding some new information. Though the given synonyms are very close in their meaning, they are different in stylistic colouring. Synonymic variations specify the utterance, intensifying its emotional value. Such synonyms are widely used in fiction and the publicistic style. In scientific prose and official style, their usage is limited

22. Expressive means based on the redundancy of some elements of the sentence structure

Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence. Various types of repetition can be found in fiction: 1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A.Berkley); 2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. / cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett); 3) catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust (D.Hammett); 4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became genera! (Ch. Dickens). Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at emphasising the whole utterance, e.g. / found battlers, secondmen, chauffeurs, cooks, maids, upstairs girls, downstairs girls, and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies - he had enough servants to run a hotel (D.Hammett). Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to connect sentences, clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical,

26. Stylistic devices based on the transposition of meaning of syntactical structure in the given context.

Rhetoric questions are negative or affirmative statements rather than questions, possible answers being implied by the question itself. F: attracting attention of the audience for creating different shades of meaning

35. General characteristics of figures of combination.

SIMILE - this figure of identity consists in expressive comparison of two objects which have something in common. e.g. John behaves like his father. Robin looked at Sibil as a mouse might look at a cat. OXYMORON - this figure of contrast is a combination of words which are semantically incompatible. e.g. That was a horribly beautiful lady. I'd never say, that it is possible to feel a loving hate. ANTITHESIS - this figure of contrast stands close to oxymoron. The major difference between them is structural: oxymoron is realized through a single word-combination, while antithesis is a confrontation of at least two separate phrases semantically opposite. Compare: "wise foolishness" - oxymoron "... the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness" - antithesis. e.g. It was the season of light, it was the season of darkness. Gilbert wears fine clothes, while I go in rags. CLIMAX (GRADATION) - this figure of inequality consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration. e.g. I am sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry. There was the boom, then instantly the shriek and burst. ANTICLIMAX- counterpart of climax, where emotional or logical importance is accumulated only to be unexpectedly broken and brought to a sudden break, e.g. This was appalling - and soon forgotten. ZEUGMA - a zeugmatic construction of at least three constituents. The basic word of it stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to a couple of adjacent words. The basic word combined with the first adjacent word forms a phraseological word-combination. The same basic word combined with the second adjacent word forms a free word-combination. e.g. Freddy got out of bed and low spirits. Marry dropped a tear and her handkerchief. PUN- a stylistic device in which one word is deliberately used in two meanings. e.g. There is one brand of tobacco allowed here - " Three nons". None today, none tomorrow, and none the day after.( nun- «черниця» , none- «жоден»)

Criteria for stylistic differentiation of the English word-stock. Stylistic classes of words

Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our classification are as follows: paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (evaluative, emotive or expressive meaning); syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context. Spheres of usage:( terms, poetic words,jargonisms, colloquialisms) The age of a word or denotator (neologisms, archaisms, historical) Origin of a word:( barbarisms - partially assimilated, borrowings - completely assimilated, exotic words, foreignisms, native words) Social prestige of a word:( neutral - the biggest group, literary (elevated, high-flown words) , colloquial (low-flown words)

1. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. The object, subject and tasks of stylistics. Stylistics in the system of sciences

Stylistics is a branch of general linguistics.Stylistics studies the principles, and effect of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication. it deals with units of all language levels of the language - it studies these units from the functional point of view OBJECT of Stylistic is human language that exists as a system irrespective of human mind SUBJECT of Stylistics is means of realization of the main and five additional functions of the language that ensure the efficiency of the speaker's utterances Tasks the investigation of the inventory of special language means which by their features secure the desirable effect of the utterances 2) the analysis of certain types of texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication. any science connected with all the sum of human knowledge general scientific fundamental of stylistics any science is based on the notions that are common for some adjacent sciencies

42. The Scientific Prose style in Modern English

The aim of a scientific work is to prove a hypothesis and to describe scientific laws and new phenomena. The main features of this style are: the obligatory use of terms belonging to a branch of science, all other words are used in their direct meaning to avoid any ambiguity; a complete absence of dialectical and colloquial words; the selective use of pronouns. The first person plural (we) is preferred to the first person singular (I), the second person is hardly ever used at all (you); a logical sequence of clauses, complex sentences and a developed system of connectives (thus, hence, however, therefore, whereas); passive constructions and impersonal sentences are more favoured than the active constructions (it should be pointed out, it should be assumed).

19. Stylistic functions of phraseology.

The question of the status of phraseological units (PhU) is very complicated. There are many phraseological units which are quite neutral: in fact, in turn, for instance, in order that, in principle. To this group we should also refer historical PhU: the secular aim, the Blue and the Grey, the common beam; lexical neologisms: oil crisis, energy crisis; and terminological PhU:supersentencial units, expressive means etc. Additional (connotative) information of PhU, as that of any word, may be of four types, functional-stylistic, emotional, evaluative, and expressive-figurative. Accordingly, PhU may be divided into two similar classes: PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm, and those having no lexico-stylistic paradigms. PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm also fall into literary (be in accord with somebody, play upon advantage, most and least, bring to mould,; ad ovo, ad hoc, a la carte,; a heart of oak, Achilles heel) and conversational ones (Adams ale, slit the bat, ask me another, monkey's allowance, to get on the ball, admiral of the red, grab for altitude, gef the bird, sell one's back,get the wind up, a bit of jam, get somebody on his ears). Peculiar stylistic usage of PhU is accounted for the possibility of their structural and contextual transformations which are oriented to achieving a definite stylistic effect. Structural transformations of PhU may be represented by: 1) expansionof PhU, e.g. When you had a weak case and knew it, Alan thought, even straws should be grasped at firmly(from to catch at a straw); 2) reductionof PhU as the result of the compression of proverbs, sayings, quotations etc, e.g. Howaden added severely: "Better too much too eariy than too little too late" (from better late than never); 3) inversionof the components of PhU. It implies the change of the PhU structure while preserving its original components, e.g. Fortunately, it's only the cat's head and we still have a firm grip on the body (from to let the cat out of the bag).

7. Stylistic Devices of Using Nouns.

The use of a singular noun instead of an appropriate plural form creates a generalized, elevated effect often bordering on symbolization. The faint fresh flame of the young year flushes From leaf to flower and from flower to fruit And fruit and leaf are as gold and fire. The plural form of an abstract noun, whose lexical meaning is alien to the notion of number makes it not only more expressive, but brings about what Vinogradov called aesthetic semantic growth. Proper names employed as plural lend the narration a unique generalizing effect: The third type of transposition can be seen on the example of personification. This is a device in which grammatical metaphor appears due to the classifying transposition of a noun, because nouns are divided into animate and inanimate and only animate nouns have the category of person. Personification transposes a common noun into the class of proper names by attributing to it thoughts or qualities of a human being. As a result the syntactical, morphological and lexical valency of this noun changes: The category of case (possessive case) which is typical of the proper nouns, since it denotes possession becomes a mark of personification in cases like the following one: Love's first snowdrop Virgin kiss!

12. Stylistic Differentiation of the Modern English word-stock. Types of Stylistic Meaning.

The word-stock of any language may be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Then the word-stock of the English language may be divided into three main layers: the literary layer The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character, which makes the layer more or less stable. The literary vocabulary consists of the following subgroups of words: common literary words; terms and learned ['lə:nid] words; poetic words; archaic words; barbarisms and foreign words; literary coinages and nonce-words. the neutral layer The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all. Neutral words form the bulk of the English Vocabulary and are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Unlike all other groups, neutral words don't have a special stylistic colouring and are devoid of emotional meaning. the colloquial layer. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character, which makes it unstable, fleeting. The colloquial vocabulary includes the following groups of words: common colloquial words; slang; jargonisms; professionalisms; dialectal words; vulgar words; colloquial coinages.

30. Metaphorical group. Syntactical and semantic difference of metaphor and metonymy.

To the Metonymical Group we refer metonymy, synechdoche, periphrasis, and euphemism. Stylistic metonymy suggests a new, unexpected association between the two objects. In metonymy, the associations between the object named and the object implied vary. They may bring together some features of a person and the person him/herself; an article of clothing and the person wearing it; an instrument and the action it performs; the two objects whose functions coincide, e.g. She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle (A. Christie); He made his way through the perfume and conversation (I. Shaw). Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy in which the transfer is based on the association between a part and the whole, the singular and the plural. This type of metonymical relationship may be considered a quantitative one, e.g. Since I left you, mine eye is in my mind (W. Shakespeare). Periphrasis (Greek: peri - around; phraseo - speak) is a stylistic figure which substitutes a word designating an object for a word-combination which describes its most essential and characteristic features. Periphrasis both names and describes. Every periphrasis indicates a feature which the speaker or writer wants to stress and often conveys an individual perception of the object or phenomenon named, e.g. The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products {the wounded} of the fighting in Africa (I. Shaw). As a result of frequent repetition, periphrasis can become well-established as a synonymous expression for the word generally used to designate the object. It is called traditional, dictionary or language periphrasis, e.g. gentlemen of the long robe (lawyers), the better (fair, gentle) sex, my better half (my spouse), the minions of the law (police). Euphemism (Greek: eupheme - speaking well) is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. METONYMY 1. contiguity 2. widening of lexical meaning (The hall applauded) 3. one object doesn't exclude the other (the blue nose) 4. the function of identification/nomination (the theme) The bottle-neck coloured. METAPHOR 1. likeness/similarity 2. narrowing of lexical meaning. (He is a bear) 3. one image excludes the other (the sky lamp of the night = the moon) 4. the predicative function (the rheme):

17. General characteristics of the words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm

To this group, we refer terms, nomenclature words, historical words, exotic words, and lexical neologisms. Terms are words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions in which essential properties of the object or phenomenon are reflected. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and, therefore, with a set of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science or humanities. Nomenclature words are very close to terms: they refer to a definite branch of human activity, mainly professional, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements, types of cars etc. Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past. Exotic words denote notions and objects unknown or rarely met in the given language community. Lexical neologisms are new (or old) words denoting new notions. All the words mentioned above, being used in special texts, have no stylistic functions: their usage is determined by their nominative function

11. Stylistic Devices of Using Verbs.

Verb aspect forms have a lot of synonyms which allow diverse synonymous substitutions. Present, Past and Future Continuous forms, being more emotional than Indefinite ones, are frequently used instead of the latter to emphasise the emotional tension of the utterance or to impart politeness to it. In lively emotional narrative about events in the past or expected in the future 'The Present Historical Tense' is used. The continuous forms (present, past or future) are used instead the indefinite forms. It is more emotional, sometimes they can express a momentary irritation. Passive constructions have a greater charge than active ones The category of mood express speakers attitude Should/ would

14. General characteristics of the words having lexico-stylistic paradigm

Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterised by: a) an indirect (i.e. through a neutral word) reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral) => denotatum; b) subjective evaluative connotations; c) referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying character so they may be used to characterise different referents (e.g. pussy cat in reference to children); d) presence of synonyms; e) possible antonyms. To this group we refer archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slangisms; colloquialisms; jargonisms (social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms. Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following oppositions: colloquial vocabulary — bookish vocabulary non-literary words — literary words general literary vocabulary — social or dialectal elements special vocabulary-contemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary. However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting - one and the same word may belong to two or more groups. Lexical expressive means of the English language are words which do not only have denotative meaning but connotative as well. Depending on their connotative meaning such words fall into two major groups: literary (high-flown) words which are traditionally linked with poetic, bookish, or written speech; conversational (low-flown) words that are most often used in oral, colloquial speech. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech. Conversational words are constantly changing. Within a period of time they can become high-flown or neutral, e.g. bet, mob, trip, fun. chap

44. The Belles-letters style in Modern English.

phonetic means - sound reiteration, onomatopoeia (sound imitation), alliteration, euphony, consonance, dissonance. Rhyme, rhythm and metre in poetry, the notion of rhythm in prose; vocabulary - priority of concrete words as 'artistic speech concretization ', unlimited choice of vocabulary (including non-literary means, jargon and slang words), multi-stylistic character, wealth of synonyms and variety of vocabulary, developed polysemy, no limits in the use of words, which belong to different functional stylistic groups of vocabulary, stylistic resources of 'combinatory semantics" of language units, normative and irregular combinatory patterns, decorative and other functions of phraseology, decomposition of phraseology, rich, genuine imagery, the use of figures of speech or lexical stylistic devices, as a unique textual system; grammatical means of the language: in morphology a variety and wealth of stylistic effects of morphological forms and categories ' for expressing 'artistic speech concretization (specific use of aspect and temporal meanings of the verb, 'verbal speech and plot development' ( increase in the role and currency of the verb, special use of morphological categories of number, case, degrees of comparison for emphatic and emotive purposes; in syntax a variety and wealth of syntactical constructions, colloquial speech stylization. Means of expressive syntax: inversion, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation (разделение), gradation, detachment, different models of author and character speech presentation, different models of homogeneous secondary parts of the sentence arrangement with the priority of double and triple patterns; compositional textual devices ( three-part compositional canon - introduction, the main part and the ending with a more complex model of prologue and epilogue), deviations from the canon and their stylistic importance, the plot development the exposition, gradation, the climax and the outcome ( the denouement), compositional peculiarities of a poetic text - rigidly- ['r?d??d] fixed dimensions (размер) of textual arrangement ( the fixed number of feet, lines, regular accentual models of the foot and line arrangement, the length and arrangement of a stanza, peculiar models of stanza and text arrangement, patterned rhyme, metre and syntax constructions), extensive use of foregrounding (coupling, antithesis, convergence, the effect of deceived expectancy), the effect of replenished expectancy, parallelism, irony, hyperbole as compositional devices; the system of stylistic devices: systemic use of imagery - textual, developed and simple non-developed metaphors, metonymies, epithets, similes, hyperboles, litotes, puns, oxymorons, zeugmas, different in form contact and distant repetitions (ordinary, anaphora, epiphora, framing, anadiplosis, chain, refrain) Intensification of the total aesthetic impact of the language means of the text. Scientific Style. The main function of the scientific style: rational cognition and linguistic presentation of the dynamics of thinking. Other communicative tasks. Inner differentiation and the formation of the sub-styles and genres of the scientific style used in different fields of science, characterized by different manners of scientific presentation. Sub-styles and genres: scientific style proper \ thesis, abstract of thesis, monograph, article, report, abstract of a report...\ popular scientific \ an article, annotations, review, etc.)."Sub-languages" of scientific styles: law, political, medical, economic, technical, computer, linguistic, etc. Types of presentation: description and argumentation ( deduction, induction). Different degree of polemics. Popularization of the scientific text. The addressee factor. Peculiarities of scientific communication: planned, prepared delayed in time communication (except for lectures and reports). Style-forming features: great role of tradition in the use of language means, objective and non-categorical presentation, specific means of expression, a certain extent of emphasis, restrictions in the use of intensification, evaluation, emotional language means, absence of imagery.