fallacy examples

what is begging the question

-an arguments premises assume the truth of the conclusion instead of supporting it

Two wrongs

-you try to justify an act/belief by pointing out in others a similar act/belie -This fallacy can occur by suggesting "if others are doing it, I can too" (common practice). Another form of the fallacy occurs when you dismiss a criticism of your action/belief, because your critic is acting/believing in a similar way (you do it, too).

There is no proof that smoking causes cancer. Until there is, I'm going to smoke all the cigarettes I want."

1. appeal to ignorance

Abortion is the unjustified killing of a human being and as such is murder. Murder is illegal. So abortion should be illegal.

1. begging the question

Who said food keeps us alive? Tom died a few days ago and he was not short of good food.

1. confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

(1) Either a Creator brought the universe into existence, or the universe came into existence out of nothing. (2) The universe didn't come into existence out of nothing (because nothing comes from nothing). Therefore: (3) A Creator brought the universe into existence.

1. false dilemma

"Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees."

1. faulty analogy

I'm not a doctor, but I play one on the hit series "Bimbos and Studmuffins in the OR." You can take it from me that when you need a fast acting, effective and safe pain killer there is nothing better than MorphiDope 2000. That is my considered medical opinion.

1. irrelevant authority

We do not currently regulate the amount of nicotine in an individual cigarette; therefore we need not do this.

1. is ought

Marijuana is a plant and grows naturally so we ought to legalize marijuana.

1. ought is

Every time I go to sleep, the sun goes down. Therefore, my going to sleep causes the sun to set.

1. questionable cause

I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems.

1. red herring

We can't permit the sale of marijuana by doctor's prescription, because that will lead people to believe it's an acceptable drug; this will open the floodgates to the complete legalization of the drug for use by every pothead in the country.

1. slippery slope

Bill: "You know, those feminists all hate men." Joe: "Really?" Bill: "Yeah. I was in my philosophy class the other day and that Rachel chick gave a presentation." Joe: "Which Rachel?" Bill: "You know her. She's the one that runs that feminist group over at the Women's Center. She said that men are all sexist pigs. I asked her why she believed this and she said that her last few boyfriends were real sexist pigs. " Joe: "That doesn't sound like a good reason to believe that all of us are pigs." Bill: "That was what I said." Joe: "What did she say?" Bill: "She said that she had seen enough of men to know we are all pigs. She obviously hates all men." Joe: "So you think all feminists are like her?" Bill: "Sure. They all hate men."

1. unwarranted generalization

Noisy children are a real headache. Two aspirin will make a headache go away. Therefore, two aspirin will make noisy children go away.

1.Equivocation

I can't see that we should listen to Governor Smith's proposal to increase the sales tax on automobiles. He has spent the last twenty years in state government and is hardly an unbiased source.

1.ad hominen

There is no evil in this world. Though evil exists in some parts of the world, we will overcome it sooner or later.

1.inconsistency

I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.

2. Red herring

Since the class has no questions concerning the topics discussed in class, the class is ready for a test.

2. appeal to ignorance

I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him.

2. begging the question

The counselor told me that if I wanted to graduate I must have at least 128 credit hours. Well, I've got that, but they're saying I won't walk this semester. How misleading!

2. confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

You either did knock the glass over, or you did not. Which is it?

2. false dilemma

"If advertising for tobacco becomes illegal, then pretty soon we're going to have to outlaw advertising for milk and eggs because they contain cholesterol, a harmful substance."

2. faulty analogy

That he had returned the kettle undamaged; That it was already damaged when he borrowed it; That he had never borrowed it in the first place.

2. inconsistency

Sasha: "I played the lottery today and I know I am going to win something." Siphwe: "What did you do, rig the outcome?" Sasha: "No, silly. I called my Super Psychic Buddy at the 1-900-MindPower number. After consulting his magic Californian Tarot deck, he told me my lucky numbers." Siphwe: "And you believed him?" Sasha: "Certainly, he is a certified Californian Master-Mind Psychic. That is why I believe what he has to say. I mean, like, who else would know what my lucky numbers are?"

2. irrelevant authority

Abortion is legal so everyone ought to have an abortion.

2. is ought

Oh, Larry, why are you so upset about my cheating on the exam? I saw an article saying 70% of college students admit to cheating. I think it's to be expected that people will do whatever it takes to get what they want. So, people should do what they have to do.

2. ought is

First we loosen up the laws against abortion. Next, mark my words; we'll take seriously the option of infanticide in certain severe cases. And this will lead us to look with favor on euthanasia for those we deem social deviants

2. slippery slope

Sam is riding her bike in her home town in Maine, minding her own business. A station wagon comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As he goes by, the driver yells "get on the sidewalk where you belong!" Sam sees that the car has Ohio plates and concludes that all Ohio drivers are jerks.

2. unwarranted generalization

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Therefore, a bird is worth more than President Bush.

2.equivocation

Joe gets a chain letter that threatens him with dire consequences if he breaks the chain. He laughs at it and throws it in the garbage. On his way to work he slips and breaks his leg. When he gets back from the hospital he sends out 200 copies of the chain letter, hoping to avoid further accidents.

2.questionable cause

Biology professor to skittish students in lab: There is no evidence that frogs actually feel pain; it is true they exhibit pain behavior, but as they have no consciousness, they feel no pain.

3. appeal to ignorance

The reason there's such a big demand is because everyone wants to get in them.' In other words, there is a big demand because there is a big demand.

3. begging the question

"They said that if I pray to Jesus, He will make Himself real to me. I knew that was false because He doesn't exist, so I prayed just to prove it. He didn't make Himself real to me just as I thought. And I even crossed myself and held some Rosary beads! See. Jesus doesn't exist. This proves it."

3. confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

If someone is wearing baggy pants and a leather jacket his look proves that he must belong to a gang and should have kept a gun inside his leather jacket.`

3. false dilemma

A psychologist who researched rat behavior discovered that if a group of rats were confined in a limited space, they would begin to exhibit anti-social behavior. He concluded that crime in inner cities can be explained by urban over-crowding.

3. faulty analogy

you look really pretty tonight. well i think you would look pretty if you would put more make-up on.

3. inconsistency

Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally acceptable. After all, a woman should have a right to her own body." Jane: "I disagree completely. Dr. Johan Skarn says that abortion is always morally wrong, regardless of the situation. He has to be right, after all, he is a respected expert in his field." Bill: "I've never heard of Dr. Skarn. Who is he?" Jane: "He's the guy that won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on cold fusion." Bill: "I see. Does he have any expertise in morality or ethics?" Jane: "I don't know. But he's a world famous expert, so I believe him."

3. irrelevant authority

I know Henry has been missing for two years, but the thought of him being dead is unbearable. So, I know he is alive and we will find him.

3. ought is

The Electoral College is specified in the Constitution, so we can't do away with it.

3. ought is

I don't think it's a good idea to lower the drinking age. Next thing we know kids will get to drive at age ten, and vote at fifteen. Let kids be kids and adults be adults.

3. slippery slope

Smith, who is from England, decides to attend graduate school at Ohio State University. He has never been to the US before. The day after he arrives, he is walking back from an orientation session and sees two white (albino) squirrels chasing each other around a tree. In his next letter home, he tells his family that American squirrels are white.

3. unwarranted generalization

Evolution states that one species can change into another. We see that cars have evolved into different styles. Therefore, since evolution is a fact in cars, it is true in species.

3.Equivocation

I'm sure that Marilyn Manson's music had something to do with those murders. They found Manson CD's in one of the murderer's private collection.

3.questionable cause

You should never gamble. Once you start gambling you find it hard to stop. Soon you are spending all your money on gambling, and eventually you will turn to crime to support your earnings."

4. SLIPPERY SLOPE

No one has objected to Lander's parking policies during the last month of classes, so I suppose those policies are very good.

4. appeal to ignorance

The reason everyone wants the new "Slap Me Silly Elmo" doll is because this is the hottest toy of the season!

4. begging the question

(1) If Fred wanted to get me sacked then he'd go and have a word with the boss. (2) There goes Fred to have a word with the boss. Therefore: (3) Fred wants to get me sacked.

4. confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

- Just like students are given a couple of weeks fro preparation before taking exams, doctors should also be given few days or weeks to prepare themselves before an operation or surgery, after all surgery is not as easy task.

4. false dilemma

Just like students are given a couple of weeks fro preparation before taking exams, doctors should also be given few days or weeks to prepare themselves before an operation or surgery, after all surgery is not as easy task.

4. faulty analogy

Angels do exist. It makes me feel better to think they are with me, so I'm justified in saying they are.

4. ought is

We've always had Bonfire, so we always should.

4. ought is

The humanity of the patient's appendix is medically undeniable. Therefore, the appendix has a right to life and should not be surgically removed.

4.equivocation

Everyone loves the Danger Kitty album; they must be a great band.

4.irrelevant authority

When the NFC wins the Super Bowl, the Stock Market usually has a good year. I hope the NFC wins next year because my portfolio is taking a beating.

4.questionable cause

"Legalized abortion puts us only one step away from legalizing murders of anyone we deem undesirable or inconvenient."

5. SLIPPERY SLOPE

In spite of all the talk, not a single flying saucer report has been authenticated. We may assume, therefore, there are not such things as flying saucers.

5. appeal to ignorance

(1) If Zeus was a real, historical figure, but the Catholic Church covered up his existence, then we wouldn't have any evidence of a historical Zeus today. (2) We don't have any evidence of a historical Zeus today. Therefore: (3) Zeus was a real, historical figure, but the Catholic Church covered up his existence.

5. confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

- If someone is wearing baggy pants and a leather jacket his look proves that he must belong to a gang and should have kept a gun inside his leather jacket.

5. faulty analogy

My 5th grade teacher once told me that girls will go crazy for boys if they learn how to dance. Therefore, if you want to make the ladies go crazy for you, learn to dance.

5. irrelevant authority

If nature does not make it, we shouldn't have it.

5. ought is

Many homosexuals have AIDS, therefore, homosexuality causes AIDS.

5. questionable cause

The Pope told me that priests can turn bread and wine into Jesus' body and blood. The Pope is not a liar. Therefore, priests really can do this.

6. irrelevant authority

When investigating a small pond a group of graduate students found that there was a severe drop in the fish population. Further investigation revealed that the fishes' food supply had also been severely reduced. At first the students believed that the lack of food was killing the fish, but then they realized they had to find what was causing the decline in the food supply. The students suspected acid rain was the cause of both the reduction in the fish population as well as the food supply. However, the local business council insisted that it was just the lack of food that caused the reduction in the fish population. Most of the townspeople agreed with this conclusion since it seemed pretty obvious that a lack of food would cause fish to die

6. questionable cause

Student: Hey, Professor Moore, we shouldn't have to read this book by Freud. Everyone knows he used cocaine.

Ad hominen

. This whole abortion debate about when human life begins is ridiculous. We should be thinking about the rights of the baby.

Begging the question

WHAT IS THE ONLY FORMAL FALLACY

CONFUSION OF NECESSARY WITH A SUFFICIENT CONDITION

Prof. Smith says to Prof. White, "You are much too hard on your students," and Prof. White replies, "But certainly you are not the one to say so. Just last week I heard several of your students complaining."

Ex: ad hominen

Debra: There is no logical or moral justification for the killing of animals for food. Animals are sentient creatures that deserve the same consideration as humans. Joe: Look, if you want to eat grass like a cow, Bon Appetit! Just let me have my hamburger.

Example of a straw person

There is a lot of commotion regarding saving the environment. We cannot make this world an Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there!

Example:: red Herring

(1) If you buy a Green Day album, then next you'll be buying Buzzcocks albums, and before you know it you'll be a punk with green hair and everything. (2) You don't want to become a punk. Therefore: (3) You shouldn't buy a Green Day album.

SLIPPERY SLOPE

You are so stupid your argument couldn't possibly be true.

ad hominen

1) No one has been able to disprove the existence of God. Therefore: (2) God exists

appeal to ignorance

what is equivocation

arguments that switch between two different meanings. the change in meaning introduces a change in subject

faulty analogy

assume because two things are similar in one aspect that they would be similar in another aspect.

what is ads hominen

attacking the person

Juan: "How do you think you'll do on our philosophy exam tomorrow?" Monique: "Great, I read all the books." Juan: "Yeah but do you understand this stuff?" Monique: "I said I read all the books, didn't I?"

confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

Socrates' arguments about human excellence are rubbish. What could a man as ugly as he know about human excellence.

example of ad hominen

Jack: "Bob Dylan is the greatest performer of our time." Jill: "Well, Dylan is a fine writer, but as a performer, he stinks. I saw a concert of his once and we was singing unintelligibly and looked like he was falling asleep." Jack: "Well, Fleetwood Mac, one of your favorite groups, is not so great in concert either.

example of red herring

1) William Dembski argues that modern biology supports the idea that there is an intelligent designer who created life. (2) Dembski would say that because he's religious. Therefore: (3) Modern biology doesn't support intelligent design.

example: ad hominen

Smith: We must have equal consideration for same sex couples as we do for heterosexual couples. It is unconstitutional to deny rights to these Americans. Jones: If you want men to be able to wear wedding dresses that's fine, but I don't want my tax dollars going to some ridiculous liberal idea.

example: straw person

People who have to have a cup of coffee every morning before they can function have no less a problem than alcoholics who have to have their alcohol each day to sustain them.

faulty analogy

what is a red herring

focus on something besides the main idea

false dilemma

forced to choose between two mutually exclusive options. argument that there are only two choices to choose from when there could possibly be more

Although religious beliefs are the proper object or faith, not reason, it would be hard to deny that some religious beliefs are simply irrational.

inconsistency

what is irrelevant to authority

is committed when you accept without the proper support for his or her alleged authority -common opinion -celebrity -appeal to intelligence

inconsistency

making contradictory claims

what is a slippery slope

one insists that it will lead to a chain reaction resulting in an undesirable end or ends.

Six months after Hoover took office in 1929, the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. He is therefore responsible for this tragic episode in our history.

questionable cause

Student: "The opinions of the students are completely ignored in the process of determining both curricular changes and social programs. The students should have a much greater voice in campus governance, because we have a very great stake in this institution, and we think that we have a positive contribution to make." Professor: "The faculty are the ones who need a greater voice. Professors can be fired without explanation, and they have no control over who is promoted or given tenure. Their opinions about budgetary allotments are completely ignored. Why aren't you concerned about the injustice the faculty is experiencing?"

red herring

Lloyd: Can you allow time for more class discussion? Prof. Schwartz: I don't want to give the entire class period over to some aimless bull session.

straw person

what is :is ought

the assumption is made that because things are a certain way they should be that way

what is a questionable cause

the occurrence of one event after the other or the occurrence of events simultaneously is not proof of a causal connection. when a casual connection is assumed without proof

confusion of necessary with a sufficient condition

the only formal fallacy when you assume that a necessary condition of an event is sufficient for the event to occur -denying the antecedent -affirming the consequence

Daughter: "I'm so hurt that Todd broke up with me, Mom." Mother: "Just think of all the starving children in Africa, honey. Your problems will seem pretty insignificant then."

this is an example of a red herring

Child: "Can we get a dog?" Parent: "No." Child: "It would protect us." Parent: "Still, no." Child: "Why do you want to leave us and our house unprotected?"

this is an example of a straw person

unwarranted generalization

we make a generalization on the basis of insufficient evidence (too little data)

what is a straw person

weak argument

what is ought is

when you assume that the way you want things to be is the way they are

what is appeal to ignorance

you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it.