Ferali's Bio Notes
Techoic Acids on cell wall of bacterium are used as recognition + binding sites by bacterial viruses that cause infxns.
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Tendons- muscle-to-bone; bend skeleton at moveable joints
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Territoriality- active possession and defense of territory- ensures adequate food/place to mate
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Testis Testosterone Testes, general Spermatogenesis, 2nd sex char
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Testis- testosterone- spermatogenesis, secondary sex characteristics
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Tetanus - continuous sustained contraction; muscle cannot relax; will release if maintained (in tetanus, rate of muscle stimulation so fast that twitches blur into one smooth constant)
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The brainstem consists of midbrain + medulla oblongata + pons. Connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord.
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The change from less stable molecule to more stable always releases energy
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The inner ear also has semicircular canals responsible for balance (fluid + hair cells sense orientation + motion)
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Waxes - esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols. Used as protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)
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We can find q and p by taking square-root and plug in the two equations to find heterozygous frequency and homozygous dominant frequency.
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When fatty acid → Acetyl CoA, every 2 carbon from fatty acid chain makes an Acetyl CoA
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1. Three germ layers
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (3rd layer is formed between outer and inner layer of invaginated embryo). Give rise to all subsequent tissues.
1. Embryo polarity
egg has upper, animal pole and lower, vegetal pole (contain more yolk material which is denser than cytoplasm, settles at bottom; differentiates into extraembryonic membranes that protect+nourish embryo).
When liver mobilizes fat or protein for energy, blood acidity increases (ketone bodies are produced → ketosis/acidosis results)
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When one phosphate group removed via hydrolysis, more stable molecule ADP results
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When ppCO2 increases, medulla stimulates increase in rate of ventilation
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When the ventricle contracts, AV valve closes to prevent backflow
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When the ventricles contract (systole phase), blood is forced through pulmonary arteries and aorta
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When ventricle relaxes, semilunar valve prevents backflow from pulmonary artery back into ventricles
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While respiration requires oxygen to degrade glucose
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Wraps several myofibrils together to form a muscle cell/muscle fiber
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X. Repair mechanisms
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XI. Animal Forms and Functions
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XII. Animal Reproduction and Development
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XIII. Animal Behavior
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Z line - boundary of a single sarcomere; anchor thin filaments
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Alveoli
Each bronchiole branches ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by blood-carrying capillaries
1. Cell-mediated response
Effective against infected cells. Uses mostly T cells and responds to any nonself cell, including cells invaded by pathogens. Nonself cell binds T cell → clonal selection → chain of events:
Ex
Goose methodically rolling egg back to nest even if it slips away or is removed
Note
Gradient uses ATP synthase to move the accumulated H+ from thylakoid lumen to stroma
6. Thylakoid lumen
H+ accumulates here.
Catecholamines
(epi and norepi) water soluble; dissolve in blood; bind to receptors on target tissue and mainly act via 2nd messenger
scleroproteins
(fibrous, structural e.g. collagen), conjugated: (simple protein + nonprotein), lipoprotein: (bound to lipid),
albumins + globulins
(functional and act as carriers or enzymes),
Lichen
(fungus + algae) algae produces food for itself and fungus via photosynth; fungus provided CO2 and nitrogenous wastes
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates adrenal cortex → release glucocorticoids- involved in regulation of metabolism of glucose
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Can occur simultaneously with transcription in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes. Multiple ribosomes may simultaneously transcribe 1 mRNA.
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Capacitation - penultimate step in maturation of the spermatozoa while in the vagina, allows for egg penetration
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Carbohydrate Metabolism - Liver maintains normal blood glucose levels via gluconeogenesis (production of glycogen and glucose from noncarb precursors), glycogenesis, and storage of glycogen
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Carbohydrates
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Cardiac Cycle - regulated by autorhythmic cells initiate contractions independently of nerve cells
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Cardiac Muscle - striated appearance (sarcomeres); one or TWO central nuclei; cells separated by intercalated discs that have gap jxn to allow AP's to chain flow via electrical synapse; involuntary; lots of mitochondria
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Cardiac Output (CO) = SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)
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Cardiac output = volume discharged from ventricle each minute.
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Carotenes and xanthophylls (subgroups)
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Carotenoids - fatty acid carbon chains w/ conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings at each end. Pigments which produce colors in plants and animals.
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Dynein = motor protein; used for movement in 9+2 flagella & cilia; may also be used in chromosomal movement
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E. Digestive system
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E. Ecosystems - have trophic levels that categorize plants/animals based on their main energy source
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E. Factors that Influence Development
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ECL cells are neuroendocrine cells in the digestive tract; gastrin stimulates them to release histamine which in turn stimulates parietal cells to produce gastric acid
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ETC (electron transport chain)
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Each iron atom can bind with one O2 molecule
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Ear
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Earthworms - one-way digestive tract
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Eccrine (most of the body)- regulate temperature through perspiration; eliminate urea
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Ecological succession in a Pond
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- Glycocalyx
a carbohydrate coat that covers outer face of cell wall of some bacteria and outer face of plasma membrane. It consists of glycolipids (attached to plasma membrane) and glycoproteins (such as recognition proteins). It may provide adhesive capabilities, a barrier to infection, or markers for cell-cell recognition.
- Artificial selection
a form of directional selection carried out humans (not natural selection).
Fetal hemoglobin curve is shifted left of adult - has higher binding affinity to grab from maternal blood
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Fibrin threads coat damaged area and trap blood cells to form a clot
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Filtration - The fluid that goes through glomerulus (afferent arteriole => glomerulus => efferent) to the rest of the nephron is called filtrate; particles that are too large to filter through (blood and albumin) remain in circulatory system; passive process; driven by hydrostatic pressure of blood. So Glomerulus → filtrate pushed into Bowman's.
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First time immune system is exposed to an antigen → primary response, requires 20 days to reach full potential
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Fish
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Fixed action patterns (FAP) - innate behaviors following a regular, unvarying pattern. Initiated by a specific stimulus called sign stimuli (releaser when between members of same species), and completed even if original intent of behavior cannot be fulfilled
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Flatworms - bi-layered muscles, longitudinal and circular, contract against hydrostatic skeleton
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Flexion = bending of joint
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Flower Parts Numbers of petals, sepals, stamens, and other parts In 4s, 5s, or multiples In 3s or multiples
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Follicle develops → FSH stimulate follicle to secrete estrogen → lots of estrogen (positive feedback on AP) →
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Food vacuole forms and moves toward anterior end of cell
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Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes
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Forebrain - largest & most important brain region. contains cerebral cortex (processes sensory input / important for memory and creative thought), olfactory bulb (smell), thalamus (relay for spinal cord and cerebral cortex), hypothalamus- visceral function (water balance, blood pressure, and temp regulation, hunger, thirst, sex)
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Forward mutation means already mutated organism mutates again even more, backward mutation is back to original
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Four groups of molecules encountered
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Fraternal twins result from more than one egg being fertilized; identical twins result from indeterminate cleavage
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Functions of skin
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Fungi - rhizoids of bread mold, secrete enzymes into bread, producing simple digestive products which are then absorbed by diffusion into rhizoid
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Fusion of two haploid gametes = fertilization/syngamy = diploid zygote
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G cells - secrete gastrin, a large peptide hormone which is absorbed into blood → stims parietal cell to secrete HCl
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G. Biomes - regions with common environmental characteristics
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G. Muscular System
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G. Structure of the Leaf
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G/V will be small and thus exceed the ability of its genome to produce sufficient amounts of regulator of activities. Some large cells (paramecium, human skeletal muscle) are multinucleated to deal with this.
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GH (Growth hormones) Mammary glands
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Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)- inhibitory neurotransmitter among brain neurons
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Gamma globulin (blood containing antibodies) - can confer temporary protection against hepatitis and other diseases
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Gases diffuse into air space by entering and leaving through stomata of leaves or lenticels in woody stems
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Gastric Inhibitory Peptide - produced in response to fat/protein digestates in duodenum; mild decrease of stomach motor activity
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Gastrin - produced by stomach lining when food reaches or upon sensing of food; more above
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Gastrin- food in stomach, stimulates secretion of HCl
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Gastrointestinal hormones
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Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/Tricaboxylic Acid Cycle - fate of pyruvate that is produced in glycolysis
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L. Plant Responses to Stimuli
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L. Recombinant DNA/DNA tech
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LH (luteinizing hormones) Thyroid
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LH Surge → Ovulation (follicle is now corpus luteum-maintained by LH [which along w/ estrogen begins to decrease after ovulation], secretes → estrogen + progesterone) →
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Labor (three stages) - a series of strong uterine contractions
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Lactate is transported to liver for conversion back to pyruvate once surplus ATP available
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Platelets contact exposed collagen of damaged vessel and cause neighboring platelets to form platelet plug
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Platelets/thrombocytes- cell fragments involved in blood clotting - lack nuclei; stick to damaged epithelium; attract more
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Platyhelminthes - flame cells (protonephridia) - distributed along branched tube system that permeates the flatworm
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Point at which optic nerve exits is blind spot (no photoreceptors there)
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Pol 1 also has a 5' → 3' exonuclease, to take off the primer; and can also proof with 3' to 5' when laying down new chain
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Pol 3 can do some proofreading; if it makes a mistake it will go back and use this to replace it
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Systemic circuit is the circulation pathway through the body between left and right sides of heart)
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Tactile
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Takes place at the inner membrane/cristae
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b. Oviduct
eggs move from ovary to uterus through oviduct (Fallopian/uterine tube); one for each ovary; swept by fimbrae
Covalent
electrons are shared between atoms (similar electronegativities) - can be single, double, triple
1. Photosystem II
electrons trapped by P680 in PSII are energized by light.
2. Packs
enable members to corner and successfully attack large prey.
2. Savannas
grasslands with scattered trees. similar to tropics in that they have high temperature, but they get very little rainfall
f. Chlorophyta
green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b, cellulose cell walls, store energy in starch. Some species have isogamous gamete (both sperm/egg equal in size and motile), others are anisogamous (sperm/egg differ in size); others can have oogamous (large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by small/motile sperm). A linage of Chlorophytes, charophytes are believed to be ancestor of plants.
2. Cortex
ground tissue types that lies between epidermis and vascular cylinder (many contain chloroplasts).
Population
group of individuals of same species living in the same area.
Community
group of populations living in the same area.
- Amniotes
group of tetrapods (four-limbed animals with backbones or spinal columns) that have a terrestrially adapted egg; supported by several extraembryonic membranes.
- Monocot
groups of xylem and phloem alternate in a ring with the pith in the middle.
4. Individuals compete for survival
growing pop will exceed available resources => compete.
Facultative anaerobe
grows in presence of O2, but can switch to anaerobic metabolism when O2 is absence.
- Abscisic acid (ABA)
growth inhibitor, in buds delays growth and forms scales, maintains dormancy. Dormancy can be broken by increase in gibberellins or mechanistic response to environmental cues (temp, light)
- Tropism
growth pattern in response to an environmental stimulus (due to plants not being able to move).
d. Gastrovascular cavity
guts (digestion of food); two opening (digestive tract).
Thyroid hormones
lipid soluble; require protein carrier in blood; bind to receptors in nucleus
8. Fresh water biomes
ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers. Hypotonic to organisms, affected by climate/weather variations.
1. Allopatric speciation
population is divided by geographic barrier => interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented => gene frequencies in two population can diverge due to natural selection, mutation, genetic drift. If gene pool is sufficiently diverge => will not interbreed when barrier is removed => new species formed.
1. Divergent evolution
two/more species that originate from common ancestor and become increasingly different over time (result of speciation).
Habitat
type of place where organism usually lives; including other organisms as well as physical, chemical environment.
- Phagocytosis
undissolved material (solid) enters cell; white blood cell engulfs. Plasma membrane wraps outward around.
Polar
unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and formation of a dipole)
d. Ciliates
use cilia for moving and other functions; mouths, pores, contractile vacuoles, two kinds of nuclei (large macronucleus and several small nuclei); most complex of all cells => paramecium.
* Endocytosis
uses ATP (active process)
E. Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts
uses H+ gradient to generate ATP. (p. 61)
Pineal melatonin body Circadian rhythms
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Plant Respiration
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3. Plants do not have centrioles (formation of cell plate).
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Adrenal gland (cortex) Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
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Adrenal gland- on top of kidneys and consist of
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Adrenal medulla
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Calcitonin ("tones down" Ca2+) in blood
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Calcitonin General
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Convert fibrinogen (inactive) to fibrin (active)
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Hypothyroidism- undersecretion→low heart rate and respiratory rate
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I band - region containing thin filaments (actin) only (on ends, only purple above)
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I. Control of Stomata
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I. Endocrine System
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I. Macroevolution
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I. Molecular Genetics of Viruses
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I. Question
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IMPLANTATION
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If binds tightly/covalently, prosthetic group
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Know basic microscopy, centrifugation, lab safety
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Plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals
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Sliding Filament Model
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Synaptic vessels release neurotransmitter- influx causes release into cleft
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Water soluble wastes (ammonia, CO2) exit by simple diffusion
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Moist land
grass, herbs, shrubs, willow trees. Frogs, snakes
1. Natural selection
increase/decrease of allele frequencies due to environment.
- Crowding
increases with population growth, may be unsuitable to certain species.
Functional group
particular cluster of atoms, give molecules unique properties
- Cancer cells defied all of the 5 conditions above (such cells are called transformed cells).
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- Cancer cells or tissues transplant cells are often recognized as nonself by T cells due to the combination.
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-DNA probe is a radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid used to tag a specific DNA sequence
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-In humans the blastula is called the blastocyst and implants into the endometrium (development here)
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-Inner cell mass goes on to form the epiblast and hypoblast; epiblast is what gives rise to the endo/epi/mesoderm.
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Drugs, toxins, etc secreted into filtrate; H+ ions secreted in as well via antiport with Na+
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Direct stimulation
"steroid" diffuses past plasma membrane and binds receptor in cytoplasm → hormone+receptor transported to nucleus → binds activate portion of DNA.
Mutualism
(+/+) both organisms benefit
Parasitism
(+/-) benefits at the expense of the host; bacteria and fungi; live with minimum expenditure of energy
Commensalism
(+/o) one benefits, the other is unaffected
Blood Vessels
(arteries, veins, and capillaries)
mucoprotein
(bound to carb),
chromoprotein
(bound to pigmented molecule), metalloprotein: (complexed around metal ion), nucleoprotein: (contain histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid)
G. Mutation
(covered sub, del, insert, frameshift earlier)
- Placental internal development
(e.g. humans). Major components are umbilical cord & placenta system: O2 received direct from mother (fetal lungs not fxnal until birth) + nutrients; CO2 and metabolic wastes removed. P & UC form from outgrowths of amnion, chorion, allantois, and yolk sac. Amnion contains amniotic fluid as shock absorber; placenta formation begins with chorion; blood vessels of allantois wall enlarge and become umbilical vessels (connect fetus → developing placenta); yolk sac (site of early development of blood vessels) becomes associated w/ umbilical vessels. Aka viviparous in mammals, results in live birth.
simple proteins
(entirely amino acids),
2. inorganic molecules
(metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).
B. Meiosis
(note: meiosis 1 is reduction division)
J. Origin of Life
(notes on age: Universe 12-15 billion yrs, solar system 4.6 billion, earth ~4.5, fossils 3.6 billion, Photosynth bac 2.3, euk 1.5)
Blood flow
(see below). Cross sectional area of veins is about 4x higher than that of arteries. Total cross-sectional area of capillaries far greater than that of arteries or veins (capillaries are the narrowest vessels, BUT there are far more capillaries → total cross-sectional area of all of them put together is higher than any other cross sectional area). Since blood volume flow rate is approx. constant, blood velocity is inversely proportional to total cross-sectional area. Bernoulli's principle tells us pressure is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, so why is pressure highest from aorta and then continues downward? Blood is not an ideal flow: pumping force of heart is the major contributor to pressure (p=F/A). Aside: arterioles have the greatest resistance to flow (high ability to constrict). At any given time, most blood is in the veins/venules/venus sinuses.
Duodenum has a ph ~6 mainly due to bicarbonate ions secreted by pancreas
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During S phase, second molecule of DNA replicated from the first, provides sister chromatids
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-red tubular flower coevolves with hummingbird attracted to red → provides nectar to hummingbird in exchange for pollen transfer
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3. Humans and most other mammals
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3. Hypocotyl becomes young shoot (below epicotyl and attached to cotyledons).
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3. Kingdom Plantae
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Prions
- Not viruses or cells. Misfolded versions of proteins in brain that cause normal version to misfold too. Fatal.
3. Means of motility (flagella, corkscrew motion, gliding through slime material).
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3. Phagocytes attracted to injury by chemical gradients of complement, engulf pathogens and damaged cells.
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- As soil, water, light change, r-selected will be replaced by stable K-selected species (live longer, slow succession) and reach climax where it remains for hundreds of years.
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- Bacteria are prokaryotes with no nucleus or organelles, single circular DNA molecule (tightly condensed and called a nucleoid), no histones or other assoc. proteins. Replicate DNA in both directions from single point of origin ("theta replc.")
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"fight or flight"(sympathetic N.S.); considered stress hormones
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(hormones) PRL (prolactin)
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(medulla) Epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) Blood vessels, liver and heart Increases blood glucose, vasoconstriction (sympathytic)
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(negative-feedback on AP from ↑e+p) terminates production of FSH + LH (due to ↓GnRH from hypothalamus) →
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(tropic hormones) TSH (thyroid stimulating hormones)
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* Circulation
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* Genetic variations
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* Junctions
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* Lamarck theory
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* Nonspecific 2nd line of defense - also innate
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* Organelles
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* Postzygotic Isolating mechanism
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* Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
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* Properties of Water
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* Proteins
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* Questions
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* Random
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* Responses of immune system are categorized into two kinds of reactions
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* Specific 3rd line of defense (Immune response-targets specific antigen) (acquired immunity - develops after body has been attacked)
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* Stages of Sexual Reproduction
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** Neurotransmitter may be taken back into nerve terminal (active transport), degraded synaptic cleft enzymes (recycle back to presyn), or diffuse out of the synapse
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** Selective permeability of the tubules establishes an osmolarity gradient in the surrounding interstitial fluid
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** Synaptic vesicles fuse w/ presynaptic membrane => neurotransmitter => postsynaptic
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*** Urine is hypertonic to the blood and contains a high urea and solute concentration.
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***A reflex arc is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus involving two or three neurons, but brain DOES NOT integrate the sensory and motor activities... instead synapse in spinal cord***
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***Bone growth occurs at cartilaginous epiphyseal plates that are replaced by bone in adulthood. Bone increases in length but also in diameter along the diaphysis as well. See here for illustration
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***Plants have no digestive system, but intracellular processes similar to animals do occur***
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***The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is polarized, although a high concentration of Na+ is present outside the cell and a high concentration of K+ is present inside the cell (the inside is actually negative due to the negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids residing in the cell). Additionally, neuron membranes are selectively permeable to K+ as opposed to Na+, which helps to maintain the polarization.***
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**Greater diameter & more heavily myelinated axons will propagate faster impulses (greater diameter because less resistance to "flow" of ions - think water through a large pipe vs a small one, and myelinated because of saltatory conduction; the Na doesn't gradually defuse outward [charge leakage?] at every successive AP requiring new Na to rush in to keep the impulse going; it can't leak out of myelin wrapped sections so it drives straight from node to node, see image above)
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**Strength of contraction of single muscle fiber cannot be increase, but strength of overall contraction can be increased by recruiting more muscle fibers**
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*Intraspecific interactions between members of the same species are influenced by disruptive (competition) and cohesive (reproduction and protection from predators and weather) forces*
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*Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into blood, CO2 diffuses from blood into lungs
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*Without new ATP, the cross bridges remain attached to myosin head... this is why corpses are stiff*
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- Adaptations for survival on land
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- After this process, bacteria can be grown to produce product, form clone library, etc. Use antibiotic resistance/screen method to filter out the ones that don't have the recombinant DNA.
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- All exist as zymogens first. Trypsin gets activated, then activates the other enzymes
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- Allele frequencies for each allele (p, q) - Frequency of homozygous (p2, q2) - Heterozygous (pq + pq = 2pq)
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- Another add-on to C3, crassulacean acid metabolism; almost identical to C4.
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- Antibodies inactivate antigens upon binding → mark for macrophage or natural killer cell phagocytosis, lysis by complement proteins, agglutination of antigenic substance, or chemical inactivation (if a toxin)
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- Cells on the inside differentiate into 2nd xylem, and those on the outside into 2nd phloem. Over years, 2nd xylem accumulate and increase girth of stem and root.
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- Cells store energy as insoluble starch - benefit of this = any cell can act as a SINK and get the sugar and water transported there
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- Classification of bacteria
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- Consists of embryo, seed coat, and some kind of storage material (endosperm or cotyledons-formed by digesting material in endosperm). There are two cotyledons in dicot (pea). There is 1 cotyledon in monocot (corn).
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- Daily cycles of behavior are circadian rhythms
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- Embryo
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- Enter root through root hairs by osmosis. There are two pathways
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- Epiphytes are plants that grow commensally on other plants (like vines)
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- FSH and testosterone → influence Sertoli cells to promote development of sperms (nourish sperm during development-spermatogenesis). Hormone and gamete production are constant unlike female.
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- Factors involved in mechanism of opening and closing
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- Fungi are either parasites/saprobes (decomposer) absorbing food products due to digestive enzymes. Parasitic fungi have hyphae (haustoria) that penetrate host.
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- Fungus-like protists resemble fungi (form filaments/spore-beating bodies).
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- Gel Electrophoresis (after DNA cut up) - agarose gel under an electric field for the separation of proteins based on charge (e.g. negative DNA moves toward positive anode from negative cathode). Shorter DNA moves further than larger; distributes DNA by size.
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- Genome of humans differs roughly one every 1000 nt's, these differences called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
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- GnRH → FSH + LH (also called ICSH, interstitial cell stimulating hormone → testosterone and androgens from testis).
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- Greater recombination frequencies (18% above) means farther distance of genes apart on the same chromosome.
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- Human genetic defects
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- If root is horizontal, auxin is produced at apical meristem (growing tip) moves up in root and concentrates on lower side, however, auxin inhibits growth in roots due to higher [auxin] at root than stems.
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- If stem is horizontal, auxin concentrates on lower side => stem bends upward.
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- If the phenotype "skips" generations be suspicious of an autosomal recessive disorder. If no skip, most likely an autosomal dominant disorder. Be suspicious for X-linked recessive, if a father doesn't have the phenotype, none of his daughters display it.
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- In diploid cells, there are two copies of every chromosome, forming a pair (homologous chromosome). Human have 46 chromosomes, 23 homologous pair, a total of 92 chromatids.
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- In mammals, development is two stages—embryonic followed by fetal development. Fetus is an embryo that resembles the infant form.
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- In mosses, this structure is a stalk bearing capsule which contains haploid spores produced by meiosis => spores dispersed by wind and germinate grow into haploid gametophytes which produces antheridium + archegonium.
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- In order to replace shed cells, cork cambium produces new cells on the outside (cork cells-impregnated with suberin). On the inside, phelloderm may be produced. Together, they are called Periderm. In dicots, cork cambium originates from cortex and in root, it originates from pericycle.
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- In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces spores (haploid); spores undergoes mitosis to become multicellular (gametophyte) which are haploid (n) since spores are already haploid. The gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell (zygote 2n) that grows by mitosis to become sporophyte. Cells in sporophyte (sporangia) undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores which germinate and repeat life cycle.
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- Interphase may occur in between here, depending on the species.
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- It describes how one community is replaced by another gradually consisting of different species. As it progresses, diversity (# of species in community) and total biomass increase. A final successional stage of constant species composition (climax community), is attained (usually never-random occurs) → unchanged until destroyed by catastrophic event (blowout). Succession has a factor of randomness that makes it hard to predict; resident species can also change a habitat
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- It is the meiotic cell divisions that produce eggs (oogenesis) and sperm (spermatogenesis). Egg contains most of the cytoplasm, RNA, organelles, and nutrients needed by developing embryo.
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- K is carrying capacity. When population size increase → growth rate decreases and reach 0 when population size reach carrying capacity → S-shaped.
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- Lack endodermis, Casparian strips (not need for water absorb).
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- Lacks true root, true leaves, true stems (lack vascular tissues); must remain in water.
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- Learning involves adaptive responses to the environment; in higher animals capacity of learning closely associated with degree of neurological development
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- List of major plant divisions
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- MHC markers on plasma membrane of cells distinguish between self and nonself cells.
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- Malate => pyruvate + CO2. (CO2 can be used into Calvin cycle) (Pyruvate moved back to mesophyll then => PEP)
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- Mosaicism in cells that undergo nondisjunction in mitosis during embryonic development; fraction of body cells have extra or missing chromosome
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- Not during division, chromatin exists as either of two types
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- OAA => malate and then transported through plasmodesmata into bundle sheath cell.
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- OAA has 4C => C4 photosynthesis.
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- Once H2O reaches endodermis, it can only enter by symblast (due to Casparian strips) into (stele-outer most layer is the endodermis) vascular cylinder and is selective permeable (K+ pass, Na+ is blocked only common in soil). Once through endodermis, apoplast pathway takes over to reach xylem.
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- Once pollen grain contacts megasporangium, tube cell (of sperm) directs growth of pollen tube through the micropyle and toward egg => fertilization (zygote) => embryo (beginning of sporophyte gen.); integuments => seed coat.
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- Outside of cambium layer, new 2nd phloem are added yearly and pushes tissue outward. These tissues include primary tissue (epidermis and cortex) break apart and shed.
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- Overall advantages are can proceed during day while stomata are closed (reduce H2O loss).
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- Overall purpose is to move CO2 from mesophyll to bundle sheath cell (structure = Kranz anatomy, process = Hatch-Slack pathway (little O2 presence reduces competition while rubisco is fixing). Minimize photorespiration and H2O loss from stomata (leaf pores); found in hot, dry climates (faster fixation speed and more efficient). Requires one additional ATP (which becomes AMP). C3 typically occurs in mesophyll cells, but in C4 it occurs in bundle-sheath cells.
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- PCR uses synthetic primer (the primer may be RNA or DNA oligonucleotides) to clone DNA (rapidly amplify). Taq polymerase (heat stable) + nucleotides + primers + salts (buffer) necessary.
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- Pharyngeal gill slits provide channels across pharynx to outside body; slits become gills for O2 or filter-feeding; slit disappear during embryonic development in others.
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- Photosynthesis begins with light-absorbing pigments in plant cells; able to absorb energy from light; chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids (red, orange, yellow). Light is incorporated into electrons => excited electrons are unstable and re-emit absorbed energy; energy is then reabsorbed by electrons of nearby pigment molecule. The process ends when energy is absorbed by one of two special chlorophyll a molecules (P680 & P700). P700 forms pigment cluster (PSI) and P680 forms pigment cluster (PSII). Antenna pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, phycobilins [red algae pigment]) capture wavelegnths that chlorophyll a does not, passes energy to chlorophyll a where direct light rxn occurs. Chlorophyll a has porphyrin ring (alternating double and single bonds, double bonds critical for light rxns) complexed w/ Mg atom inside.
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- Process of fertilization
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- Proto-oncogenes stimulate normal growth; if mutated become oncogenes → cancer.
...
- Replication
...
- Skeletal muscle generally doesn't undergo mitosis to create new muscle cells (hyperplasia), but will increase in size (hypertrophy)
...
- Stem grows straight when all sides of apical meristem are equally illuminated.
...
- Sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, digestive, mammary glands are examples
...
- The technology uses restriction endonucleases to cut up specific segments of DNA and left it with sticky end (unpaired).
...
- These enzymes in alkaline solution (pancreatic duct → duodenum)
...
- These restriction enzymes normally used by bacteria to protect against viral DNA (protect their own DNA via methylation)
...
- To introduce foreign DNA into plasmid, the plasmid is treated with the same restriction enzyme so the same sticky ends to bind. DNA ligase stabilizes the attachments; then the plasmid is introduced into bacterium by transformation. Bacterium must be "made competent" to take up the plasmid (electroporation or heat shock+CaCl2)
...
- Trypsin & chymotrypsin (proteases), lipase, pancreatic amylase, deoxy&ribonucleases
...
- UV + Light => ozone layer (absorbed latter UV light => blocking energy for abiotic synthesis of organic materials => termination of primitive cells.
...
- When antigen bound to B cell → proliferation (2 copies) into daughter B cells (assisted by helper T) →
...
- When body cell is invaded by pathogen (nonself), it displays a combination of self and nonself markers. T cells interpret this as nonself.
...
- When excited 2e- from PSI join with protein carriers in the first electron transport chain and generate 1ATP as they pass through; these 2e- are recycled into PSI and can take either cyclic or noncyclic path.
...
- When not equally illuminated, auxin moves more toward shady side (grow more) => stem bends toward light.
...
- When stomata are closed => CO2 not available => cannot photosynthesize.
...
- When stomata are open => CO2 can enter leaf => photosynthesize but plant risks desiccation from transpiration.
...
- When they relax (diastole phase), backflow into ventricles causes semilunar valves to close.
...
- are proteins; specific to each antigen, five classes (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM-variation in Y-shaped protein-constant region and variable regions).
...
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
...
-Cells of the epidermis
...
1. At anaphase of mitosis, there would be a total of 92 chromosomes (92 chromatids) if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning. Even when pulled apart of sister chromatids, each one is now a complete chromosome (count centromere).
...
1. DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with histone; not bacterial DNA.
...
1. Denaturation (>90C) 2. Primers + Anneal (~55C) 3. Elongation (Taq Polymerase ~70C)
...
1. Epicotyl (top portion of embryo) becomes shoot tip.
...
1. Female reproduction System
...
1. High Temp => Close. 2. Low [CO2] inside => Open => photosynthesis.
...
1. Histamine is secreted by basophils (white blood cells found in CT) → causes vasodilation.
...
1. Mode of nutrition.
...
1. No nucleus. 4. Cell walls (peptidoglycan); archea (polysaccharides); plants (cellulose)
...
1. Not enough template strand where primase can attach.
...
1. Osmoregulation
...
1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 + PEP to OAA; OAA => malic acid.
...
1. Pollen lands on sticky stigma (female). Pollen tube (elongating cell) that contains vegetative nucleus grows down the style toward an ovule; two sperm cells inside pollen tube.
...
1. Stages of Embryonic Development (sea urchin-echinoderm)
...
10. Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplast.
...
11. Mitosis = no genetic variations.
...
11. Splitting of H2O provides 2e- for noncyclic photophosphorylation; incorporated into NADPH and Calvin cycle.
...
14. Auxin is produced at shoot tip and actively transported down the stem. It is unidirectional.
...
15. In C4 plants, CO2 fixation in bundle sheath cells, In C3 plants, CO2 fixation occurs in palisade mesophyll.
...
16. Calvin cycle is light-independent, but it requires ATP and NADPH produced from light-dependent rxn.
...
2 ATP spent activating the (entire) chain
...
2. Ability to produce endospore (resistant bodies that contain DNA and small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by durable wall).
...
2. At anaphase I, there would be a total of 46 chromosomes if a cell has 46 chromosomes at beginning because 23 chromosomes are pulled to each pole by independent assortment and no chromatids are separated at anaphase I.
...
2. Bird
...
2. Flagella of prokaryotes (flagellin) while of eukaryotes (tubulin). Plasma-membrane of prokaryotes (unbranched ester-linked-bacteria or ether-linked-archaea) while eukaryotes are branched ester-linked phospholipid.
...
2. Intermembrane space
...
2. Last primase is removed => in order to change RNA to DNA, there must be another DNA strand in front of the RNA primer> DNA pol cannot build after removing RNA primer>ultimately that RNA is destroyed by enzymes that degrade RNA left on the DNA, section of the telomere subsequently lost w/ each replication cycle. Prokaryotic DNA is circular so no telomeres (or issue).
...
2. Male Reproduction System - path of sperm is SEVEnUP
...
2. Male Reproductive Cycle
...
2. Malic acid is shuttled into vacuole of cell.
...
2. Ovule within ovary (consist of megaspore mother cell surrounded by nucellus + integuments). Megaspore mother cell => (meiosis) 4 haploid megaspores; one survives => (mitosis x 3) 8 nuclei => 6 nuclei undergoes cytokinesis and form plasma membranes (embryo sac). At the micropyle of embryo sac are 3 cells (egg + 2 synergids). At the other end of micropyle are 3 antipodal cells. In the middle are polar nuclei (2 haploid cells).
...
2. Plumule are young leaves often attached to epicotyl; epicotyl can refer to both together.
...
2. Ribosome activity is not inhibited by antibiotics streptomycin and chloramphenicol unlike bacteria.
...
2. Single (circular) naked DNA. and fungi (chitin).
...
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms.
...
2. Vasodilation- stimulated by histamine, increases blood supply to area- increase in temperature that stimulates WBCs and can kill pathogens
...
23. Two genes, A and B, are linked. An individual who is AaBb produces equal numbers of 4 gametes, AB, Ab, aB, ab. The two genes are separated by large distance on same chromosome that crossing over can be seemed as the genes are on different chromosomes.
...
2ATP added, 2NADH produced, 4 ATP produced, 2 pyruvate formed
...
3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP (via sub phos), and 1 CO2 are produced per turn
...
3. All cells come from preexisting, living cells.
...
3. As leaves age, chlorophyll breaks down to extract valuable components like Mg2+, carotenoids are visible.
...
3. At night, stomata are open (opposite of normal), PEP carboxylase is active, malic acid accumulates in vacuole.
...
3. Close at night, Open during day. CO2 is low during daylight because used by photosynthesis. CO2 level are high at night because of respiration.
...
3. Pollen tube (2 sperm cells) enters embryo sac through micropyle; 1 sperm cell fertilizes egg (form diploid zygote); nucleus of 2nd sperm fuses with both polar nuclei => triploid (3N) nucleus => (mitosis) endosperm (provide nutrient). Double fertilization (vegetative propagation) is fertilization of the egg and polar nuclei each by a separate sperm.
...
3. Prokaryote (50S + 30S = 70S); 5. Flagella are not constructed from microtubules in prokaryotes.
...
4 of carbon's 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms
...
4. Chromosomal Breakage - spontaneous or induced (mutagenic agents, Xrays). Deficiency = lost fragment
...
4. Complement helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells, stimulate basophils to release histamine, and help lyse foreign cells
...
4. During day, stomata are closed. Malic acid is out of vacuole and converted back to OAA (require 1ATP), releasing CO2 (moved onto Calvin cycle with rubisco) and PEP.
...
4. Radicles develops from hypocotyls into root.
...
4. Stomata opening (diffusion of K+ into guard cell => create gradient => more water moves in).
...
5. A sheath called coleoptiles (in monocot) surrounds and protects epicotyl. In developing young plants, coleoptiles emerge 1st as leaf. True leaves are from the Plumule within the coleoptiles.
...
5. K+ enter => unbalanced charge state. Cl- can come in or H+ gets pumped out.
...
5. Mutagenic agents include cosmic rays, Xrays, UV rays, radioactivity, chemical compounds include colchicine (inhibits spindle formation causing polyploidy), mustard gas. Mutagenic agents are generally also carcinogenic.
...
5. Mutations
...
5. Thick peptidoglycan wall cell (gram-positive); Thin peptidoglycan covered with lipopolysaccharides (gram-negative).
...
5. This is the "dark reaction", but it cannot occur w/out light because it is dependent on the high energy molecules produced from the light rxn (ATP and NADPH)
...
55% liquid (plasma) and 45% cellular components - plasma is an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, gases, wastes, hormones, and blood proteins (immunoglobulins, albumin, fibrinogen, clotting factors)
...
6. Population Growth
...
6CO2 + 18ATP + 12NADPH + H+ => 18ADP + 18Pi + 12NADP+ + 1glucose (2G3P)
...
9. Red light was used last all Pr → Pfr => shorter night period is observed (circadian clock is reset). Short-day plants are unaffected, but flowering in long-day plants (short-night plants) is induced.
...
98% of blood oxygen binds rapidly and reversibly with protein hemoglobin inside RBCs, forming oxyhemoglobin
...
A band - actin and myosin overlapping (one end of overlap to the other end of overlap)
...
A plant population with 84% Red (R) and 16% White (r) => q2 = 0.16 (rr) p2 + 2pq = 0.84 (RR + Rr)
...
A. DNA Replication
...
A. Evidence for Evolution
...
A. Human Reproductive Anatomy (9 month gestation)
...
A. Mitosis
...
A. Plant Tissues
...
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormones)
...
ADDITIONAL NOTES
...
ADP + Pi are released → sliding motion of actin bring Z lines together (contraction, power stroke)
...
ASCENDING makes renal medulla salty-actively pumps out Na+,K+,Cl- ; impermeable to water!
...
ATP binds to myosin head - converted to ADP + Pi, which remain attached to head
...
ATP produced here via substrate level phosphorylation
...
AV node - located in lower wall of the right atrium/interatrial septa; sends impulse through bundle of His → passes between both ventricles → branches into ventricles via the purkinje fibers which results in contraction
...
Acetylcholine- secreted at neuromuscular junctions → muscle contraction/relaxation. Inhibitory everywhere else.
...
Acquired immediately, but short-lived and non-specific
...
Action potential of neuron releases acetylcholine when meets neuromuscular jxn
...
Action potential spreads on sarcolemma and Ca2+ ions released
...
Action potential then generated on sarcolemma and throughout T-tubules
...
Action potential. Stimulus → gated ion channels let Na+ into the cell, depolarizing it. If the threshold level is reached (~ -50mV), it will cause an action potential that will result in opening of (voltage gated) Na+ channels down the entire length of the neuron. All or nothing event!
...
Active Transport - movement of transports against their concentration gradients requiring energy. Usually solutes like small ions, amino acids, monosaccharides
...
Actually increases inclusive fitness (fitness of individual plus relatives [who share some identical genes])
...
Adrenal cortex
...
Adrenal cortex - secretes only steroid hormones
...
Adrenal gland
...
Aerobic respiration regenerates NAD+ via O2, which is required for continuation of glycolysis, without O2, there would be no replenishing - NADH accumulates, cell would die w/ no new ATP, so fermentation occurs...
...
After efferent arteriole passes back out of the glomerulus is just webs around the entire nephron structure (see above) as the peritubular capillaries (surround PCT and DCT; reabsorb stuff) and vena cava (surround LOH in medulla, maintain cxn gradient) before dumping back in to the renal branch of renal vein. Meanwhile, Bowman's capsule leads to...
...
Agnostic behavior is ritualized, so injuries and time spent in contests are minimized
...
Albumin - carry bilirubin (can be made from heme of old-red-blood cell) to the liver from spleen (removes dead RBC). Bilirubin is converted by liver to soluble form that become part of bile. Both Liver and Spleen are involved.
...
Aldehyde (H-C=O)
...
All carbs absorbed into blood are carried by portal vein to the liver
...
All carbs absorbed into blood are carried by portal vein to the liver. Absorbed gal and fru converted to glu, then stored as glycog.
...
All cells capable of producing and storing glycogen but only muscle cells and especially liver cells have large amts
...
All hormones bind to receptors highly specific to them. Some hormones have receptors on almost all cells, some have receptors only on specific tissues. Hormone regulation can occur by increasing/decreasing # of these receptors in response to hormone amount.
...
Allantois = special sac in bird egg that keeps N waste away from embryo
...
Allow members to corner and attack large prey
...
Alpha or beta based on position of H and OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=alpha, up=beta)
...
Also have jaws for chewing and salivary glands
...
Also seen in certain mollusks (octopus and squid) and vertebrates
...
Alternate energy sources
...
Altruistic behavior- seemingly unselfish behavior that appears to reduce fitness of individual- when an animal risks its safety in defense of another/in order to help another individual rear its young
...
Alveoli - where gas exchange between the circulatory system and the lungs occurs; surfactant reduces the surface tension
...
Amino acids and sugars→capillaries ; fatty acids and glycerol → lymph. System
...
Amino acids are placed starting from the 5' end of the mRNA and move all the way down to the 3' end. tRNA codons for matching are 3' to 5'.
...
Amoeba
...
Amoeba - extend pseudopodia; advancing cell membrane extends forward
...
Anaerobic Respiration (cytosol) -
...
Anaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when molecular oxygen is lacking
...
Annelids
...
Annelids - CO2 excretion directly through moist skin
...
Annelids- earthworm
...
Anterior Pituitary
...
Anterior Pituitary- mainly regulates hormone production by other glands - itself regulated by hypothalamus
...
Anthophyta Flowering plants Sporophyte Vascular Wind/animal Seeds
...
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin)- increases reabsorption of water by increasing permeability of nephron's collecting duct → water reabsorption and increased blood volume and pressure. Coffee blocks ADH.
...
Apocrine - armpits, pubic region, and nipples; secretions are more viscous
...
Appendicular skeleton - bones of appendages, pectoral and pelvic girdles
...
Aquatic Biomes
...
Archaeal cells wall contain various polysaccharide, not peptidoglycan (as in bacteria), cellulose (as in plant), or chitin (as in fungi). Phospholipid components such as glycerol is different (isomer of either bacteria or eukaryotes). Hydrocarbon chain is branched (straight chain for others) and ether-linkages instead of ester-linkages.
...
Arthropods
...
Arthropods (80% of all living species - insects, spiders, crustaceans (crabs), etc...
...
Arthropods - CO2 released from tissues → tracheae (which are continue with ext. air thru spiracles)
...
Arthropods - insect exoskeletons composed of hard chitin, necessitates molting for growth
...
Arthropods- most insects and molluscs
...
As O2 pressure increases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin increases
...
Association (Interneuron)- located in spinal cord & brain- receive impulses from sensory and send impulses to motor neurons. They are integrators, as they evaluate impulses for appropriate response. ~99% of nerves are interneurons.
...
Association of bell with food leads to it becoming conditioned stimulus that will elicit response even in absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Product of this conditioning experience is called the conditioned reflex (salivation)
...
During respiration, high energy H atoms removed from organic molecules (dehydrogenation)
...
Associative learning- occurs when an animal recognizes (learns) that events are connected. A form called classical conditioning occurs when animal performs behavior in response to substitute stimulus rather than normal stimulus
...
Astigmatism - irregularly shaped cornea
...
At beginning is appendix, which in herbivores is large cecum (cellulose digestion) with the help of bacteria
...
At this point we are in the mitochondrial matrix
...
Auditory
...
Autonomic - involuntary movement; innervates cardiac and smooth muscle
...
Axial skeleton - basic framework (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)
...
Axon - transfers impulses AWAY from cell body
...
B. Gametogenesis in Humans
...
B. Kinds of Animal Behavior
...
B. The Respiratory System - gas exchange mechanisms
...
B. The Seed
...
Bacteria (e.g. E.Coli) a symbiont in large intestine = main source of vitamin K (also Vitamin B)
...
Barnacle and Whale - barnacle gets wider feeding opportunities
...
Basophils - release histamines for inflammatory response
...
Batesian mimicry - deceptive; harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a common predator
...
Blood - 4-6 liters in the human body; is a connective tissue
...
Blood Filtration - Kupfer cells phagocytize bacteria picked up in intestines
...
Blood Storage
...
Blood is a connective tissue!
...
Body fluids filtered across flame cells, whose cilia move fluids through tube system; wastes exit through pores of tube
...
Bohr effect - hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO2 & [H+]) → oxygen loads released by hemoglobin
...
Bohr effect - hemoglobin O2 binding affinity decreases under conditions of low pH (high CO2 & [H+]) → oxygen loads released by hemoglobin because both O2 and H+ compete for binding at hemoglobin molecule
...
Bond Types
...
Bond via dehydration synthesis, breakdown via hydrolysis
...
Bone - connective tissue; hard and strong, while elastic and lightweight
...
Bone Formation - during FETAL stage of development
...
Bone Increases cellular metabolism
...
Bone has four types of cells surrounded by extensive matrix
...
Bone organization
...
Bone, muscle Production of milk
...
Bones can be made from a combination of compact and spongy
...
Both lead to GOITERS
...
Both smooth and cardiac muscle are myogenic - capable of contracting without stimuli from nerve cells
...
Both the platelets and damaged tissue release clotting factor, thromboplastin
...
Brain - outer grey matter (cell bodies) and inner white matter (axons); forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
...
Bristles in lower part of each segment, setae, anchor worm in earth while muscles push ahead
...
Brownian movement (particles move due to kinetic energy, spreads small suspended particles throughout cytoplasm)
...
Bryophytes Mosses, liverworts, hornworts Gametophyte Non-vascular Flagellated sperm spores
...
Bulk Flow = collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force or pressure (e.g. blood)
...
Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs
...
C. Animal Movement
...
C. Circulatory System
...
C. Germination and Development
...
C. Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
...
C. Sources of Variations
...
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O + energy
...
CCBx => black fur in mice ccxx => no pigment
...
CELLULAR RESPIRATION - overall an oxidative, exergonic process (∆G = -686 kcal/mole)
...
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+ (via carbonic anhydrase in RBC)
...
CO2 produced here is the CO2 animals exhale when they breathe
...
CUT the PYE - C, T, and U are pyrimidines, A and G purines
...
Ca2+ exposes binding sites on actin - binds troponin→tropomyosin exposes attachment sites
...
Ca2+ gates open- depolarization allows Ca2+ to enter the cell
...
Carriers extract energy from NADH and FADH2 while pumping protons into the intermembrane space - atp synthase uses this gradient (which is a pH and electrical gradient) to make atp as it shuttles H+ back into the inner matrix
...
Catalysts lower activation energy, accelerating the rate of the rxn
...
Catalyzed by PDC enzyme (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex)
...
Cataracts - lens becomes opaque→light cannot enter
...
Causes passive reabsorption of water in nephron→ rise in blood volume/pressure
...
Cell cycle = M, G1, S, G2 phases
...
Cell is said to be determined if its final form cannot be changed; cytoplasmic influences narrowed by successive cell division; determination likely later than earlier. Trace cells during development to build lineage map.
...
Cells of PCT & DCT are very rich in mitochondria because of active transport.
...
Cellular components
...
Central Nervous System (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
...
Cerebrum has outer portion (cerebral cortex - gray matter) +inner portion (medulla - white matter) see ↑. Cerebrum contains sensory, motor, association areas.
...
Ceruminous (wax) glands - found in ear canal; produce wax-like material as barrier to entrance
...
Cervix thins out and dilates, amniotic sac ruptures and releases fluids
...
Characteristics Descriptions Dicots Monocots
...
Chemical Reactions in Metabolic Processes -
...
Chemical breakdown - enzymatic hydrolysis → smaller nutrients → pass through semi-permeable membrane of gut cells to be further metabolized
...
Chemical breakdown - pepsin (secreted by Chief cells) digests proteins; (pepsinogen activated by HCl, which is secreted by parietal cells)
...
Chemical- chemicals used for communication are pheromones. Chemicals that trigger reversible behavioral changes are called releaser pheromones; those that cause long term physiological (and behavioral) changes are called primer pheromones. Pheromones may be smelled or eaten.
...
Chemical- most typical in animal cells; unidirectional (unlike electrical) [Isn't electrical conduction unidirectional too?]
...
Chemistry of Gas Exchange
...
Chief Cells - ex.gl. secrete pepsinogen (zymoegn precursor to pepsin).
...
Chimpanzee stacks boxes to reach bananas previously out of reach
...
Cholecystokinin - produced by S.I. in response to fats; stimulates gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release its enzymes
...
Cholecystokinin- small intestine- presence of fats → causes contraction of gall-bladder and release of bile(involved in digestion of fats)
...
Chyme moves through intestines via peristalsis as well. Segmentation (2nd type of intestinal motion) mixes chime w/ dig. juices
...
Cilia sweep food into cytopharynx
...
Circulation in Invertebrates
...
Circulatory system bring O2 to cells and waste products (CO2) back to skin for excretion
...
Closed circulatory system- blood is confined to vessels.
...
Cnidarians
...
Cnidarians - body walls 2 cells thick, therefore all cells in direct contact with either internal or external environment. Ex- hydra
...
Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by donating or accepting some component of a rxn like electrons
...
Collecting duct - collects remaining filtrate. Is ordinarily impermeable to water unless ADH acts on it
...
Coloration, camouflage, mimicry etc are passive defenses. Active defenses are hiding, fleeing, defending but can be costly in energy.
...
Common in social bonding, infant care, grooming, and mating
...
Complex- automatic response to significant stimulus (controlled @ brains stem or even cerebrum)
...
Concentration - when dehydrated volume of fluid in bloodstream is low so you need to make small amounts of concentrated urine => ADH prevents water loss by making distal tubule permeable to water /// when Blood Pressure is low => aldosterone increases reabsorption of Na+ by distal nephron which increases water retention (serum [Na+] increases BP)
...
Concentration of reactants and products determines which way a rxn will go
...
Coniferophyta Conifers Sporophyte Vascular Wind-dispersed Seeds
...
Conifers and woody dicots undergo 2nd growth in addition to 1st growth (extend length). 2nd growth increase girth and is the origin of woody plant tissues; occurs at 2 lateral meristems (vascular cambium-2nd xylem and phloem and cork cambium-periderm-protective material that lines outside of woody plant).
...
Contraction
...
Contraction -
...
Contraction causes hydrostatic skeleton to flow longitudinally, lengthening animal
...
Controlled release - chyme → small intestine; controlled by pyloric sphincter
...
Corpus luteum (no longer maintained by LH) disintegrates → corpus albicans, no estrogen + progesterone → endometrium shed during menstruation's flow phase.
...
Cortical sex hormones (androgens=male sex hormones)- effect is small due to testis
...
Cotyledons Storage tissue that provides nutrition to developing seedling 2 cotyledons 1 cotyledon
...
Counter Current Multiplier - descending loop permeable to water & ascending is permeable to salts / ions; this makes the medulla very salty and facilitates water reabsorption
...
Couples exergonic flow of electrons with endergonic pumping of protons across cristae membrane
...
Crop - food storage
...
Cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments form
...
Crossing over during prophase I
...
Curve is shifted right by an increase of CO2 pressure, H+ cxn, or temp (and vice versa) (cadet face right!)
...
Cytoskeleton = microtubules (ex. flagella & cilia), microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
...
D. Causes of Changes in Allele Frequencies
...
D. Communication in Animals
...
D. Embryonic Development
...
D. Excretory System - don't confuse excretion (getting rid of) with digestion (breaking down for absorption)
...
D. Primary Growth Versus Secondary Growth
...
DESCENDING - only permeable to water (but this water is picked up by vasa recta → medulla stays salty)
...
DNA - A,T,G,C - hereditary information of the cell - double helix w/ major and minor grooves
...
DNA Ligase connects okazaki fragments
...
DNA Replication begins at special sites (origins of replication) in middle of the DNA molecule (not the end); DNA strands separate to form replication bubbles that expand in both directions.. Thousands of these bubbles happen; speed up replication of 3 billion BP DNA molecule. Prokaryotes only have one origin of replication.
...
DNA is unzipped and each strand serves as a template for complementary replication
...
DNA polymerase moves from the 3'→5' direction only, synthesizes a new strand that is antiparallel (5'→3')
...
Decrease in CO2 or increase in pH will result in hemoglobin binding more O2
...
Decreases osteoclast activity and number
...
Decreases plasma Ca2+ by inhibiting its release from bone
...
Dendrites - receive information and transfer it TO CELL body
...
Dendritic Cells - responsible for the ingestion of pathogens and stimulate acquired immunity ("main function as APCs that activates T-lymphocytes")
...
Derived from megakaryocytes
...
Derived from tyrosine and necessary for growth and neurological development in children and increase basal metabolic rate in body (negative feedback on TSH)
...
Dermis - primarily connective tissue; collagen and elastic fibers; contains hair follicles, glands, nerves, and blood vessels
...
Descends to medulla (salty part), where antidiuretic hormones (ADH / vasopressin) can make MORE water leave from urine by increasing permeability of collecting duct → urine even more concentrated. 1 CD shared by many nephrons
...
Detoxification - Detox'd chemicals, excreted by liver as part of bile (or polarized to be excreted by kidneys)
...
Development of endometrium (thickens in prepn for implantation of fertilized egg) →
...
Diapause - resting condition in life of an insect such as hibernation in vertebrates.
...
Diapedesis - the process by which WBCs become part of the interstitial fluid (slip through the endothelial lining)
...
Differences in development
...
Digestion follows a specific series of events ***Note - All digestive enzymes cleave SPECIFIC bonds
...
Digestion in plants and fungi
...
Digestive (produces bile); Transport (synthesizes blood plasma proteins important in clotting)
...
Direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate to ADP, no extraneous carriers needed
...
Disorders of the thyroid include anchondroplasia (AD; dwarfism) and progeria (AR; premature aging)
...
Dna replication requires an RNA primer
...
Dominance hierarchies - indicate power and status relationship in a group; minimize fighting for food/mates
...
Dorsal hollow nerve cord forms basis of nervous system => brain and spinal cord.
...
Double bonds increase bond polarity, increasing boiling point due to polarity but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.
...
Double capillary beds (portal system) occur in glomerulus, capillaries that surround loop of Henle, small intestine, liver, and hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland. Capillary bed pools into another capillary bed through veins w/out first going to heart (transport products in high cxn without spreading to rest of body) (on alveoli too?)
...
Ectoderm - Nervous system (brain and spinal cord), integument (epidermis & hair / epithelium of nose, mouth, anal canal), sense structures (lens of eye, retina), teeth, neural tube
...
Ectotherms - obtain body heat from environment (aka poikilotherms/cold-blooded)
...
Electrical- action potential travels along membranes of gap junctions (less common); fast; cardiac and visceral smooth muscle.
...
End of G2 - checks for sufficient Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF) levels to proceed
...
Endocrine - synthesize and secretes hormones into bloodstream
...
Endoderm - epithelial lining of digestive & respiratory, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, and urinary bladder lining
...
Endorphins- inhibit perception of pain (technically a neurohormone)
...
Endotherms - generate their own body heat (aka homeotherms/warm-blooded)
...
Energy for elongation is provided by two additional phophates attached to each new nucleotide. Breaking the bonds holding the two extra phosphates provides chemical energy for the process (same w/ transcription!). Human rate 50n/s
...
Energy/biomass/quantity is greatest at primary producer level, lowest at tertiary consumer level. Tertiary is least stable + most sensitive to population fluctuations of lower levels
...
Enterogastrone is any hormone secreted by duodenum when fatty food present → slow down stomach muscular movement (probably close pyloric sphincter) (slow peristalsis).
...
Enzyme origin
...
Enzymes are globular proteins that act as catalysts
...
Eosinophils - work collectively to surround and destroy multicellular parasites
...
Epidermis - superficial; avascular epithelial tissue (depends on dermis for oxygen and nutrients). Layers from top down
...
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline)- "fight or flight" - the catecholamines
...
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin (5HT)- AA derived, secreted between neurons of CNS
...
Erythrocyte destruction - Kupfer cells destroy irregular erythrocytes (but most are destroyed by spleen)
...
Erythrocytes (RBCs) - transport O2 (up to 4) on hemoglobin, catalyze conversion of CO2 and H2O to H2CO3 - lack nucleus/organelles to maximize hemoglobin content
...
Esophagus - tube leading to stomach, food travels by contractions (peristalsis),
...
Established innate reflex is unconditioned stimulus (food causing salivation), natural response to that is the unconditioned response (salivation)
...
Estrogen - thicken endometrium
...
Estrogen- menstrual cycle, secondary sex characteristics
...
Eukaryotes include all organisms except for bacteria, cyanobacteria, and archaebacteria. Prokaryotes have a plasma membrane, DNA molecule, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and cell wall. In prokaryotes
...
Evaporation - body heat is removed as liquid evaporates (endergonic)
...
Every okazaki fragment has an RNA primer, these rna strips are later replaced with dna by DNA polymerase I
...
Excretion in Humans - lungs, liver, skin, and kidney
...
Excretion in Plants - excess CO2, waste O2, and H2O (g), leave by diffusion through stomata and lenticels
...
Exhalation - passive process; decrease in lung volume/ increase in air pressure→air rushes out; diaphragm relaxes and expands
...
Exocrine - secrete substances into ducts (ex. gall bladder) (Pancreas is both exo and endo)
...
Exoskeleton
...
Extension = straightening of joint
...
External respiration is entry of air into lungs and gas exchange between alveoli and blood; internal respiration is exchange of gas between blood and the cells + intracellular respiration processes
...
Extracellular Circulation
...
Extracellular digestion - several plants must obtain nutrient from environment
...
Eye
...
Eye - cornea (focuses light) => pupil (diameter controlled by iris {pigmented}) => lens (controlled by cilliary muscles; focuses img) => retina(light sensitive cells)
...
Eye disorders
...
Eye has vitrous humor (jelly like, maintains eye shape and optical properties) and aqueous humor (anterior chamber, eye produces it)
...
F. Nervous System
...
F. Secondary Structure of Stems and Roots
...
F. Social Behavior
...
FSH (follicle stimulating hormones)
...
Fats → fatty acids
...
Fatty acids are broken down for energy via beta oxidation (takes place in mitochondrial matrix)
...
Fatty acids in blood combine with albumin which carries them
...
Feces stored at end of L.I. in the rectum → excreted through anus
...
Geographic variation - variation of a species dependent on climate or geographic conditions. A graded variation of a phenotype due to this is known as a cline; variation from north/south environments is a north-south cline
...
Germination begins with imbibition (absorption) of water => enzymes => respiration. Absorbed water causes seed to swell and seed coat to crack => growing tips of radical produce roots that anchor seedling => elongation of hypocotyl.
...
Gizzard - grind food
...
Glands of the Skin
...
Glaucoma - increase in pressure of eye due to blocking of outflow of aqueous humor
...
Glial Cells - nervous tissue support cells; capable of cellular division
...
Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone)- raise blood glucose levels (stimulates gluconeogenesis in the liver); affect fat and protein metabolism; stress hormones
...
Glucose → 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid
...
Glycerol → PGAL, enters glycolysis
...
Glycine is the only optically inactive amino acid, since it has no chiral carbons.
...
Glycogenesis (formation of glycogen) and glycogenolysis (if blood glucose levels decrease → glycogen broken down to glu for release)
...
Goblet cells secrete mucus to lubricate and protect from mech/chem damage
...
Gonads - reproductive structure responsible for production of gametes. Male = testis, female = ovaries (primary sex characteristics)
...
Grasshopper
...
Growth hormone (HGH)- aka somatotropin; stimulates bone and muscle growth
...
H and I reduce during contraction, while A does NOT
...
H zone - region containing thick filaments (myosin) only (in middle, only green above)
...
H. CAM Photosynthesis
...
H. DNA Organization
...
H. Human Impact on Biosphere
...
H. Immune System
...
H. Patterns of Evolution
...
H. Transport of Water
...
Habituation- learned behavior that allows animal to disregard meaningless stimuli
...
Haversian canal contains bone nerves and blood supply
...
Helicase is the enzyme that unwinds DNA, forming a Y shaped replication fork
...
Help animals find favored or plentiful food
...
Hemoglobin - binds CO w/ much greater affinity than myoglobin (4 subunits vs 1)
...
Hemoglobin structure is 4 polypeptide subunits, each has a heme cofactor (organic molecule w/ iron atom center)
...
Hence why fats are 10 cals/g, whereas carbs and protein are 4
...
Herds, flocks, and schools
...
Hexokinase phos's glucose, important because then it can't diffuse out + tricks the gradient
...
Hindbrain - posterior part of brain; cerebellum (maintenance of balance, hand-eye coord, timing of rapid movements), pons (relay center to allow communication b/w cortex and cerebellum), medulla oblongata (breathing, heart rate, gastrointestinal activity) -
...
Hormone Types
...
Hormones involved in the digestive process
...
Human heart -
...
Human respiration controlled by medulla oblongata
...
Humans supplement natural body defenses by
...
Hydra- intracellular and extracellular digestion
...
Hydrostatic pressure from heart causes blood to move through arteries. Blood pressure drops as it reaches the capillaries, and reaches near zero in the venules. Blood continues to move through veins because of pumping of the heart assisted by movements of adjacent skeletal muscles, expansion of atria each time heart beats, and falling pressure in chest when a person breathes.Valves in the veins prevent backflow.
...
Hydrostatic skeletons
...
Hyperopia - farsightedness
...
Hyperpolarization. By the time the channels close, too much K+ is released (-80 millivolts)
...
Hyperthyroidism- oversecretion → increased metabolic rate and sweating
...
Hypertonic (higher solute concentration), hypotonic (lower solute concentration), isotonic (equal solute concentration)
...
Hypodermis (subcutaneous) - not part of skin; areolar and adipose tissue; fat storage; pressure sensing nerve endings; passage for blood vessels
...
Hypothalamus¬- monitors external environment and internal conditions of the body; Contains neurosecretory cells that link the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. Regulation of the pituitary = negative feedback mechanisms and by secretion of releasing and inhibiting hormones; secretes ADH (vasopressin) and oxytocin to be stored in posterior pituitary; also secretes GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) from neurons, which stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
...
If implantation occurs → embryo (placenta) secretes chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) → maintain corpus luteum → Production of e + p remain high → endometrium stays → HCG is later replaced by progesterone from placenta.
...
If stimulus no longer regularly applies, response will recover over time - spontaneous recovery
...
Imprinting- innate program for acquiring specific behavior only if appropriate stimulus is experienced during critical period. Once acquired, trait is irreversible
...
In C3 plants, co2 levels are relatively low in leaves when photosynthesis is active during the DAY, when stomata are OPEN. At night stomata close and co2 levels increase
...
In CAM plants, stomata closed during day but photosynthesis proceeds because co2 supplied by metabolic conversion of malic acid
...
In a cross of BbVv x bbvv (says that BV and bv are linked and each is in a homologues). We only get BV or bv and no Bv or bV. However, if there is recombination, we may get 18% of Bv and bV.
...
In a typical antibody, the heavy and light chains are linked by disulfide bonds.
...
In all cases of repair, ligase must come in to seal the backbone afterward
...
In animals, this CO2 is exhaled
...
In prokaryotes the "good" strand is methylated after replication so it doesn't accidentally repair wrong strand
...
In the Krebs cycle, Acetyl CoA merges with oxaloacetate to form citrate, cycle goes w/ 7 intermediates
...
In young seedling, growth occurs at tips of roots and shoots (apical meristerms); actively dividing (meristematic) cells. This kind of growth is called primary growth (produces primary tissues-1st xylem and 1st phloem => height).
...
Include (AP) FSH, LH, ACTH, hGH, TSH, prolactin; (PP) ADH & oxytocin; (PT) PTH; (PANCR) glucagon & insulin
...
Includes glycolysis + fermentation
...
Increases osteocyte absorption of Ca + P from bone; stimulates osteoclast proliferation
...
Increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+
...
Increases renal Ca reabsorption
...
Independent assortment of homologues during metaphase I (which chromosome goes into which cell)
...
Inhalation - diaphragm (under lungs) and intercostal muscles (btw ribs) contract/ flattens; increase in volume / decrease in pressure in lungs → bulk flow of air into lungs.
...
Inner Ear - wave moves through the cochlea (vibration of ossicles exert pressure on fluid). As wave moves through pressure alternates, moving the vestibular membrane in and out; this movement is detected by hair cells (not actual hair but specialized stereocilia) of the organ of Corti => transduced t neural signal →action potential
...
Insertion - point of attachment of muscle to bone that moves
...
Insight- When animal exposed to new situation w/out prior exp., performs a behavior that generates (+) outcome
...
Instinct- behavior that is innate, or inherited
...
Insulin after large meals stores glucose as glycogen, glucagon is the opposite effect and turns on glycogen degradation
...
Integumentary (Skin) System
...
Interactions between organisms and their Environment
...
Intestine - contains typholosole to increase surface area for absorption
...
Intracellular Circulation
...
Intracellular digestion - store primarily starch in seeds, stems, and roots; when nutrients are required, polymers are broken down (into glucose, fatty acid, glycerol, and amino acids) by enzymatic hydrolysis
...
Intramembranous ossification- undifferentiated connective tissue replaced by bone
...
Invaginated by T-tubules- channels for ion flow
...
Invertebrate Respiration
...
Invertebrate locomotion
...
Invertebrates
...
Invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, fish
...
Isoelectric focusing - technique for separating different molecules by differences in their isoelectric point (pI). A type of zone electrophoresis, usually performed on proteins in a gel, utilizes the fact that overall charge on the molecule of interest is a function of the pH of its surroundings. (more on this in orgo notes)
...
J. Molecular Genetics of Bacteria
...
J. Transport of Sugars
...
Joint types -
...
K+ gates open, membrane becomes hyperpolarized →inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)... it becomes more difficult to generate action potential
...
K. Plant Hormones
...
K. Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression
...
K. Regulation of Prokaryotic Gene Expression
...
Ketone (R-C=O)
...
Kidney Increases blood glucose
...
Kin selection- natural selection that increases inclusive fitness
...
Lagging Strand - for the 5→3 template strand the DNA polymerase has to go back to the replication fork and work away from it. It produces fragments at a time called okazaki fragments vs continuous replication
...
Lamellar granulues make it water repellent
...
Large intestine (colon) - reabsorption of water and salts to form feces; 1.5m long
...
Latent period - time btw stimulation and onset of contraction; lag
...
Leading Strand - works continuously as more dna unzips (synthesized 5' → 3')
...
Leaf venation Pattern of veins in leaves Netted (branching pattern) Parallel
...
Learned behavior can be reversed in absence of reinforcement; behavior no longer elicits the response (extinction)
...
Least desirable source of energy, only when carbs and fat unavailable
...
Left atrium - after lungs the oxygenated blood enters left atrium via pulmonary veins
...
Left ventricle - after going through left AV(aka mitral or bicuspid) valve, blood from left ventricle goes to aorta through the aortic semilunar valve into rest of body
...
Leukocytes (WBCs) - larger and phagocytize foreign matter and organisms
...
Ligaments - bone-to-bone connectors; strengthen joints
...
Likewise, by breaking down starch, any cell can act as a source
...
Lipases in adipose tissue are hormone sensitive (e.g. to glucagon)
...
Lipid Derivatives
...
List of Animal phyla
...
Liver - processes nitrogenous wastes, blood pigment wastes, other chemicals, UREA prod.
...
Liver - produces bile (no enzymes, emulsifies fats) stored in gall bladder, flows thru bile duct which merges with pancreatic duct
...
Liver Functions
...
Loop of Henle (majority of nephron)
...
Low level → hypothalamus → GnRH → FSH and LH (via anterior pituitary-negative feedback) →
...
Lower blood Ca2+
...
Lungs - CO2 and H2O(g) diffuse from blood and are continually exhaled
...
Lycophyta Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts Sporophyte Vascular Flagellated sperm Spores
...
Lymph Vessels
...
Lymph nodes contain phagocytic cells (leukocytes) that filter the lymph and serve as immune response centers
...
Lymphatic system is an open secondary circulatory system- transports excess interstitial fluids (lymph) through the contraction of adjacent muscles & some walls of larger lymph vessels have smooth muscle
...
Lymphocytes - covered below
...
M checkpoint during mitosis that triggers start of G1
...
M line - center of sarcomere
...
M. Photoperiodism
...
Mammary (milk) glands
...
Mammary glands Increases reabsorption of water
...
Manufactured in rough ER as larger preprohormone → cleaved in ER lumen to prohormone → cleaved again (possibly modified w/ carbs) in Golgi to final form
...
Mast Cells - fxn in allergic response, inflammatory response (histamine release), anaphylaxis
...
Menstrual cycle, pregnancy
...
Mesoderm - musculoskeletal, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissue, portions of digestive & respiratory, notochord
...
Metabolism - muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat
...
Midbrain - relay center for visual/ auditory impulses; motor control
...
Middle ear - amplifies sound; tympanic membrane (eardrum) begins the middle ear and vibrates at same frequency as incoming sound => ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) →
...
Milk letdown
...
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)- increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+
...
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) General
...
Mitochondria - outer membrane, intermembrane space (H+), inner membrane (ox phosp.), mitochondrial matrix (krebs)
...
Mitochondria - present in large amounts in myofibrils
...
Mitochondrial DNA is an exception to the universality of genetic code
...
Mitosis in somatic cells and meiosis in gametes (egg, sperm, pollen)
...
Mixing - mixes food w/ H2O and gastric juice → chyme (creamy medium)
...
Monocytes - move into tissues (diapedesis) where they develop into macrophages (which phagocytize cell debris + pathogens, are a professional antigen-presenting cell)
...
Only vertebrates have myelinated axons. Myelinated axons appear white (white matter); neuronal cell bodies gray (gray matter).
...
More time spent in interphase than mitosis (>90%). Growth occurs in all 3 interphases, not just G's. During G2, material for next mitotic division are prepared.
...
Most amino acids are deaminated in liver, then converted to pyruvate or acetyl CoA or other CAC intermediates, enter cellular respiration at these various points (varies by AA)
...
Most of the Ca2+ in body is stored in bone matrix as hydroxyapatite
...
Mouth - salivary a-amylase breaks down (starch→maltose), chewing creates bolus which is swallowed
...
Moveable joints - bones that move relative to each other
...
Movement in lower forms
...
Mucous Cells - secrete mucus that lubricates & protects stomach's epithelial lining from acid environment
...
Mucus secreted by earthworm provides moist surface for gaseous exchange by diffusion
...
Mullerian mimicry - two or more harmful species that are not closely related, and share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other's warning signals
...
Muscle contraction can result in movement, stabilization of position, movement of substances throughout body, generation of body heat
...
Muscular system- consists of contractile fibers held together by connective tissue
...
Myofibrils - filaments divided into sarcomeres
...
Myoglobin = single chain/protein subunit, stores O2 in muscle
...
Myoglobin curve = hyperbolic, Hemoglobin curve = sigmoidal. Myoglobin has higher affinity for O2 than hemoglobin. Myoglobin has no change in O2 binding over a pH range.
...
Myoglobin of muscle has hyperbolic curve (structure doesn't do allosteric cooperative binding, single subunit) saturates quickly and releases in very low oxygen "emergency muscle" situations
...
Myopia - nearsightedness
...
Myosin cross bridges form - result of Ca2+ binding to troponin on actin helix
...
NO IMPLANTATION
...
NOT the same as for every 2 carbons - e.g. 18C chain is 9 2C pieces but only cut 8 times, each cut is the beta oxidation step
...
Na+ gates open, membrane is depolarized→excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), if threshold potential is succeeded, action potential is generated
...
Near the end of G1 - cell growth assessed and favorable conditions checked. If fails, cell enters G0
...
Necrosis = traumatic cell death
...
Nephridia (metanephridia) occur in pairs within each segment of annelids (earthworms). Interstitial fluids enter a nephridium through ciliated opening nephrostome and concentrate through collecting tubule due to selective secretion into surrounding coelomic fluid. Blood that surrounds tubule reabsorb. Water, salts, urea are excreted through excretory pore.
...
Nephrons - composed of renal corpuscle and renal tubule; reabsorbs nutrients, salts, and water
...
Nerve gas - inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase, and cause death respiratory paralysis
...
Neuron - consists of several dendrites, single (branched) axon, and cell body
...
Neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic receptors. Diffusion (via Brownian motion) and binding
...
Neurotransmitter is degraded and recycled. Broken down by enzymes in cleft and recycled
...
Neutral variation - variation w/out selective value (e.g. fingerprints in humans)
...
Neutrophils - fxn in destruction of pathogens in infected tissues; drawn to infected or injured areas by chemicals in process called chemotaxis; slip between endothelial cells of capillary (into tissue) via diapedesis
...
New ATP attaches to myosin head, causes cross bridges to unbind - new phosphorylation breaks cross bridge
...
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and Legumes - legumes provides nutrients for bacteria and bacteria fixes nitrogen
...
Nose (filter, moisten, warms incoming air), pharynx (throat - passageway for food and air; dust/mucus swept here for disposal via spitting or swallowing), larynx (voice box- if non-gas enters, cough reflex activates)
...
Notable exceptions to the general embryonic development patterns
...
Note that antibodies are released from plasma cells, are specific for an antigen, and a single B lymphocyte produces only one antibody type.
...
Note that from -70 up to threshold (or -70 downward) is the graded potential that cannot travel, but it can potentially (if it surpasses threshold) open the voltage gated channels and this part is the action potential, that travels by opening other voltage gated. The other gated types cannot spread unless they trigger this AP. Also note that AP is all or nothing, so strength of a neural signal is based on other factors (frequency of AP firing or how many nervous cells contribute AP's, etc).
...
Nucleic acids → nucleotides
...
O2¬ saturation of hemoglobin also depends on CO2 pressure, pH, temp of blood
...
Observational learning- animal copies behavior of another without having experienced any feedback themselves
...
Occurs in liver and kidney (liver is responsible for maintaining glucose cxn in blood)
...
Open circulatory system- pump blood into internal cavity called hemocoel (cavities called sinuses), which bathe tissues in oxygen and nutrient containing fluid (hemolymph). This fluid returns to pumping mechanism (heart) through holes called ostia.
...
Organization of Vertebrate Skeleton
...
Origin - point of attachment of muscle to stationary bone
...
Originates from competition from food, mates, or territory
...
Osmolarity Gradient - created by exiting / entering of solutes; increases from cortex to medulla
...
Osteocytes - covered above
...
Outer ear - auricle/pinna (what we think of as the ear) and auditory canal; direct sound into external auditory canal →
...
Ovaries, testes
...
Ovaries, testes Secretion of T4 and T3
...
Ovaries-
...
Ovary Estrogen
...
Oxygen dissociation curve shows the percentage of hemoglobin bound w/ O2 at various partial pressures of O2
...
Oxytocin- secreted during childbirth- increases strength of uterine contractions and stimulates milk ejection
...
Oxytoxin Kidney
...
PFK (enzyme) adds 2nd phosphate, makes fructose 1,6-biphosphate - this is irreversible and commits to glycolysis, major regulatory point!
...
Pace of SA node is faster than normal heartbeat but parasympathetic vagus nerve innervates SA node (also increases digestive activity of intestines); slows contractions
...
Packs
...
Pancreas (α cells) Glucagon Liver Increases blood glucose
...
Pancreas (β cells) Insulin Liver, muscles, fat Decreases blood glucose
...
Pancreas - secretes bicarbonate; also acts as exocrine gland releasing major enzymes from acinar cells via pancreatic duct → duodenum
...
Pancreas- both exocrine and endocrine; has bundles of cells called islet of Landerhans which contains two cell types
...
Papillary region - top 20%
...
Paracrine - cell signalling where target is nearby; Autocrine is cell signaling via hormone/chemical messenger that binds to receptors on same cell
...
Paramecium
...
Parasite & host population densities mimic each other
...
Parasites can be ectoparasites (cling to exterior of host) or endoparasites (live within the host)
...
Parasympathetic - rest and digest; non-emergency (lower HR, digestion, relaxation, sexual arousal)
...
Parathyroid PTH (parathyroid) Bone Increases blood Ca2+
...
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- antagonistic to calcitonin
...
Parathyroid- four pea-shaped structures attached to back of thyroid
...
Parietal Cells - Secrete HCl; intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
...
Passive Transport -
...
Pecking order- linear order of status used to describe dominance hierarchy in chickens
...
Pepsinogen activated to pepsin by low pH in stomach; once active begins protein digestion
...
Peptic ulcers - caused by failure of mucosal lining to protect stomach
...
Peptide - synth'd in rough ER and modified in Golgi (requires vesicle to cross membrane), acts on surface receptors typically via secondary messengers (ex. Cyclic AMP)
...
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - consists of sensory branch and motor branch. Motor consists of somatic and autonomic nervous systems
...
Phagocytes - engulf foreign particles/bacteria/dead or dying cells
...
Pharynx (throat) - this is where food and air passages cross; the epiglottis, flap of tissue, blocks trachea so only solid and liquid enter...
...
Phosphate buffer system - maintains pH of internal fluids of all cells; H2PO4- and HPO42- act as acid & base (amphoteric)
...
Phospholipid membrane permeability - small, uncharged, polar molecules and hydrophobic molecules can freely pass across the membrane. Everything else requires transporter.
...
Phospholipids (covered above)
...
Photoreceptor cells synapse to bipolar cells → ganglion cells → axions of ganglion cells bundle to optic nerve
...
Photosynthesis only takes place during the day.
...
Photosynthesis produces glucose and gives off oxygen
...
Phylum (Group) Common Names Dominant Gen. Fluid Transport Sperm Transport Dispersal Unit
...
Physical breakdown - cutting and grinding in mouth; churning in digestive tract
...
Physical breakdown - muscles break food; HCl denatures proteins & kills bacteria
...
Pineal gland- secretes melatonin- plays role in circadian rhythm
...
Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) - 4 joined pyrrole rings. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)
...
Posterior Pituitary ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
...
Posterior Pituitary- does not synthesize hormones, stores ADH and oxytocin produced by hypothalamus
...
Postsynaptic membrane is excited or inhibited. Two possible outcomes
...
Primase is an enzyme that creates a small strip of rna primer off of which dna polymerase can work since it can only add to an existing strand
...
Process of blood clotting
...
Progesteron Uterus, general
...
Progesterone - development and maintenance of endometrial wall
...
Progesterone- menstrual cycle, pregnancy
...
Prolactin- stimulates milk production in females
...
Prostaglandins - locally acting autocrine/paracrine lipid messenger molecules that have physiological effect (e.g. contract/relax smooth muscle)
...
Protein
...
Protein metabolism - Liver deaminates AA's, forms urea from ammonia in blood, synths plasma proteins, synths nonessential AAs
...
Proteins & large particles that can't be taken up by capillaries removed to lymph; also monitors blood for infxn
...
Proteins → amino acids
...
Protists such as Paramecium and aoebas - possesses contractile vacuole for XS H2O excretion by active transport
...
Protozoa (animal-like) protists are heterotrophs; unicellular eukaryotes.
...
Protozoans & primitive algae - cilia or flagella by means of power stroke and recovery stroke
...
Protozoans (unicellular animal-like [due to movement] protists)- movement of gas through simple diffusion within cell
...
Protozoans and Cnidarians - all cells in contact with external, aqueous environment
...
Provide benefit of concealment, vigilance, and defense
...
Provides energy for all cells by transferring phosphate from ATP to another molecule
...
Proximal convoluted tubule - active reabsorption of glucose, ions, amino acids begins (water follows → cortex not salty)
...
Pterophyta Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns Sporophyte Vascular Flagellated sperm Spores
...
Purple/green bacteria, in the anaerobic sediments of lakes/ponds, carry out photosynthesis with H2, H2S, or D as the electron donor, oxygen is not a byproduct.
...
Pyruvate Decarboxylation
...
Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, producing 1 NADH and 1 CO2
...
RNA - A,U,G,C - functional usage - varies per type (mRNA linear, tRNA clover, rRNA globular)
...
RNA Types
...
RNA world hypothesis proposes that self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins). RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein →may have played a major step in the evolution of cellular life.
...
Raises Ca2+ concentrations in blood by stimulating release from bone
...
Random joining of gametes aka germ cells (which sperm fertilizes which egg - genetic composition of gamete affects this)
...
Rapid contractions followed by birth
...
Reabsorption - glucose, salts, AA, and water are reabsorbed from filtrate & return to blood; takes place namely in PROXIMAL convoluted tubule (active)
...
Recombinant DNA contains DNA segments or genes from different sources. The transfer of these DNA segments can come from viral transduction, bacterial conjugation, transposons, or through artificial recombinant DNA technology. Crossing over during prophase of meiosis produces recombinant chromosomes.
...
Recovery of conditioned response to conditioned stimulus after delay following extinction = spontaneous recovery
...
Red to far red ratio is measured by phytochrome to sense quality of light (i.e. if it is being shaded by other plants)
...
Refractory period. Neuron will NOT respond to new stimulus until Na+/K+ pumps return the ions to their resting potential locations (outside/in, respectively) if absolute. If relative, abnormally large stimuli can create an AP. Note that refractory period is what prevents an AP from moving backwards, even though ions are theoretically rushing in and diffusing in both directions.
...
Regulates oogenesis and spermatogenesis (both)
...
Regulatory mechanisms
...
Relaxation (absolute refractory period) - unresponsive to stimulus
...
Remainder of small intestine (6m) absorbs breakdown products (villi and microvilli)
...
Renal corpuscle - glomerulus (sieve) surrounded by Bowman's capsule; afferent arteriole=into glomerulus; efferent arteriole=out of glomerulus
...
Renal tubule -
...
Repolarization. In response to Na+ flow in, more gated ion channels let K+ out of the cell, restoring polarization- but the Na+ are IN and the K+ are OUT
...
Resting potential. Normal polarized state of neuron, -70 mV.
...
Results in BIG yield of ATP, yields more ATP per carbon than carbohydrates, more energy in fats than sugars
...
Reticular region - dense connective tissue, collagen and elastic fibers; packed with oil glands, sweat gland ducts, fat, and hair follicles; provides strength, and elasticity (stretch marks are dermal tears)
...
Rh factor =another blood antigen; mother might attack Rh+ in 2nd fetus (erythroblastosis fetalis) (first child is fine but during 1st childbirth blood exposure → antibodies to Rh attack 2nd)
...
Right atrium - deoxygenated blood enters via superior and inferior vena cava
...
Right ventricle - blood moves through right AV/tricuspid valve into right ventricle which contracts and pumps blood into pulmonary artery through the pulmonary semilunar valve.
...
Rod pigment rhodopsin is struck by photons from light, causing hyperpolarization transduced into neural AP sent to brain
...
Root Form of root Taproot (large single root) Fibrous system (many fine roots)
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SA (sinoatrial) node, or pacemaker (located in upper wall of right atrium) initiates by contracting both atria and sending delayed impulse to stimulate AV (atrioventricular) node.
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Sarcolemma - plasma membrane of muscle cells; can propagate action potential
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Sarcomere - is composed of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)
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Sarcomeres - individual contractile units separated by a border (Z-line)
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Sarcoplasm - cytoplasm
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Sarcoplasmic reticulum - stores Ca2+; surrounds myofibrils
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Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+
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Saturated fatty acids produce 1 NADH and 1 FADH2 for every cut into 2 carbons
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Sea anemones disregarding repeated "feeding" stimulation with a stick
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Search images
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Sebaceous (oil) glands - connected to hair follicles; absent in palms and soles
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Second chromatid containing a copy of DNA is assembled during interphase
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Second major zone is the pelagic, the water that is neither close to shore nor the very bottom. It is broken down from top to bottom in layers. Epiplagic (surface layer of water, only photic zone since enough light for penetration, nearly all primary production of ocean occurs here) → (all zones from here on out are aphotic) mesoplagic (not enough light for photosynthesis, minimal oxygen) → bathypelagic (pitch black, no plant life, most organisms here consume detritus) → abyssopelagic (cold, high temp, most species have no eyes due to lack of light) → hadopelagic (most life here exists in hydrothermal vents). Illustrated here
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Secretes thymosins that stimulate lymphocytes (WBCs) to become T-cells (identification and destroying of infected body cells)
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Secretin - produced by cells lining duodenum when food enters; stimulates pancreas to produce bicarbonate (neutralizes the chime)
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Secretin- small intestine- when acidic food enters from stomach → neutralize acidity of chime by secretion of alkaline bicarbonate
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Secretion - substances such as acids, bases, and ions (K+) are secreted by both passive / active transport; secreted from peritubular capillaries
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Secretion of glucocorticoids
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Seed remain dormant at maturity until specific environment cues (water, temp, light, seed coat damage), others may have required dormancy period.
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Segmented worms (Annelids) - advance by action of muscles on hydrostatic skeleton
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Semiconservative replication = one strand of the two is old, the other is new
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Series of chitin-lined respiratory tubules called trachae open to surface in openings called spiracles through with O2 enters, CO2 exits. No oxygen carrier is needed due to direct distribution and removal of respiratory gases between air and body cells; diffusion across moistened tracheal endings.
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Similarity with eukaryotes
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Simple Twitch - response of a single muscle fiber to brief stimulus; latent, contraction, relax
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Simple and Complex Reflexes
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Simple diffusion, osmosis, dialysis (diffusion of different solutes across a selectively permeable membrane), plasmolysis (movement of water out of a cell that results in its collapse), facilitated diffusion, countercurrent exchange (diffusion by bulk flow in opposite directions - blood and water in fish gills)
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Simple- automatic 2 nerve (afferent/efferent) response to stimulus controlled @ spinal cord (lower animals)
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Single stranded binding proteins attach to each strand of uncoiled DNA to keep them separate
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Skeletal System
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Skeletal muscle (striated muscle) - voluntary movement, fibers are multinucleated cells
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Skin - sweat glands in skin excrete water and dissolved salts/regulate body temp (sweat gland fxn decreases as we age)
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Small intestine - food goes from stomach to small intestine through the pyloric sphincter - first 25cm (duodenum), continues breakdown of starches and proteins as well as remaining food types (fats and nucleotides); ileocecal valve between it and large intestine. Structure is duodenum (most digestion), jejunum, then ileum (jej and il mostly absorption). 90% of digestion and absorption occurs in SI; completes.
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Social Behavior
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Somatic - responsible for VOLUNTARY movement of skeletal muscles
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Somatostatin is released by delta cells of pancreas; inhibits both insulin and glucagon; possibly increases nutrient absorption time
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Some common neurotransmitters
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Some groups of Archaea
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Source Hormone Target Action
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Spatial learning- Another form of associative learning. Animal associates attributes of landmark with reward of identifying and returning to that location
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Spider
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Spinal cord- out white/inner gray(cell bodies). Sensory info enters through dorsal horn. All motor info exits through the ventral horn.
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Spongy (Cancellous) bone- less dense and consists of an interconnecting lattice of bony spicules (trabeculae); filled with red bone marrow (site of RBC development)
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Sporazoans = division of Protozoan; diverse group of parasites (ex. plasmodium), cause malaria in humans
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Spreads contraction to surrounding cardiac muscles via electrical synapses made from gap junctions
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Starch and glucose are polymers of alpha glucose. Polysaccharides are branched/linear. Peptides can only be linear. Polysaccharides can have alpha or beta linkages.
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Starches → glucose
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Steroid - synth'd from cholesterol in smooth ER; hydrophobic = freely diffuse but require protein transport molecule to dissolve in blood; intracellular receptors
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Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) - 4 ringed structure
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Stimulates growth
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Stimulates liver (and most other body cells) to absorb glucose
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Stimulates liver to glycogen → glucose
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Stimulation Process of Sliding Filament Model - "all-or-nothing" response
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Stomach - secretes gastric juice (digestive enzymes and HCl) - food enters stomach through lower esophageal/cardiac sphincter. The stomach contains exocrine glands (local secretion by way of duct) within gastric pits (indentations in stomach that denote entrance to the gastric glands, which contain secreting chief cells, parietal cells, and mucous cells (secrete mucus to prevent backwash)
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Stomach cells
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Storage - accordion-like folds allow 2-4 liters of storage
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Stratum basale (germinativum) - contains Merkel cells and stem cells that divide to produce keratinocytes; attached by basement membrane.
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Stratum corneum - 25-30 dead layers; filled w/ keratin and surrounded by lipids
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Stratum granulosum-3-5 layer of dying cells; lamellar bodies release hydrophobic lipids
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Stratum lucidum - only in palms and soles of feet, and finger tips; 3-5 layers, clear/dead
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Stratum spinosum - strength and flexibility; 8-10 layers held together by (desmosomes-keratin involving adhesion proteins)
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Streptococci - can be virulent, form chains; staphylococci form clusters
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Stroke volume = EDV - ESV
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Stroke volume = end systolic volume - end diastolic volume.
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Stroke volume = volume of blood discharged from the ventricles with each contraction.
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Structural, storage, transport, defensive (antibodies), enzymes
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Structure
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Structure - Wall has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area for greater digestion/absorption. Each villi has a lacteal (lymph vessel surrounded by capillary network; both fxn for nutrient absorption). Villi have microvilli, more SA.
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Structure of skin
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Substance Movement
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Substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is how enzymes bind
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Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
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Summation - contractions combine and become stronger and more prolonged (repeated APs summate)
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Summation and Tetanus -
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Sunligh
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Surface Area - Vasodilation or vasoconstriction of extremity vessels results in heat retention or removal (blood flow to ears reduce body temp, countercurrent exchange keeps central parts of body warm)
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Sutures - immovable joints (holds together bones of skull)
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Sympathetic - fight or flight (higher BP and HR)
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The keratinocytes are pushed to the top layer. Rise→ accumulate keratin and die → lose cytoplasm/nucleus/other organelles → at outermost layer of skin, slough off body
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There are checkpoints in these cycles to make sure things are going as planned
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Thermoregulation -
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These ATP produced via substrate level phos
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This is ideal - in the lungs we are O2 rich and want to hang on to it, but in the tissues we are O2 poor (lower O2 pressure) so the hemoglobin will release the O2 to the tissues
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This process allows reabsorption of 99% of filtrate → conc. urine
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This process is called transpiration
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Three types of neurons
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Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin
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Thromboplastin converts inactive plasma protein prothombrin to thrombin (active)
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Thymus- involved in immune response
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Thyroid T4 (thyroxin) and T3 (triiodothyronine)
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Thyroid- located on ventral surface of trachea
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- stimulates thyroid gland (↑ size, cell #) to release thyroid hormone (T4 and T3)
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Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
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To determine the probability of two or more independent events occurring together multiply the probabilities of each separate event
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Tonus - state of partial contraction; muscle never completely relaxed
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Topoisomerases break and rejoin the double helix, allowing the prevention of knots (if you unwind a twist, the ends will get extra tight and knot up)
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Total 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (technically GTP), 2 CO2
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Trachea (epiglottis covers the trachea during swallowing) - ringed cartilage
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Transmission across synapse- presynaptic cell → postsynaptic cell
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Transmission of a nerve impulse
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Trial-and-error learning (operant conditioning)- another form of associative learning that occurs when animal connects its own behavior with environmental response, reward. If response is desirable (positive reinforcement), animal will repeat behavior. If negative/undesirable (painful, e.g. punishment), animal avoids behavior (positive reinforcement = add something good to increase a behavior; negative reinforcement = take away something bad to increase a behavior vs positive punishment = add something bad to decrease behavior; negative punishment = take away something good to decrease behavior)
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Two growths above are associated with two kinds of life-history
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Types of Muscle Response
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Types of WBCs (leukocytes) - see image here - all WBC's originate from bone marrow but some multiply + become non-naive in the lymph node (lymph drainage acts as a sewer system of antigens; cell recognizes antigen, goes from naïve → activated; multiplies).
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Tyrosine Derivatives - formed by enzymes in cytosol or on rough ER
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Ulcers can be caused by excess stomach acid or H.pylori as well
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Unicellular
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Unicellular locomotion-
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Unsaturated fatty acids produce 1 less FADH2 for each double bond (can't use double bond forming step)
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Unstable molecule because the 3 phosphates in ATP are negatively charged and repel one another
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Urine Formation - filtration, secretion, and reabsorption
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Uterus Menstrual cycle, 2nd sex char
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Uterus contracts and expels umbilical cord and placenta
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VI. Heredity
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VII. Molecular Genetics
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VIII. Evolution
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Valves prevent backflow- fluid returns to blood circulatory system through two ducts located in shoulder region (thoracic&right lymphatic duct)
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Vascular bundles Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem + phloem) in stems Organized in a circle Scattered
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Venus flytrap - enzymes digest trapped fly (serves as nitrate source); ***still autotrophic**
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Vertebrate Skeleton- comprised of an endoskeleton. Two major components are cartilage and bone
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Vestigial Structures - structures that appear to be useless but had ancestral function; ex humans (appendix and tail), horses (splints), python (legs reduced to bones)
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Visual- during displays of aggression (agonistic behavior) or during courtship
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Vitamin Storage - Stores vit A, D, B12. Also stores iron by combining it with apoferritin → ferritin
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Water enters mouth, passes over gills (evaginated structures, create large SA, take O2 and deposit CO; can be external/unprotected or internal/protected), exits through operculum (gill cover). Countercurrent exchange between opposing movements of water and underlying blood maximizes diffusion of O2 into blood and CO2 into water
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Zona Pellucida - !! Glycoprotein membrane surrounding plasma membrane of an oocyte. External but essential to the oocyte. First appears in unilaminar oocytes; secreted by both the oocyte and follicular cells (at puberty FSH stimulates growth of granulosa cells around primary oocyte that secrete the viscous zona pellucoda). It binds sperm, and is required to initiate the acrosome reaction (sperm releases contents of acrosome as it approaches egg; contributes to charge based fast block of polyspermy). 5 days after fertilization, blastocyst performs zone hatching (zona pellucida degenerates + replaced by underlying layer of trophoblastic cells so it can implant in the uterus).
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a. B cells produce plasma cells. b. B cells produce memory cells.
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a. Dominant generation is diploid sporophyte generation (except primitive bryophytes-mosses, liverworts, and hornworts); provide two copies against genetic damage.
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a. Menstrual Cycle - divided into follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation (proliferative/secretory/menstruation)
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a. Produce cytotoxic T cells (destroy) and helper T cells.
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a. Water move through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one to another without ever enter cells. This pathway is called apoplast (nonliving portion of cells).
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b. Helper T cells bind macrophages (macrophages engulf pathogens = whole is nonself).
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b. Ovarian Cycle
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b. Water move through cytoplasm of one cells to another (symblast-living portion) through plasmodesmata (small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells).
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c. Helper T cells then produce interleukins to stimulate proliferation of T cells and B cells and macrophages
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c. Macrophage and helper T cells (in cell-mediated of macrophages engulf-nonself) stimulate B cell production.
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catalyzes a reaction in both forward and reverse directions based on [substrate].
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d. In primitive plant divisions (flagellated sperm require water to swim to eggs). In advanced division (coniferophyta and anthophyta), sperm is packaged as pollen (wind).
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efficiency is determined by temp and pH.
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f. Adaptations (coniferophyta + anthophyta) of seasonal variations in availability of water and light. Some are deciduous (shed leaves to prevent water loss through slow-growing seasons).
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f. Extraembryonic membrane development - In birds, reptiles, and humans (called amniotes), this develops as follows
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from mesenchyme tissue → chondrocytes → produce collagen (present in tissue as triple helix with hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, ground substance, & elastin fibers ??. Composed primarily of collagen, receive nutrients via diffusion.
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glycogen→glucose, vasoconstrictor to internal organs+skin but vasodilator to skeletal muscle, increased heartbeat
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lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via lipoproteins (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apoproteins).
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pH of lysosome is 5, pH of cytosol is 7
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pKa = half-equivalence pH. Amino acid deprotonates @ higher pH & becomes protonated @ lower pH.
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parasympathetic nervous system
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rain shadows - areas of dry land that form on the leeward side (downwind) of a high mountain. Rain cloud approaches mountain range → rise in elevation → surrounding air becomes cooler → due point eventually reached → precipitation occurs as cloud gains precipitation, continues to rain towards peak → cloud begins to descend leeway side of mountain → decrease in elevation → air temperature increases → precipitation decreases → rain shadow is dry
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ruminants - animals w/ stomachs of alkaline pH; usually 4 chambers capable of digesting cellulose
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species richness reflects the diversity of a community in regards to the total number of different species present
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sympathetic nervous system
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takes place in mitochondria matrix (likewise with pyruvate decarbox)
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x2 for glucose because 2 pyruvate are made from 1 glucose in glycolysis so two rounds of TCA cycle occur
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{ H2O + ADP + Pi + NADP+ + light => ATP + NADPH + O2 + H+ }
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• Oligodendrocytes - produce myelin in CNS; wrap many times around axons
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• Schwann cells - produce myelin in PNS. Myelin sheaths act as insulators and are separated by nodes of Ranvier. Instead of traveling continuously down axon, action potential jumps from node to node (salutatory conduction), speeding up impulse
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∆N/∆t = rN ((K-N)/K)
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Kidney - Three regions
1) outer cortex, 2) inner medulla, and 3) renal pelvis which drains to ureter. Each has many nephrons. Kidneys → ureter → bladder → urethra. Functions to excrete waste, maintain homeostasis of body fluid volume and solute composition, and help control plasma pH
Ex
Dogs salivate when presented with food. PAVLOV bell ringing prior to food, could stimulate salivation with bell alone
Cell doctrine/theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Reduction
12ATP + 12NADPH converts 12PGA => 12G3P or 12PGAL; energy is incorporated; by-products (NADP+ and ADP) go into noncyclic photophosphorylation.
11. All are found in both roots and stems
1st phloem and xylem, 2nd xylem, vascular cambium, not Casparian strips.
NET
2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 pyruvate (+2 H2O + 2 H+)
NET
2 NADH + 2 CO2
4. Carbohydrate synthesis
2 remaining G3P are used to build glucose.
NADH makes more energy than FADH2, more H+ is pumped across per NADH (both are coenzymes) (3
2 yield)
- Complements
20 complement proteins; help attract phagocytes to foreign cells and help destroy by promoting cell lysis.
4. Phosphorylation
2e- move down chain => lose energy (energy used to phosphorylate about 1.5ATP).
6. NADPH
2e- then pass down a short electron transport chain (with proteins like ferrodoxin) to combine NADP+ + H+ + 2e- => NADPH (coenzyme) (only in noncyclic?).
4. Tertiary consumers
2nd carnivores, eat 2nd consumers. (example of primary producer → tertiary consumer chain here)
c. Pterophyta
3 groups.
C. Protein Synthesis
3 steps
Quaternary structure
3d shape of a protein that is a grouping of two or more separate peptide chains
Secondary structure
3d shape resulting from hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)
Tertiary structure
3d structure due to noncovalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction) (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect [R groups push away from water center], disulfide bonds, van der waals)
- Tissues
4 types (epithelial [skin, internal covering]; connective [bone, cartilage, blood], nervous, muscle).
DNA backbone
5' to 3' phosphodiester bonds form phosphate backbone
[Question
5. ATP resembles RNA nucleotide with two extra phosphates (ribose sugar)].
- Ribosomes
60S + 40S = 80S, prokaryote (50S + 30S = 70S); the two subunits produced inside the nucloleus moved into the cytoplasm where they assembled into a single 80S ribosomes (larger S value indicates heavier molecule). Made of RNA+protein, function to make proteins.
3. Regeneration
6ATP convert 10G3P => 6RuBP (allows cycle to repeat).
1. Carboxylation
6CO2 + 6RuBP => 12PGA, RuBisCo (most common protein in the world) catalyzes this reaction. (so named because PGA is 3C).
Human Genome
97% of human DNA does not code for protein product; noncoding DNA: regulatory sequences, introns, repetitive sequences never transcribed, etc. Tandem repeats abnormally long stretches of back to back repetitive sequences within an affected gene (e.g. Huntington's).
Affected by
A-chol increases secretion of all cell types, gastrin and histamine increase HCl secretion
6. Genetic disorders include
AR: PKU (inability to product proper enzyme for phenylalanine breakdown; degradation product phenylpyruvic acid accumulates), cystic fibrosis (fluid buildup in tracts), Tay-sachs (lysosome defect; can't breakdown lipids for normal brain fxn), sickle-cell (defective hemoglobin due to substitution mutation) AD: Huntingtons (degenerate nervous system disease), SLR: hemophilia (abnormal blood clotting), color blind, duchenne (muscular dystrophy), chromosomal: Downs, Turner (XO), Klinefelter (XXY), Sickle-cell anemia
Enzymes
ATP contains ribose instead of deoxy-ribose.
Cytokinesis
Actually begins during the later stages of mitosis (end of anaphase). Division of cytoplasm to form 2 cells.
Ex
All monkeys followed lead of first by washing off potato in water
- Alternation of generations
Alternation of diploid and haploid stages.
Nitrogen as a waste product
Aquatic animals excrete NH3 or NH4 directly into water, mammals convert NH3 to urea, Birds/insects/reptiles convert urea to uric acid (insoluble in water, water conservation, excreted as solid)
Non-animal
Asexual reproduction: benefits from stable environment since offspring are clones; sexual reproduction's advantage is variation
a. Plasma cells
B cells that release specific antibodies that circulate in blood
- Linkage map
B-V is 18%, A-V is 12%, and B-A is 6% => B------A------------V '-' = 1 unit apart
E. mRNA Processing
Before leaving nucleus, pre-mRNA undergoes several modifications:
Ex
Black and white search image = police car for humans
- Incomplete Dominance
Blending of expressions of alleles (e.g. R red, R' white, RR' comes out pink) (unique hetero phenotype)
- Multiple alleles
Blood groups have 3 possible alleles, the codominant A and B and the O, leading to 4 possible genotypes: AO (A type), BO (B type), AB (codominant AB type), OO (O type)
- Codominance
Both inherited alleles are completely expressed (e.g. blood types A and B or both can show up as AB if expressed)
b. tRNA
C-C-A-3' end of tRNA attaches to amino acid, and the other portion is the anticodon which bp with the codon in mRNA. Wobbles: exact bp of the 3rd nucleotide in the anticodon and the 3rd nucleotide in the codon is often not required, allowing 45 different tRNA's base-pair with 61 codons that code for amino acid. Transports AA to its mRNA codon.
Result of
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3−
- Gas exchange in human
CO2 is transported as HCO3- in the plasma (liquid portion of blood), catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase (CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-). Some CO2 mixes direct w/ plasma as gas, or binds with hemoglobin in RBCs
Bulk flow of CO2
CO2 mainly transported as HCO3- ions in plasma, liquid portion of blood. Produced by carbonic anhydrase in RBCs. CO2 can also directly mix with plasma (as CO2 gas), or bind hemoglobin inside RBCs
B. Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk's)
Cdk enzyme activates proteins that regulate cell cycle by phosphorylation; Cdk's are activated by protein cyclin.
Note on lipids in membranes
Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend. Unsaturated fatty acids have higher boiling point but lower melting point compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased "kinks" in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.
-After electrophoresis
DNA can then be sequenced, or probed to identify location of specific sequence of DNA
Nucleic Acids
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides
- Nucleosome
DNA is coiled around bundles or 8/9 histones proteins (beads on a string).
2. Transduction
DNA is introduced into genome by a virus. When virus is assembled during lytic cycle, some bacterial DNA is incorporated in place of viral DNA. When virus infects another host, the bacterial DNA part that it delivers can recombine with the resident DNA.
- DNA virus
DNA is replicated and form new viral DNA => transcribed to produce viral proteins (DNA + viral proteins assemble to form new viruses).
6. Much variation is heritable
DNA passed down.
Proofreading
DNA polymerase checks base pairs
- Transposons (jumping genes)
DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types: insertion sequences consist of only one gene that codes for enzyme that just transports it (transposase); complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause mutation (little to no effect).
3. Structural genes
DNA sequences that code for related enzymes.
Note
Dissolved ions, auxins, gibberellins, and other hormones do not directly respond to gravity. BUT starch is insoluble in water and does respond to gravity. It's believed that specialized starch-storing plastids called statoliths, which settle at the lower ends of cells, somehow influence the direction of auxin movement.
Ex
Doe in heat - releaser pheromones
Note
Fertilization can be external in water (lots of eggs laid since change of fertilization is lower; e.g. frogs, amphibians) or internal (terrestrial vertebrates; # of eggs affected by internal vs. external (more eggs) early development, amount of parental care (less care = more eggs).
Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood
Gas exchange across moist, sac membranes of alveoli. O2 diffuses through alveolar wall, through pulmonary capillary wall, into blood, and into red blood cells. (CO2 is opposite)
Ex
Gay goslings accepting any moving object as mother during first day of life
Genetic Variation
Genetic recombination during meiosis and sexual reproduction originates from three events:
1. H+ ions accumulate inside thylakoids
H+ are released into lumen when H2O is split by PSII. H+ is also carried into lumen from stroma by cytochrome between PSII and PSI.
Amino acid structure
H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable R group
Organic Molecules
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form polymers (series of repeating monomers)
Transport protein
Hemoglobin carries oxygen, cytochromes carry electrons
Lipids
Hydrophobic molecules.
Diffusion
If cells in close contact with external environment, can suffice for food and respiration needs. Also used for transport of materials between cells and interstitial fluid around cells in more complex animals
4. Yolk sac
In birds and reptiles, yolk sac membrane digests enclosed yolk. Blood vessels transfer nutrients to embryo. In placental mammals, yolk sac is empty, as umbilical cord/placenta delivers nutrients.
2. Neural tube
In ectoderm layer directly above notochord, layer of cells forms neural plate. Plate indents, forming neural groove, then rolls up into a cylinder, the neural tube. This develops into the CNS. Additional cells roll off top of neural tube and form neural crest (which form teeth, bones, muscles of skull, pigment cells in skin, and nerve tissue)
Ex
In mammals, care for offspring by female parents
Vitamins
Inorganic cofactors are usually metal ions (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)
Functions of lipids
Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine
- Northern Blotting
Just like Southern blot, but for RNA fragments.
Ex
Knee-jerk (patellar) reflex
Veins
Larger veins often have valves to aid in transport of deoxygenated blood back to heart due to fighting gravity (except for pulmonary veins and umbilical vein that carry oxygenated blood)
Ex
Male sage grouse assemble into groups (leks) to perform courtship dance
Ex
Male stickleback fish defending territory against any object with red underside
Chemiosmosis in mitochondria
Mechanism of atp generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a proton concentration gradient across a membrane
- MTOCs
Microtubule organizing centers aka centrosomes. Pair of these lay outside nucleus. In animal cells, each MTOC contains a pair of centrioles.
- Test crosses
Monohybrid crosses test one gene, Dihybrid test two (on different chromosomes). Crosses have P, F1, F2 etc generations. Unknown dominant genotype x homozygous recessive phenotype to determine if hetero or homo dominant. To determine probabilities in dihybrid, usually easier to calculate probability of each gene separately then multiply
1. Size
N, total number of individuals in population.
Krebs produces
NADH/FADH2, they are oxidized (lose electrons), H+ transported from matrix to intermembrane space, pH and electric charge gradient is created, ATP synthase uses the energy in this gradient to create ATP by letting the protons flow through the channel
2. Nitrification
NH4+ → NO2- and NO2- → NO3- by nitrifying bacteria.
Distal convoluted tubule - more reabsorption of glucose, ions, water, etc (cortex not salty).Filtrate
Na+ and Ca2+ get resorbed into body, K+/H+/HCO3- secreted out via tubule. Distal tubule empties to...
d. General progression
Naïve → Mature → Plasma → antibody
Cladogenesis/branching evolution
New species branches out from parent species
2. Ozone depletion
O2 + UV in atmosphere→ O3 is ozone which absorbs UV radiation, preventing it from reaching surface of earth (UV damages DNA). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) enter upper atmosphere and break down O3.
Bulk flow of O2
O2 transported through body within hemoglobin containing red blood cells (RBCs)
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Occurs in human muscle cells, other microorganisms
Alcohol Fermentation
Occurs in plants, fungi (e.g. yeasts), and bacteria (e.g. botulinum)
Example
One barnacle species can live on rocks that are exposed to full range of tides (fundamental). In natural environment, 2nd species of barnacle outcompetes the 1st, but only at lower tide levels where desiccation is minimal. The 1st species then only survive in its realized niche, the higher tide levels.
6. Comparative biochemistry
Organisms w/ common ancestor = common biochemical pathways
Diffusion between blood and cells
Oxygen diffuses out of RBCs, across blood capillary walls, into interstitial fluids, and across cell membranes (CO2 opposite)
1. Pfr appears to reset circadian-rhythm clock
Pfr is active form of phytochrome.
b. Assimilation
Plants absorb nitrogen as either NO3- or NH4+., animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants/animals
Pond
Plants such as algae, pondweed. Animals such as protozoa, insects, fish
- Gene Cloning
Plasmids are circular dsDNA that have restriction sites (for restriction enzymes). Cut there → linear piece of DNA. Also has a promoter region + some gene product(s) (e.g. antibiotic resistance). We want to cut, add genes, close plasmid, add to something like bacteria to replicate it. Bacteria dislike plasmids → only fraction of them get taken up by some bacteria. Use antibiotic resistance gene to determine which bacteria were "transformed" that will survive on certain medium. Plasmid also has origin of replication. Plasmids will get reproduced during cell division or even not during cell division. If making a prokaryotic gene product in mammalian cell → need to add polyA tail for the mRNA to survive. If making eukaryotic gene product in prokaryotic cell → need to make sure no introns (use reverse transcriptase on the mRNA product to get the desired DNA fragment).
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds
2. Pr is the form of phytochrome synthesized in plant cells
Pr is synthesized in leaves.
- Flash of red during night
Pr → Pfr.
4. Apoptosis
Programmed cell death that is a part of normal cell development. Essential for development of nervous system, operation of immune system, and destroy tissue (webbing) between fingers/toes. Damaged cells also undergo apoptosis; if not cancer may develop. Regulated by protein activity (rather than at transcriptional/translational level); apoptosis proteins are present but inactive in normal cell. Mammals: mitochondria play important role in apoptosis. Characteristics of apoptosis: changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation. There is no cellular rupturing, no inflammatory response. The dead cells are engulfed. Typically affects single cells.
Cnidaria
Protozoa and Hydra
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Provides channel through cytoplasm, provides direct continuous passageway from plasma membrane to nuclear membrane
- Transition mutation
Purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine
products of alcohol fermentation
Pyruvate → acetaldehyde + CO2, then acetaldehyde →ethanol (and NADH → NAD+)
lactic acid products
Pyruvate → lactate (and NADH → NAD+)
Ex
Queen bees and aunts secrete primer pheromones to prevent development of reproductive capability
- DNA-Finger Printing
RFLPs at crime scene compared to RFLPs of suspects.
a. Initiation
RNA pol attaches to promoter region on DNA and unzip the DNA into two strands. A promoter region for mRNA transcription often contains the sequence TATA (TATA Box). Most common sequence of nucleotides at promoter region is called the consensus sequence; variations from it cause less tight RNA pol binding → lower transcription rate
b. Elongation
RNA pol unzips DNA and assembles RNA nucleotides using one strand of DNA as template; only one strand is transcribed (from the template/(-) antisense DNA strand; other strand is coding/(+) sense strand for protection against degradation).
- RNA virus
RNA serves as mRNA => translated into protein (protein + RNA => new virus).
Shallow water-pond fills in
Reeds, cattails, water lilies
example of commensalism
Remora and shark - remora gets food shark discards
2. Allantois
Sac that buds off from archenteron (cavity of gastrula forming primitive gut) that eventually encircles the embryo, forming layer below chorion. Birds + reptiles: initially stores waste products as uric acid. Later fuses w/ chorion → membrane for gas exchange w/ blood vessels below. Mammals: allantois transports waste products to placenta; eventually forms umbilical cord between embryo and placenta: transporting gases, nutrients, and wastes. Becomes urinary bladder in adults.
4. Pr accumulates at night
cells make Pr at night, no sunlight to convert Pr → Pfr; Pfr is converted back to Pr.
a. mRNA
Single stranded template. Since there are 64 possible ways (4x4x4) ways that four nucleotides can be arranged in triplet combinations, there are 64 possible codons. 3 of them are stop codons. Therefore, only 61 codes for amino acids.
Venules
Small blood vessels that lead back to veins; very thin and porous; drain blood from capillary bed → venules combine → veins
Ex
Squirrels alarm when predator comes → risky to self but save daughters, mothers, sisters, and aunts → kin selection.
Ex
Startle response- controlled by the reticular activating system
Fats
Store more energy than carbohydrates per C, their carbons are in a more reduced state
Ex
Swimming actions of fish/flying actions of locusts
- Southern Blotting
Technique to ID target fragments on known DNA sequence in a large population of DNA. Electrophoresis fragments first, then transfer the SS DNA fragments to nitrocellulose membrane, then add probe which will hybridize and mark it.
example of mutualism
Tick bird and Rhinoceros - bird gets food (ticks) and rhino loses ticks
d. Post-translation
Translation begins on a free floating ribosome; signal peptide at the beginning of the translated polypeptide may direct the ribosome to attach to the ER, in which case the polypeptide is injected into the ER lumen. If injected, polypeptide may be secreted from the cell via Golgi. In general, post-translational modifications (addition of sugars, lipids, phosphate groups to the AAs) may occur. May be subsequently processed by Golgi before it is functional.
Bronchi, Bronchioles
Two bronchi, which enter the lungs and branch into narrower bronchioles
d. Seminal vesicles
Two glands, during ejaculation secrete into vas deferens: provide mucus (liquid for sperm), fructose as ATP, and prostaglandins (stimulate uterine contractions that help sperm move into uterus).
B. Replication of Telomere
Two problems can occur.
- Skeletal muscle types
Type I (slow-twitch), lots of myoglobin, lots of mitochondria, aerobic endurance. Type IIA: fast-twitch, endurance by not as much as type 1 (anaerobic endurance). Type IIB: fast-twitch, low myoglobin, lots of glycogen, power.
Vit D synthesis
UV radiation activates skin molecule that is a precursor to Vit D
Arterioles
Very small, wrapped in smooth muscle, constrict/dilate to regulate BP and reroute blood - major determinant of pressure
Blood reservoir
Vessels in the dermis hold up to 10% of the blood in resting adult
Ex
Wasps able to associate pinecones with location of nest (lost upon removal)
- Receptor-mediated
a form of pinocytosis; specific molecules (ligand) bind to receptors; proteins that transport cholesterol in blood (LDL) and hormones target specific cells by this.
c. Defense
a group of individuals can shield their young or mob their predator.
- Species
a group of individuals capable of interbreeding.
- Virus
a nucleic acid (RNA/DNA may be double/single stranded), capsid (protein coat that encloses the nucleic acid; capsomeres assembles to form the capsid), and envelope (surrounds capsid of some viruses; it incorporates phospholipid/protein obtained from cell membrane of host). (note: bacteriophage = virus that only attacks bacteria). Usually specific to a type of cell (bind to specific receptors) and species. Host range is range of organisms virus can attack.
- Homologous chromosomes
a pair of chromosomes that contains same genetic material (gene for gene). Each parent contributed 1 of the chromosome in the pair and thus different alleles may exist for a gene (dominant and recessive or incomplete dominance (color blending) / co-dominant such as blood type).
Glycogen
a polymer of α-glucose molecules; store energy in animal cells. (differ in polymer branching).
Starch
a polymer of α-glucose molecules; store energy in plant cells.
Cellulose
a polymer of β-glucose; structural molecules for walls of plant cells and wood.
Electronegativity
ability of an atom to attract electrons
- Soil water potential
ability of soil to retain water, changes as soil texture changes.
2. A pH and electrical gradient is created
about pH5.
b. Trophoblast
accomplishes implantation by embedding into endometrium; produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) to maintain e+p production from corpus luteum (which in turn maintains endometrium); it later forms the chorion (later forms placenta).
- Cleavage furrow
actin and myosin microfilaments shorten, pull plasma membrane into center (animal)
- Cholesterol
adds rigidity to membrane of animal cells under normal conditions (but at low temperatures it maintains its fluidity); sterols provide similar function in plant cells. Prokaryotes do not have cholesterol in their membranes (use hopanoids instead)
Purines
adenine, guanine (double ring)—2 H bonds (AT2, GC3)
Ex
aggression- wolves baring teeth/ submission- laying on back
Oxygen
air is ~ 80% nitrogen, 20% oxygen
6. Pollution
air, water, and land pollution contaminate materials essential to life; many remain in environment for decades. Eutrophication is the process of nutrient enrichment in lakes and subsequent increase in biomass (lakes polluted with fertilizer runoff →abundant nutrients (especially phosphates) stim algal blooms (massive algae/phytoplankton growth) which respire and deplete oxygen + breakdown and detrivous bacteria deplete even more oxygen → many animals die of oxygen starvation → lakes fills with carcasses of dead animals/plants). Note: phytoplankton does photosynthesis, but at night they reduce oxygen when they respire + the detrivores continue to multiply as stuff dies
b. Foraminifera
aka forams, have tests (shell) usually made of calcium carbonate => oil deposits.
1. G1 Checkpoint
aka restriction point, the most important one. At the end of G1 phase, if cell is not ready to divide it may arrest here (G0 phase - nerve and muscle cells remain here, rarely divide after maturing) and never proceed or wait until it is ready.
Single-unit
aka visceral, connected by gap jxns, contract as single unit (stomach uterus, urinary bladder)
4. Kingdom Animalia (monophyletic
all can be traced back to one common ancestor)
- Polyploidy
all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with twice the number of chromosomes. Common in plants.
Biotic
all living things that directly or indirectly influence the life of the organism
Note
all nerves not directly inside the brain or spinal cord are all part of the PNS. Cranial and spinal nerves come OUT of those structures; & are part of PNS
Gene Pool
all the alleles for any given trait in the population
Virus and Host cell
all viruses are parasites
- Founder effect
allele frequencies in group of migrating individuals are (by chance) not the same as that of their population origin.
E. Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg eq.)
allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation => no evolution
- Porins
allow passage of certain ions + small polar molecules. Aquaporins increase rate of H2O passing (kidney and plant root cells). These tend not to be specific, they're just large passages, if you can fit you'd go through.
d. Alternative splicing
allows different mRNA to be generated from same RNA transcript; by selectively removing differences of an RNA transcript into different combinations => each coding for a different protein product.
- Associative learning
allows individuals to benefit from exposure to unexpected repeated events. Habituation allows individuals to ignore repetitive events known to be inconsequential from exp. → can remain focused on other, more meaningful events. Observational and Insight provide mechanism to learn new behaviors in response to unexpected events w/out receiving reinforcement → reduces time for new behavior to be acquired
DNA Pol 1 replaces BPs from the primer and does DNA repair; DNA pol 3 is pure replication [eukaryotes have different polymerases
alpha gamma etc - not important])
3. Petals
also called sepals function to attract pollinators.
3. Inner membrane
also phospholipid bilayer.
- Annual rings
alternation of growth (active vascular cambium divides) and dormancy due to season in secondary xylem tissue. Size of rings => rainfall history. Number of rings => age of tree.
a. Rhizopoda
amoebas that move by extensions of their cell body called pseudopodia; encircle food phagocytosis.
Ecological footprint
amount of raw land necessary to sustain an individual's lifestyle habits (consider eating, traveling, housing habits)
1. Frog
amphibian
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
an RNA nucleotide (due to its ribose sugar)
- Positive feedback
an action intensifies a condition so that it is driven further beyond normal limits (labor contraction, lactation, and sexual orgasm).
c. Parasitoid
an insect that lays its eggs on host (insect or spider). After eggs hatch, larvae obtain nourishment by consuming host's tissues. Host eventually dies, but not until larvae complete development and begin pupation.
1. Kinesis
an undirected (without direction) change in speed of an animal's movement in response to a stimulus; slow down in favorable environment and speed up in unfavorable environment. Ex: animals scurrying when rock is lifted up
Beta cells secrete insulin (β "bumming")
anabolic, released when energy charge is high; lower blood glucose levels
d. Herbivore
animal that eats plants. Granivores are seeds eater (act like predators totally consume organism). Grazers (animals that eat grasses) and browsers (eat leaves) and eat only part → weaken it in process.
D. Density-dependent inhibition
cells stop dividing when surrounding cells density reaches maximum.
5. Predation
another form of community interaction.
- Toxins
antibiotics, hormones, carcinogens, tetratogens (cause birth defects) which get into food chain cause biomag
Away from heart
aorta →arteries → arterioles → capillaries
A. Domain Archaea
are also prokaryotes but differ
Meristems
are areas in plants where mitosis occurs, due to this cell division, it is also where growth occurs. Lateral meristems can be at tip of lateral growth in plant. Apical meristems are responsible for vertical growth and found at root and shoot (apex) tips.
- Antibiotics
are chemicals derived from bacteria/fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms.
- General characteristics of hormone
are transported throughout body in blood; small amount = large impact; slower effect
2. Heterochromatin
areas of tightly packed nucleosomes where DNA is inactive (condensed => darker). Contains a lot of satellite DNA (large tandem repeats of noncoding DNA)
3. Character displacement (niche shift)
as a result of resource partitioning, certain traits allow for more success in obtaining resources in their partitions → reduces competition → divergence of features (character displacement) such as different beak of birds on the same island. The mating calls of 2 species of frogs are different when they occupy the same island. On separate islands, the mating calls are the same.
- Repressible enzymes
as above, when structural genes stop producing enzymes only in presence of an active repressor. Unlike repressible enzymes, some genes are constitutive (constantly expressed) either naturally or due to mutation
2. Primordial seas formation
as earth cooled => gases condense => sea with water and minerals.
- Biological magnification
as one organism eats another, toxin (e.g. pesticide) becomes more concentrated at higher trophic level.
F. Translation
assembly of amino acids based on reading of new RNA; uses GTP as energy source
d. Vagina
at birth, fetus passes through cervix (opening in the uterus), through and out of body.
4. Calvin cycle produces 2G3P using NADPH & CO2 & ATP
at the end of e- transport chain following PSI, 2e- produces NADPH.
a. Reservoirs
atmosphere (CO2), fossil fuels (coal, oil), peat, cellulose.
a. Reservoirs
atmosphere (N2), soil (NH4+, NH3, NO2, NO3)
- Adhesion proteins
attach cells to neighboring cells, provide anchors for internal filaments and tubules (stability)
4. Merkel cells
attach to sensory neurons and fxn in touch sensation
3. Natural killer cells
attack virus-infected cells or abnormal body cells (tumors)
b. Cohesion
attraction between like substances (water); within xylem cells behave as single, polymerlike molecule.
4. Cohesion/Surface tension
attraction between like substances due to H-bonds; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.
5. Adhesion
attraction of unlike substances. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow without external forces (e.g. against gravity)
- Major evolutionary advancements
attracts pollinators (insects + birds); ovule protected inside ovary which develops into fruit => dispersal of seeds by wind or other animals.
General Categories of living organisms
autotrophic anaerbones (chemosynthetic bacteria), autotropohic aerobes (green plants, photoplankton), heterotrophic anaerobes (yeast), heterotrophic aerobes (amoebas, earthworms, humans)
1. Primary producers
autotrophs that convert sun energy into chemical energy; plants, photosynthetic protists, cyanobacteria, and chemosynthetic bacteria.
2. Chemosynthetic
autotrophs; nitrifying bacteria NO2- → NO3-.
3. Transformation
bacteria absorb DNA from surrounds and incorporate into genome.
Intestinal Bacteria and Humans
bacteria utilized food and provide vitamin K
- Vascular cambium
becomes cylinder of tissue that extends the length of stem and root. Secondary growth in a stem (cambium layer is meristematic, producing new cells on both inside and outside the cambium cylinder).
1. Recognition
before penetration, sperm secretes proteins that bind with receptor that reside on glycoprotein layer (vitelline layer-zone pellucida in human) surrounding plasma membrane of oocyte ensures same species fertilization
Interphase
begins after mitosis and cytokinesis are complete, and consists G1, S, and G2 phase
3. Spermatogenesis
begins at puberty within seminiferous tubules of testes. Spermatogonia cells → (mitosis) primary spermatocytes → (meiosis) 2 secondary spermatocytes → (meiosis II) 4 spermatids.
2. Secondary succession
begins in habitats where communities were entirely/partially destroyed by damaging event; begins on substrate that already bear soil (may contain native seed bank).
1. Oogenesis
being during embryonic development; oogonia (fetal cells) → (mitosis) primary oocytes → (meiosis) and remain at Prophase I until puberty (one primary oocyte during each menstrual cycle-28days, stim'd by FSH) continue its development through remainder of meiosis I within follicle (protects and nourishes oocyte) → (completion of Meiosis I) secondary oocyte (most of cytoplasm) + polar body (small cytoplasm; may or may not divide but products disintegrate) formed; now arrested at metaphase of meiosis II until → ovulation
- Stabilizing selection
bell curve (average height in human is in middle), favors an intermediate
Two major divisions to the marine biome
benthic zone is lowest layer of a body of water, including sediment surface and sub-surface layers. In ocean water (deep) light doesn't penetrate; most organisms are scavengers and detritivores.
8. Evolution occurs as favorable traits accumulate in the population
best adapted individuals => best adapted offspring leave most offspring.
- Carrier proteins
bind to specific molecules, protein changes shape, molecule passed across. E.g. glucose into cell.(this is a type of transport protein). Carrier seems to be specific to movement across membrane via integral membrane protein.
- Receptor proteins
binding site for hormones + other trigger molecules
Central dogma of genetics
biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; DNA → RNA → proteins
Some behaviors appear learned but are actually innate behaviors that require maturation (ex
bird appears to learn to fly by trial+error or observational learning, but if raised in isolation will fly on first try if physically capable → flight ability is innate but requires physical maturation).
b. Gastrulation
blastopore forms at border between gray crescent and vegetal pole. During gastrulation, cells migrate over top edge (dorsal lip-formed from same region previously occupied by gray crescent) of and into blastopore in process called involution; blastocoel disappears and replaced by a different cavity (the archenteron). (this is confusing, see here for in depth explanation). Bottom edge of blastopore → ventral lip, side → lateral lip.
a. Blastocyst
blastula stage consisting of two parts—outer ring of cells (trophoblast) and inner mass of cells (embryonic disc).
Pulmonary circuit
blood pathway from right side of heart to lungs to left side of heart
- Inheritance of acquired characteristics
body features acquired during lifetime can be passed down to offsprings (incorrect). Only changes in genetic material of cells can be passed to offspring.
b. Fresh water fish
body is hypertonic to environment; water moves in => rarely drink, constantly urinate, and absorb salts through gills.
g. Organogenesis
cells continue to divide after gastrulation → differentiate → develop into specific tissues and organs. In chordates:
a. Marine fish
body is hypotonic to environment → water is constantly lost by osmosis, constant drinking, rarely urinate, and secrete accumulated salts through gills.
- Use and disuse
body parts can develop with increased usage, unused parts are weaken (correct as athletes).
b. Analogous structure
body parts that resemble one another in different species because they evolved independently as adaptation to their environments.
a. Homologous structure
body parts that resemble one another in different species from common ancestor.
Amphipathic
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties
Whisk ferns
branching steams without roots. Leaves reduced to small appendages or absent. Absence of roots/leaves is considered secondary loss; lost as whisk ferns diverged from ancestors.
- Peroxisomes
break down substances (H2O2 +RH2 => R + 2H2O), fatty acid, and amino acid; common in liver and kidney where they break toxic substances. In plant cell, peroxisomes modify by-products of photorespiration. In germinating seeds, it is called glyoxysomes break down stored fatty acids to help generate energy for growth. Peroxisome produce H2O2 which they then use to oxidize substrates, they can also break down H2O2 if necessary (H2O2 => H2O + O2)
Pol 1 and Pol 3 have 3' → 5' exonuclease
breaks phosphodiester backbone on a single strand of DNA and removes a nucleotide. Exonuclease can only remove from (in this case of 3' end) of the chain
3. Acid rain
burning of fossil fuels (e.g. coal) releases into air SO2 and NO2. When they react with water vapor → sulfuric acid and nitric acid (HNO3) → kills plants and animals when they rain to earth.
1. Global climate change
burning of fossil fuels and forests increase CO2 in atmosphere → more heat trapped (greenhouse effect; normally a good thing for maintaining heat on Earth but this is overkill) → global temp rises → raise sea level by melting ice and decrease agriculture output (affecting weather patterns).
8. Oxygen and ozone layer + abiotic chemical evolution ended
by produce of photosynthetic activity of autotrophs.
Megasporangium
called nucellus produces megaspore mother cell => (meiosis) 4 haploid cells, one survives to become megaspore (female gametophyte generation). Megaspore => (mitosis) one egg (in flowering plants) or two eggs (in conifers). One/two tissue layers (integuments) surround megasporangium. Ovule (integument + nucellus + megaspore daughter cells); Micropyle is opening through integuments for pollen access to egg.
- Sex-influenced
can be influenced by sex of individual carrying trait (e.g. Bb female not bald, Bb male is)
A. Genetic Basis of Behavior
can be inherited through genes (innate-molded by natural selection-increase fitness) or learned. Behavioral ecology is the study of behavior that seeks to explain how specific behaviors increase fitness.
Facultative anaerobes
can tolerate oxygen presence but don't use it
- Transport proteins
can use ATP to transport materials across (not all transport use ATP). Active transport. E.g. Na+-K+ pump to maintain gradients. Facilitated diffusion as well. Transport protein is a broad category that encompasses many of the above. Chad's quiz says transport use ATP but other sources contradict: transport can by facilitated diffusion.
- Hemophilia
cannot form blood clot. XHXh is a normal carrier. But if XH is inactivated => Xh is expressed.
obligate anaerobes
cannot live in presence of oxygen
Back to heart
capillaries → venules → veins
Chloride shift
carbonic anhydrase is in RBC's so at the tissues to balance bicarbonate ions diffusing out of cells (because CO2 enters RBC, carbonic anhydrase converts, bicarbonate diffuses out to plasma) (vice versa at lungs), Cl- enters
Synovial - allow for much more movement; most common; filled with synovial fluid which acts as a lubricant (Ex
carpals, wrist, elbow, humerus & ulna, shoulder and hip joints, knee joint)
Storage protein
casein in milk, ovalbumin in egg whites, and zein in corn seeds.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon (α "active")
catabolic, released when energy charge low; raises blood glucose levels
Metabolism
catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer
amylase
catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in starch.
d. Blastula
cell division continues; liquid fills morula and pushes cells out to form circular cavity surrounded by single layer of cells. Blastocoel is the cavity. (~128 cells stage).
A. Checkpoints
cell specific regulations
- Distinct from archaea and eukaryote by these features
cell wall (peptidoglycan = polymer of monosaccharide with amino acid); bacterial DNA is not associated with histone; ribosome activity is inhibited by above antibiotics.
1. Notochord
cells along dorsal surface of mesoderm layer form notochord, a stiff rod that provides support in lower chordates. Vertebrae of higher chordates are formed from nearby cells in mesoderm.
sucrose
glucose and fructose
2. Archenteron
center cavity formed by gastrulation.
- Control of respiration
central chemoreceptors in the medulla and peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid arties and aorta monitor CO2 can of blood. In an active body, there is increased CO2 production; it enters plasma is converted to HCO3- and H+, the blood pH drop → respiratory rate increases. Oxygen and pH mainly monitored by chemoreceptors.
- Non-placental internal development
certain animals (e.g. marsupials, tropical fish) w/ no placenta either, limited exchange of food+O2 between mother/young.
D. Ecological Succession
change in composition of species over time.
- Microevolution
changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population (due to mutation, selection, gene flow & drift)
- Evolution
changes in populations, species or groups; changes in allele (traits) frequencies in populations over time.
- Nucleus
chromatin is when the DNA not condensed;
- Duplications
chromosome segment is repeated on same chromosome.
3. Chromosomal abberations
chromosome segments are changed.
- Inversions
chromosome segments are rearranged in reverse orientation.
6. Metaphase II
chromosomes align on plate like in mitosis but now with half number of chromosomes (no extra copy).
Eukaryotic cells
chromosomes contain long, linear DNA with histone; enclosed in nucleus; organelles; 9+2 microtubule array flagella and cilia.
2. Metaphase
chromosomes line up single file at center, each chromatid is complete with a centromere and a kinetochore, once separated, it is a chromosome (to keep track of total: count centromeres!). Centrosomes at opposite ends of cell.
* Meiosis II
chromosomes spread across metaphase plate and sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite poles. It is similar to mitosis.
Cyclosis/streaming
circular motion of cytoplasm around cell transport molecules
Class Bivalvia
clams, mussels, scallops, oysters
5. Deforestation
clear-cutting of forests causes erosion, flooding, and changes in weather patterns.
g. Protostomes and deuterostomes
cleavages (cell divisions in zygote); Archenteron (The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops into the digestive tract of an animal). →
Woodland
climax tree - perhaps pine or oak
b. Lycophyta
club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts (herbaceous plants); club and spike mosses produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia in conelike structure strobili. Resurrection plant (recover from dead-appearance after watered, is spike moss).
4. Shapes
cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spirals).
4. Spirochetes
coiled bacteria that move with corkscrew motion, internal flagella between cell wall layers.
b. Epididymis
coiled tube, one attached to each testis; site for final maturation and storage of sperm.
Temperate coniferous
cold dry forests; vegetation has evolved adaptations to conserve water (needle leaves)
7. Tundras
cold winters (ground freezes), top layer thaws during summer → support minimal vegetation (grasses). but deeper soil (permafrost) remains permanently frozen. Very little rainfall that can't penetrate frozen ground.
ATP
common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via phosphorylation (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.
3. Sperm
compact packages of DNA specialized for effective male genome delivery.
- Hybridization
complementary BP's annealing
- Tight junctions
completely encircles each cell, producing a seal that prevents the passage of materials between cells; characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract where materials are required to pass through cells into blood (They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells. So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue). In animal cells.
Circulatory system
complex animals w/ cell too far from external environment require one. Use vessels.
Biosphere
composed of all regions of earth that contain living things. (ex. Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, etc)
B. Community Ecology
concerned with interaction of populations; such as Interspecific competition (different species).
-Stimulus generalization
conditioned organism responds to stimuli similar but not identical to original conditioned stimulus. Stimulus discrimination involves the ability of the learning organism to differentially respond to slightly different stimuli (e.g. only respond to 990 to 1010 Hz range). Stimulus generalization gradient = further from original conditioned stimulus, lesser the magnitude of response
a. Xylem
conduction of water and mineral and mechanical support; have 2nd cell wall for additional strength; some places in walls of xylem cells have pits (absence of 2nd cell wall). Cell are dead at maturity (no cellular component). Two kinds of xylem cells:
d. Coniferophyta
cone-bearing (pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars); pollen-bearing male + ovule-bearing female cones; gymnosperms (naked-seeds) are seeds produced in unprotected megaspores near surface of reproductive structure. Fertilization and seed development requires one to three years.
6. Taigas
coniferous forests (and trees with needles for leaves). Very long cold winters and precipitation in form of heavy snow. Largest terrestrial biome.
5. Vascular bundles
consist of xylem (water for photosynthesis) and phloem (transports sugar and by-product to other parts of plants from photosynthesis). Bundle sheath cell surrounds vascular bundle => no vascular tissue exposed to intercellular space => no air bubbles that can enter to impede movement of water; also provide anaerobic environment for CO2 fixation in C4 plant.
3. E- transport chain
consists of a plastoquinone complex (PSII) which contains proteins like cytochrome and cofactor Fe2+; analogous to oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Palisade mesophyll
consists of parenchyma cells with chloroplasts and large surface area (specialized for photosynthesis). Orient at upper surface, but for dry habitat => both surfaces. (leaf Photosynth occurs here primarily)
3. Vascular tissue
consists of xylem and phloem => form vascular bundles.
3. Vascular cylinder
consists of xylem, phloem, and pith. Vascular cambium (dicot) is single layer of cells between xylem (inside) and phloem (outside) may remain undifferentiated and later become vascular cambium.
3. Aposematic coloration (warning coloration)
conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, poisonous, or are other wise to be avoided.
Scavengers
consume dead animals directly (ex. Vulture, hyena, bacteria of decay)
5. Detritivores
consumers that obtain energy by consuming dead plants/animals (detritus). smallest ones are decomposers (fungi and bacteria). Also includes nematodes, earthworms, insects, + scavengers (vultures, jackals, crab), saprophytes
1. Epidermis
contain epidermal cells covered with waxy (fatty-cutin) which forms protective layer called cuticle.
* Operon
control gene transcription, consist of:
3. Homeotic genes
control of development by turning on and off other genes that code for substances that directly affect development. Mutant homeotic genes in fruit flies → wrong body parts in wrong places. Homeobox (unique DNA segment-180 nts) identifies a particular class of genes that control development (encodes homeodomain of protein that can bind DNA)
- Lac operon (E. coli)
controls breakdown of lactose; regulatory gene produces active repressor (bind operator) and block RNA pol. When lactose is available, lactose binds repressor and inactivates it => RNA pol can now transcribe. Lactose induces the operon. The enzymes that the operon produces are said to be inducible enzymes.
Incudes glucocorticoids and mineralicorticoids of the Adrenal Cortex
cortisol & aldosterone; the gonadal hormones: estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (estrogen & progesterone are also produced by placenta)
D. Transcription
creation of RNA molecules from DNA template. Prokaryotes polycistronic, eukaryotes monocistronic
- Lethal gene
cross between Aa and Aa, we get AA:2Aa:aa. If "aa" was lethal, we would have AA and Aa as 1:2 ratio.
- Common groups of bacteria
cyanobacteria, chemosynthetic, nitrogen-fixing, spirochetes,
1. Influence of egg cytoplasm
cytoplasmic material distributed unequally in egg, non-uniform distribution of cytoplasm (think gray crescent in frogs and yolk in bird eggs) results in embryonic axes, such as animal and vegetal poles. When cleavages divide egg → daughter cells have different quality of cytoplasmic substances (cytoplasmic determinants). → Unique substances influence subsequent development of each daughter cell. Sea urchin: slice 8-ball embryo into two halves. Longitudinal → embryo has cells from animal & vegetal pole → normal development results. Horizontal → embryo only has cells from animal OR vegetal → abnormal development results. Confirms the cytoplasmic determinants affecting development. Spemann confirmed with gray crescent vs none cuts.
Glycolysis
decomposition of glucose into pyruvate in cytosol
lactose
glucose and galactose
c. Release
denitrifying bacteria (convert NO3 → N2; denitrification), detrivorous bacteria convert organic compounds back to NH4+ (ammonification), animals excrete NH4, urea, or uric acid, decay (nitrogen in the form of NH3 is released from dead tissues)
- Nuclear Lamina
dense fibrillar network inside nucleus of eukaryotic cells (Intermediate filaments + membrane assoc. proteins). Provides mechanical support; also helps regulate DNA replication, cell division, chromatin organization.
Fovea
densely packed with cones; important for high acuity vision
c. Limiting factors
density-dependent (limiting effect becomes more intense as population density increases-competition, spread of disease, parasites, predation) and density-independent (occur independently of density of population such as natural disasters or big temp changes).
e. Coelom
derived from mesoderm; fluid-filled coelom cushion internal organs. Acoelomate animals lack coelom; pseudocoelomate animals have a cavity (not completely lined by mesoderm-derived tissue).
Niche
describes all biotic and abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism. When an organism is said to occupy a niche, certain resources are consumed or certain qualities of environment are changed in some way by presence.
3. Dispersion
describes how individuals in a population are distributed; may be clumped, uniform, or random.
Ecosystem
describes interrelationships between organisms in a community and their physical environment.
- Ecological efficiency
describes the proportion of energy represented at one trophic level that is transferred to the next. On average, an efficiency of about 10% is transferred to the next. 90% is for metabolism and to detritivores when they die.
4. Comparative anatomy
describes two kind of structures that contribute to identification of evolutionary relationship.
4. Age structure
description of the abundance of individuals of each age. 3 2 1 (% male) 0 (% female) 1 2 3 with horizontal bars for each age group.
- Anchoring junctions
desmosome (keratin, bind adjacent cells together, providing mechanical stability, hold cellular structures together). In animal cells. Present in tissues with mechanical stress - skin epithelium, cervix/uterus
1. Follicular phase
development of egg and secretion of estrogen from follicle.
Parthenogenesis
development of egg w/out fertilization; resulting adult is haploid (honeybees, some lizards)
- Cytosol
difference vs cytoplasm here (cytosol doesn't include the stuff suspended within the gel-like substance, it is JUST the gel-like stuff. Think jello vs veggie stew.)
- Sexual selection
differential mating of males (or females) in a population. Female chooses superior males => increase fitness of offspring. Males increase fitness of offspring by maximize quantity (male competition + female choice). Often lead to sexual dimorphism (differences in appearance of males and females) => becomes disruptive selection.
1. Osteoprogenitor/Osteogenic
differentiate into osteoblasts
Zone of maturation
differentiation; cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells (root hairs may grow here).
- Symbiotic bacteria
digestive tract and vagina outcompetes many other organisms.
1. Excellent solvent
dipoles of H2O break up charged ionic molecules.
2. Taxis
directed movement in response to stimulus. Movement is either toward/away from stimulus. Phototaxis is the movement toward light. Ex: moths moving toward light, sharks moving toward food odors
Direct hormones
directly stimulate target organs
- Pinocytosis
dissolved material (liquid). Plasma membrane invaginates.
Metabolic vs respiratory acidosis/alkalosis
distinguishable by the cause of the imbalance!
- Six fungus groups
division/classes with suffix -mycota (division) or -mycete (classes) and used interchangeably.
3. Day-neutral
do not flower in response to daylight changes but temp or water.
3. Behavioral isolation
does not perform correct courtship rituals.
Agonistic behavior - (aggression and submission)- Ex
dog wagging tail
1. Conjugation
donor produces a bridge (pilus) and connect to recipient; send chromosome/plasmid to recipient and recombinant can occur; F plasmid allowing pilus to occur; once recipient receives, it is now F+ and can donate as well. R plasmids provide bacteria with antibiotic resistance.
Unsaturated
double bonds (better for health, unsaturated double double bonds cause branching an d stack less dense)
- X-inactivation
during embryonic development in female mammals, one of two X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin => dark and coiled compact body chromosome (Barr body) => cannot be expressed. Thus, only the genes on the other X chromosome will be expressed. Either one can be inactivated => genes in the female will not be expressed similarly, so all cells in a female mammal not necessarily functionally identical (calico cats).
3. M Checkpoint
during metaphase, ensures microtubules are properly attached to all kinetochores.
5. Photosystem I
e- transport chain terminates with PSI (P700); they are again energized by sunlight and passed on to another primary e acceptor. From this point forward it can go to cyclic or noncyclic path. If noncyclic...
- Retroviruses
e.g. HIV, ssRNA viruses that use reverse transcriptase to make DNA complement of their RNA => which can go to manufacture mRNA or go into lysogenic cycle (becoming incorporated into DNA host).
- Reproduce by binary fission (chromosome replicates, cell divides into two cells
each cell bearing one chromosome); lacks nucleus => lack microtubules, spindle, centrioles.
7. Anaphase II
each chromosome is pulled into 2 separate chromatids and migrate to opposite poles of cell
a. Testis
each consists of seminiferous tubules for production of sperm and interstitial cells (Leydig cells) produces male sex hormones (testosterone = androgen) secreted in the presence of LH; sertoli cells stimulated by FSH surround and nurture sperm (also secrete peptide hormone inhibin, acts on PitGl to inhibit FSH release); testis contained in scrotum-about 2oC lower than body temp for sperm production.
Multiunit
each fiber directly attached to neuron; can contract independently (iris, bronchioles, etc)
Cartilage - avascular connective tissue; softer and more flexible; (ex
ear, nose, larynx, trachea, joints)
2. Polar and equatorial cleavages
early cleavages are polar, dividing egg into segments that stretch from pole to pole (segments of orange); others are parallel with equator.
maltose
glucose and glucose
3. Amnion
encloses amniotic cavity, a fluid-filled cavity that cushions the developing embryo, much like the coelom cushions internal organs in coelomates
c. Termination
encounters the stop codon UAG, UAA, UGA. Polypeptide and the two ribosomal subunits all release once release factor breaks down the bond between tRNA and final AA of the popypeptide. While polypeptide is being translated, AA sequences is determining folding conformation; folding process assisted by chaperone proteins
2. G2 Checkpoint
end of G2 phase, evaluates accuracy of DNA replication and signal whether to begin mitosis.
Note
endonucleases cleave the phosphodiester backbone, whereas exonucleases cut out NT's
9. Eukaryotes formed
endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells originated mutually among prokaryotes (mitochondria, chloroplast establish resident inside another prokaryotes). Evidence: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble photosynthetic membranes of cyanobacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own circ. DNA not wrapped with histones (prokaryotic like), ribosomes of these organelles resemble those of bacteria, they reproduce independently, two membranes
F. Biogeochemical Cycles - flow of essential elements
environment → living things → environment
Cooperativity
enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule attaches to an active site (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
Telomerase
enzyme that attaches to the end of template strand and extends the template strand by adding short sequence of DNA over and over (not important code), allowing elongation of lagging strand to continue. However, at the end will still be not enough for primase to attach but this loss of unimportant segment will not cause any problem. Telomerase carries an RNA template: binds to flanking 3' end of telomere that compliments part of its RNA template, synthesizes to fill in over the rest of its template (better seen in image here)
Excision repair
enzymes remove nucleotides damaged by mutagens
Mismatch repair
enzymes repair things DNA polymerase missed
Includes thyroid hormones (T3 and T4 aka thyroxine) and catecholamines formed in adrenal medulla
epi and norepi
2. Dermal tissue
epidermis cells that cover outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, hair cells, stinging cells, and glandular cells; aerial portions of plants, epidermal cells secrete waxy protective substance cuticle.
Nonpolar
equal sharing of electrons (identical electronegativity)
5. At daybreak, light rapidly converts accumulated Pr to Pfr
equilibrium is maintained.
a. Tissue complexity
eumetazoa (functioning cells organized into tissues). Diplobasltic/triploblastic layers of tissue (ecto, meso, endoderm); another group is parazoa (cells not organized into true tissues => organs do not develop.)
a. Transpiration
evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves => causing negative pressure (tension) to develop within leaves and xylem.
Liver +muscle cells
glucose → glycogen; fat cells: glucose → fat
1. Phyletic gradualism
evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes; but unlikely to be valid because intermediate stages of evolution are missing (no fossils); fossils only reveals major changes in groups of organisms.
C. Coevolution
evolution of one species in response to new adaptation that appear in another species.
4. Coevolution
evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species (predator/prey)
2. Punctuated equilibrium
evolutionary history consists of geologically long periods of stasis (stability) with little/no evolution followed by geologically short periods of rapid evolutions. Absence of fossils revealing intermediate stages of evolution is considered data that confirms rapid evolutionary events.
- Inherited behaviors
evolved because they increase fitness. Innate behaviors (e.g. FAP) provide successful/dependable mechanism to an expected event; challenge need not be resolved repeatedly by every new generation. In contrast imprinting provides flexibility → if mother killed, imprint → new mother chosen (likely same species)
G. C4 Photosynthesis
evolved from C3, when CO2 enters leaf; absorbed by mesophyll cells (then moved to bundle sheath cells); instead of being fixed by rubisco into PGA, CO2 combines with PEP to form OAA by PEP carboxylase (in mesophyll)
5. Molecular biology
examines nucleotide and amino acid sequences of DNA and proteins from different species. More than 98% of nucleotide sequences in humans and chimpanzees are identical. AA's in cytochrome c often compared.
Note
expand this section with chapters 19-21 in Campbell's
- Extranuclear inheritance
extranuclear genes are found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Defects in mito DNA can reduce cell's ATP production. Mitochondria passed to zygote all come from mother, so all related diseases are mother inherited. Note that mitochondria have their own ~70S ribosomes that make mitochondrial proteins w/in mitochondrial matrix!
- Nondisjunction
failure of one/more chromosomes pairs or chromatids to separate during mitosis (failure of two chromatids of a single chromosome during anaphase) or meiosis (homologous chromosomes to separate during Meiosis I or sister chromatids to separate during Meiosis II; result in trisomy or monosomy; ex Down syndrome)
- Directional selection
favors traits that are at one extreme of a range of traits. Traits at opposite extremes are selected against. After many generations => changes in allele frequencies (such as insecticide resistance).
1. Pistil
female reproductive structure (three-parts: ovary (egg-bearing), style, and stigma).
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
females- stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles to secrete estrogen / males- stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules and sperm prod
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
females-stimulates formation of corpus luteum / males- stimulates interstitial cells of testes to produce testosterone
Note
fertilization takes place in the oviduct; cleavage while swept; embryo at blastula stage by the time it reaches the uterus for implantation (img)
c. Uterus
fertilized ovum implants (attaches) on the inside wall, endometrium, of uterus. Development of embryo occurs here until birth.
Note on photosystems
few hundred in each thylakoid, have a rxn center containing chlorophyll a surrounded by antenna pigments that funnel energy to it. Also note Cliff page 58 diagrams this well.
Recap
filtration occurs in renal corpuscle → reabsorption/secretion mostly in proximal tubule → filtrate becomes more cxn as it moves down loop of Henle (water passive out of tube) → more dilute as it moves up loop (passive and active transport of salts out, but not water) →DCT dumps into collecting dict → filtrate more cxn again as it descends collecting duct (because surrounding medulla is salty, water leaves) → CD leads to renal calyx → empties into renal pelvis → drains to ureter
- External development
fish & amphibians have external fertilization in water; reptiles, birds, and some mammals (e.g. monotremes) have internal fertilization then lay eggs. No placenta.
Oxidative deamination removes ammonia molecule directly from AA. Ammonia is toxic to vertebrates
fish excrete, insects and birds convert to uric acid, mammals convert to urea for excretion.
B. Domain Bacteria
five kingdoms
F. Photorespiration
fixation of oxygen by rubisco (can also fix CO2) => produces no ATP or sugar. Not "efficient" because rubisco wll fix both CO2 and oxygen at the same time if both are present. Probably arose because early earth atmosphere didn't have much O2 so it didn't matter. Peroxisomes breakdown the products of this process.
C. Calvin Cycle
fixes CO2, repeat 6 times, uses 6CO2 to produce C6H12O6 (glucose). C3 photosynthesis (dark reaction)
b. Midpiece
flagellum (9 + 2 microtubule array), lots of mitochondria.
6. Night length is responsible for resetting clock
flashes of red and far-red reset. Only the last flash effects the night length. Red → shorter night length. Far Red → Restores night length.
(EX
flat bones; skull, sternum, mandible, clavicles)
e. Anthophyta (angiosperms)
flowering plants. The major parts of flower:
- Population cycle
fluctuations in population size in response to varying effects of limiting factors. when population grows over carrying capacity, it may be limited (lower) than the initial K due to the damage caused to the habitat → lower new carrying capacity K or it may crash to extinction.
4. Stroma
fluid material that fills area inside inner membrane; Calvin cycle occurs here (fixing CO2 => G3P)
Also
glycogen is a glucose polymer, stored 2/3 in liver and 1/3 in muscles, storage of glucose
A community stage is identified by a dominant species; Ex
grass in grassland community
F. Speciation
formation of new species
2. Sympatric speciation
formation of new species without present of geographic barrier.
3. Complex molecules were synthesized
formation of organic soup from inorganic, energy from UV, lighting, heat, radiation => acetic acid, formaldehyde, and amino acids.
- Conidia
formed at tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sac; hyphae bearing conidia (conidiophores); asexual reproduction.
Zone of cell division
formed from dividing cells of apical meristem.
- Wood
formed from xylem tissues at maturity (dead), only the recent ones remain active to transport water (sapwood). Older xylem located at center (heartwood) functions only as support.
1. Paleontology
fossils reveal prehistoric existence of extinct species; often found in sediment layers (deepest fossils represent oldest specimens). (large, rapid changes produce new species)(fos types: actual remains, petrification, imprints, molds, casts)
- Extracellular matrix
found in animals, in area between adjacent cells (beyond plasma membrane and glycocalyx); occupied by fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides secreted by cells; provide mechanical support and helps bind adjacent cells (collagen, very common here).
- Plastids
found in plant cells. Chloroplasts (site of photosynthesis), leucoplasts (store starch), chromoplasts (store carotenoids)
- Cell walls
found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria (cellulose in plants; chitin in fungi). Provide support.
C. Domain Eukarya
four kingdoms
Arachnids
four pair of legs and "book lungs" (spiders & scorpions)
* Stages of Asexual Reproduction
fragmentation (breaking up hyphae), budding (small hyphal outgrowth), asexual spores are described as two types:
E. Primary Structure of Roots
from outside of root to center
Cerebrum is largest part of brain w/ two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum (thick nerve bundle). Divided by lobes
frontal (conscious thought; voluntary skeletal muscle movement), partietal (sensory areas - temperature, touch, pressure, pain), temporal (sensory - hearing and smelling), occipital (sensory - vision).
Polar region
frozen w/ no vegetation or terrestrial animals
C. elegans (nematode
fully sequenced genome, good analysis of genetic control of development) and D. melagaster (fly: easy to raise, rapid generations, easy to mutate, easy to observe mutations) are (model organisms)
* Regulation of Cell Cycle
functional limitatioms
2. Kingdom Fungi
fungi grow as filaments (hyphae), Mycellium is a mass of hyphae; some fungi have septum which divide filament into compartments containing single nucleus. Cell walls contain chitin (N-containing polysaccharide)
a. Cellular slime molds
funguslike and protozoalike characteristics; Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on bacteria; when no food, amoebas aggregates into single unit slug (individual cells of slug mobilize into stalk with capsule at top to release spores => germinate and repeat cycle); stimulus for aggregation is cAMP (deprivation of food).
a. Plasmogamy
fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce single cell w/ nuclei of both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei, one each strain is called dikaryon. Dikaryotic hypha is hypha containing dikaryon.
b. Karyogamy
fusing of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form single diploid nucleus.
- Four stages in growth and development of animal
gametogenesis (sperm/egg formation), embryonic development (fertilization of egg until birth), reproductive maturity (puberty), aging process to death.
e. Anthophyta
gametophytes are enclosed (protected) inside an ovary.
Family
genera that share related features; then Species <= Genus <= Family <= Orders <= Classes <= Phyla (division for fungi and plant) <= Kingdoms <= Domains. (Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand)
- Gene
genetic material on a chromosome for a trait. - Locus: location on chromosome where gene is located.
2. Sexual Reproduction
genetic recombination (crossing over, independent, random joining of gametes).
2. Genome-to-volume ratio (G/V)
genome size remains constant throughout life; as cell grows, only volume increases.
2. Aneuploidy
genome with extra/missing chromosome <= often caused by nondisjunction (Down syndrome = trisomy 21).
- Amoebas
genus of protozoa, shapeless unicellular.
2. Biogeography
geography to describe distribution of species; unrelated species in different regions of world look alike when found in similar environment. continental drift - supercontinent Pangea slowly broke apart to 7 continents
Ex
haplodiploid reproductive system of bees- males are haploid (unfertilized egg of queen) and female workers and queen are diploid (fertilized eggs). Females are highly related to each other (same father whose genes all come from a queen mother + same queen). Inclusive fitness of female workers is greater if she promotes production of sisters
a. Sperm head
haploid (23 chromosomes); at tip is acrosome (a lysosome containing enzymes [hyaluronidase] which are used to penetrate egg-originates from Golgi body vesicles that fused together). Only nuclear portion of sperm enters the egg.
Allosteric enzymes
have both an active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator, inhibitor)
Difference because prokaryotes?
have no mitochondria they need to transport the initial 2 NADH into (which costs 1 ATP per NADH), they use cell membrane for respiration.
Cytochromes
have nonprotein parts like iron (donate/accept electrons, for redox!)
Capillaries
have smallest diameter- single layer of endothelial cells across which gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and waste diffuse
c. Diatoms
have test (shell) that fit together like a box with a lid; contain SiO2.
b. Dinoflagellates
have two flagella. One is posterior, 2nd flagellum is transverse and rests in encircling mid groove perpendicular to 1st flagellum. Some are bioluminescent. Others produce nerve toxin that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish => cause illness to human when eaten.
2. High Heat Capacity
heat capacity is the degree in which a substance changes temp in response to gain/loss of heat. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.
3. Search images
help animals find favored or plentiful food based on specific and/or abbreviated target 'image'; ex spotting a police car (black and white search image), book on shelf (color and shape w/out reading title)
Thermoregulation
helps regulate body temp
Example of process
hemoglobin binding additional oxygen (although hemoglobin ≠ enzyme!)
Blood supply
hepatic portal vein supplies blood as does hepatic artery (oxygenates liver); blood leaves via hepatic vein → vena cava
2. Primary consumers
herbivores (long digestive tract w/ greater surface area and time for more digestion; symbiotic bacteria in digestive tract break down the cellulose which the herbivore itself cannot), eat primary producers.
3. Nitrogen-fixing
heterotrophs that fix N2, lives in nodules of plant (mutualism).
a. Heterozygote advantage
heterozygous condition bears greater advantage than either homozygous conditions. Sickle cell (AA, AS, SS). AS is 14% in Africa because it has resistance against malaria.
1. Tropical rain forest
high (but stable) temperature and humidity, heavy rainfall, (tall trees with branch at tops → little light to enter). Most diverse biome.
Cones
high-intensity illumination; sensitive to color
* Meiosis I
homologous chromosomes pair at plate, migrate to opposite poles (no separation of sister chromatids).
- Synapsis
homologous chromosomes pair up. These pairs are referred to as tetrads (group of 4 chromatids) or bivalents.
2. Metaphase I
homologous pairs are spread across metaphase plate. Microtubules attached to kinectochores of one member of each homologous pair. Microtubules from other site attach to 2nd member of pair. Karyotyping performed here.
3. Anaphase I
homologues within tetrads uncouple and pulled to opposite sides (disjunction)
In addition to neuronal response, can respond to
hormones, change in pH, O2, CO2 levels, temperature, [ion]
5. Deserts
hot and dry; most extreme temp fluctuations (hot day, cold night); growth of annual plants is limited to short period following rare rain, plants and animals adapt to conserve as much water as possible (urinate infrequently, cacti spines, etc)
5. Survivorship curves
how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetimes.
Note
human and bird hearts have 4 chambers, reptiles+amphibians 3, fish 2
3 types
hyaline (most common - reduced friction/absorbs shock in joints), fibrocartilage, and elastic.
7. Hybrid sterility
hybrids become functional adults but cannot reproduce.
8. Hybrid breakdown
hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility.
b. Cnidaria
hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals; two body forms (medusa-floating, umbrella-shaped body with tentacles; polyp-sessile cylinder-shaped with rising tentacles); some alternative between during their life cycle.
1. Populations possess an enormous reproductive potential
if all offspring produced and survived.
Recap of humoral response
imagine a bacterial infxn. 1st, inflammation. Macrophages + neutrophils engulf the bacteria. Interstitial fluid flushed into lymphatic system where lymphocytes are waiting in lymph nodes. Macrophages process+present bacterial antigen to B-lymphocytes. W/ help of helper-T, B differentiate into plasma and memory cells. Memory cells prepare for event of same bacteria ever attacking again (2ndary response); plasma cells produce antibodies released to blood to attack the bacteria.
e. Deuteromycota
imperfect fungi, artificial group (no sexual reproductive cycle). Penicillium produces penicillin.
b. Vigilance
in a group, individuals can trade off foraging and watching for predators.
Note on plant cells
in a hypotonic solution (their normal state), vacuole swells → turgid. In isotonic, the plant cell is flaccid. In hypertonic, the cell is plasmolyzed - cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall.
c. Cephalization
in animals with bilateral symmetry (greater nerve tissue at anterior end such as brain).
- Aminoacyl-tRNA
in cytoplasm, amino acid attaches to tRNA at 3' end, require 1 ATP
CO2 carried in blood in three forms
in physical solution, as bicarbonate ion, and in carbamino compounds (combined w/ hemoglobin and other proteins). Majority carried as bicarbonate ion form.
- Sertoli cells
in seminiferous tubules provide nourishment to spermatids as they differentiate into mature spermatozoa (sperm). They complete maturation (gain motility and are stored) in the epididymis.
- Contractile vacuoles
in single-celled organisms that collect and pump excess water out of the cells (prevent bursting). Active transport. Found in Protista like amoeba and paramecia, organisms live in hypotonic environment.
Aerobic respiration
in the presence of O2 (glycolysis, pyruvate decarb, krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation)
3. Osteocytes
incapable of mitosis; exchange nutrients and waste material w/ blood
- Microtubules organizing centers (MTOCs)
include centrioles and basal bodies (are at the base of each flagellum and cilium and organize their development). 9x3 array. Plant cells lack centrioles because its division is by cell plate instead of pulling chromosomes - note that plants DO have MTOC's.
Horsetails
include extinct woody trees; hollow, ribbed stems that are jointed at nodes; strobili bear spores. Stems, branches, and leaves are green (photosynthetic) and have rough texture due to silica (SiO2).
Seed plants
include gymnosperms (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). Angiosperms are divided into two groups: dicotyledons (dicots) and monocotyledons (monocots).
Also, aldosterone acts on DCT and CD
increase Na+ resorbtion, K+ secretion → water passively follows Na+
Human Population Growth enabled by
increase in food supply, reduction in disease (medicine), reduction in human wastes, habitat expansion (advancements now allow inhabitance of previously uninhabitable places)
4. Indeterminate and determinate cleavages
indeterminate (blastomeres can individually complete normal development if separated). Determinate cannot develop into complete embryo if separated; each is differentiated into part of the embryo.
- Secondary sex characteristics
indication of sexual maturity but not specifically involved in reproduction (e.g. breasts)
4. Nonrandom mating
individuals choose mates based upon their particular traits (mates choose nearby individuals).
- Inbreeding
individuals mate with relatives. - Sexual selection: females choose males based on superior traits.
2. Embryonic induction
influence of one cell/group of cells over neighboring cells; organizers (controller cells) secrete chemicals that diffuse among neighboring cells, influence their development (Dorsal lip [fxning as a primary organizer] of blastopore induces notochord development in nearby cells); 2nd dorsal lip grafted to embryo → two notochords developed.
* Flowering Plants
initiate flowering in response to changes in photoperiod
* Nonspecific 1st line of defense
innate immunity - generalized protection
f. Segmentation
insects and certain worms.
3. Langerhans cells
interact with helper T-cells of immune system
6. Symbiosis
intimate, often permanent association b/w two organisms; may or may not be beneficial; some may be obligatory (one or both organisms cannot survive w/o the other)
1. Mutation
introduce new allele.
2. Gene flow
introduction/removal of alleles from population when individuals leave (emigration) or enter population.
- Reverse transcriptase
introns often prevent transcriptions; this enzyme makes DNA molecule directly from mRNA. DNA obtained from this manner is complementary DNA (cDNA) which lacks introns that suppress transcriptions.
4. Lungs
invaginated structures
e. Gastrula(tion)
invagination into blastula, forming two-layered embryo with an opening from outside into center cavity.
Two groups of chordates
invertebrate chordates (lancelets, tunicates) and vertebrate (sharks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have vertebrae that enclose the spinal cord.
- Nucleoid
irregular shaped region within the cell of prokaryote that contains all/most generic material
An amebocyte
is a mobile cell in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by pseudopodia (a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm-actin of an amoeba, serving for locomotion or the engulfment of food).
RNA
is a polymer of nucleotides that contain ribose, not deoxyribose. Thymine is replaced by uracil (which pairs with adenine). Usually single stranded
Cytochrome C
is a protein carrier in the ETF, common in many living organisms, used for genetic relation
Coenzyme Q (CoQ)/Ubiquinone
is a soluble carrier dissolved in the membrane that can be fully reduced/oxidized, it passes electrons as seen in diagram
- Food web
is an expanded, more complete version of food chain (greater number of pathways in a community food web, the more stable the community is)
2. Camouflage (cryptic coloration)
is any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings. Both prey and predator benefit from camouflage.
chromosomes
is condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide
Final electron acceptor
is oxygen. It combines with native H+ to form water (H2O)
ringworm
is parasitic on man
2,3-BPG cxn increase also shifts right
it's produced in presence of diminished peripheral tissue O2 capacity
a. Cytotoxic T cells
killer T cells recognize and destroy by releasing perforin protein to puncture them (lysis).
8. Introduction of new species
killer honeybee introduced; stung + killed people. Zebra mussel outcompeted residents.
a. True predator
kills and eats another animal.
b. Glomeromycota
lack septa, do not produce zygospores; mutualistic associations with roots of plants (mycorrhizae), plants provide carb, fungus increases ability of plant to absorb nutrient (Phosphorus).
a. Zygomycota
lack septa, except filaments border reproductive filaments; reproduce sexually by fusion of hyphae from different strains, followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis; haploid zygospores are produced => germinate into new hyphae (bread molds).
Direct with environment
large surface areas and every cell is either exposed to environment or close to it → simple diffusion of gases directly with outside environment (e.g. flatworms). Small animals only.
- Central vacuoles
large, occupy most of plant cell interior, exert turgor when fully filled to maintain rigidity. Also store nutrients, carry out functions performed by lysosomes in animal cells
Class Gastropoda
largest Molluscan class; ex. slugs & snails; characterized by single shell
2. Short-day
late summer and early fall when daylight is decreasing.
c. Frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage)
least common phenotypes have a selective advantage. Common phenotypes are selected against. Rare will increase in frequency and will be selected against and repeat. Predators (search image of common phenotypes) => rare escapes; rare eventually becomes common, cycle repeats.
As above
left AV valve prevents backlow into atrium, aortic semilunar valve prevents it into ventricle
b. Type II
length of survivorship is random (invertebrates-hydra).
Prophase I has 5 steps
leptotene (chromosomes start condensing) → zygotene (synapsis begins; synaptonemal complex forming) → pachytene (synapsis complete, crossing over) → diplotene (synatopnemal complex disappears, chiasma still present) → diakinesis (nuclear envelope fragments, chomosomes complete condensing, tetrads ready for metaphase)
- Phagocytes
leukocytes (WBC's) engulf pathogens by phagocytosis (neutrophils and monocytes-enlarge into macrophages). Other WBCs called natural killer cells (NK cells) attack abnormal body cells-tumors or pathogen-infected.
Photic zone in water
light penetrates; all aquatic photosynthesis
D. Chloroplast
light-dependent and light-independent reactions occur.
A. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation (ADP + Pi + light -> ATP)
light-dependent reaction.
glycolipids
like phospholipids but w/ carb group instead of phos.
- Cilia
line the lungs serve to sweep invaders out. - Gastric juice: stomach kills most microbes.
- Food chain
linear flow chart of who's eaten by whom (grass → zebra → lion → vulture).
Smooth Muscle - mainly involuntary, ONE central nucleus; LACK striation; stimulated by autonomic nervous system (EX
lining of bladder, uterus, digestive tract, blood vessel walls, etc). No sarcomere organization: intermediate filaments attached to dense bodies spread throughout cell. Thick & thin filaments attached to IFs, contract → IF's pull dense bodies together →smooth muscle length shrinks. Two types of smooth muscle:
2. Extremophiles
live in extreme environment; Halophiles (salt lover) high [salt] environment; most are aerobic and heterotrophic; others anaerobic and photosynthetic with pigment bacteriorhodopsin. Thermophiles (heat lover) are sulfur-based chemoautotroph.
Saltwater fish
live in hyperosmotic environment; constantly drinking and excreting salt across their gills
Freshwater fish
live in hypoosmotic environment which causes excess intake of water; thus the fish seldom drink and excrete dilute urine
4. Regulatory genes
located outside of operon region, produces repressor proteins. Others produce activator proteins that assist the attachment of RNA polymerase to promoter region.
- Tracheids
long and tapered where water passes from one to another through pits.
Endochondral ossification- cartilage → bone (EX
long bones; limbs, fingers, toes)
3. Migration
long-distance, seasonal movement of animals. Usually in response to availability of food/degradation of environmental conditions. Ex: migration by whales, birds, elk, insects, and bats to warmer climates.
b. Memory cells
long-lived B cells that do not release antibodies in response to immediate antigen invasion; instead, they circulate the body, proliferate, and response quickly (via antibody synthesis) to eliminate subsequent invasion by same antigen. (2ndary response - takes less time, ~5 days)
1. Euchromatin
loosely bound to nucleosomes, actively being transcribed.
Rods
low intensity; important in night vision; no color
- Antimicrobial proteins
lysozyme (saliva, tear) which breaks down cell wall of bacteria.
- Microfilament
made up of actin and involved in cell motility. (skeletal muscle, amoeba pseudopod, cleavage furrow)
- Microtubules
made up of protein tubulin, provide support and motility for cellular activities; spindle apparatus which guide chromosomes during division; in flagella and cilia (9+2 array) in all animal cells and lower plants (mosses, ferns).
5. Balanced polymorphism
maintenance of different phenotypes in population (one is usually best and increase in allele frequency). However, polymorphisms (coexistence or two/more different phenotypes) also exists and maintained:'
Mitochondria
make ATP, also fatty acid catabolism (B-oxidation)! (fatty acids are made in cytosol). Also have their own circular DNA and ribosomes (gives rise to endosymbiotic theory!)
Warm-blooded (homeothermic)
make use of heat produced by respiration; physical adaptations like fat, hair, and feathers retard heat loss (Ex: mammals and birds)
2. Cortex
makes up bulk of root, storage of starch, contain intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration.
4. Vascular cylinder (stele)
makes up tissues inside endodermis (phloem, xylem, pericycle). Outer part consists of one/several layers of cells (pericycle-from which lateral root arise). Inside pericycle are vascular tissue.
5. Gametic isolation
male gametes do not survive in environment of female gametes. (gametes do not recognize others).
2. Stamen
male reproductive structure (pollen-bearing anther and stalk, filament).
* These two produces Seeds
male spores and female spores; microsporangia produces microspores (male spores) and macrosporangia produce the macrospores (female spores).
4. Mechanical isolation
male/female genitalia are not compatible.
Autotrophs
manufacture their own organic materials; uses light or chemicals such as H2S, NH3, NO2-, NO3-.
4. Outbreeding
mating with unrelated partners => mixing different alleles => new allele combinations.
a. Biotic potential
maximum growth rate under ideal conditions (unlimited resources and no restrictions). The following factors contribute to biotic potential of a species: age at reproductive maturity, clutch size (# offspring produced at each reproduction), frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity.
b. Carrying capacity (K)
maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by habitat.
- Light availability
may change from full sunlight to shady to darkness as trees become established
- Substrate texture
may change from solid rock, to fertile soil, to sand/others (because rock erodes, plants+animals decomp)
- Soil pH
may decrease due to decomposition of organic matter such as acidic leaves.
- Major histocompatibility complex
mechanism by which immune system is able to differentiate between self and nonself. MHC is a collection of glycoprotein that exists on membranes of all body cells. The proteins of single individual are unique (20 genes, each w/ 50+ alleles, unlikely to have same cells w/ same MHC set as someone else). Antigen presentation.
5 types of sensory receptors
mechanoreceptors (touch), thermoreceptors (temperature), nociceptors (pain), electromagnetic receptors (light), chemoreceptors (taste, smell, blood chemistry). Respond strongly to own stimuli, weakly to others; neural pathways separate + terminate in CNS
K-selected population
members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant (at K) in size (ex. human population). Have a carrying capacity that population levels out at. Carrying capacity is a density dependent factor.
Algaelike (plant-like)
members of protista all obtain energy by photosynthesis.
- Nucleosome packing
methylation of histones (tighter packing = preventing transcription); acetylation of histones (uncoiling and transcriptions proceeds). (side note: methylation also used in X-inactivation).
Other glial cells include
microglia (phagocytes of the CNS), ependymal (use cilia to circulate CSF), satellite cells (support ganglia - groups of cell bodies in PNS), and astrocytes (physical support to neurons of CNS; maintain mineral and nutrient balance
3. Anaphase
microtubules shorten, each chromosome is pulled apart into two chromatids (once separated it is a chromosome), pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles (disjunction); at the end of this phase, each pole has a complete set of chromosome, same as original cell before replication.
2. Ovulation
midcycle release of egg.
- Law of independent assortment
migration of homologues within one pair of homologous chromosomes does not influence the migration of homologues of other homologous pairs (independent assortment of alleles)
Note
modern atmosphere is roughly 80% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, then a lot of other less important gases
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary initiate
monitor estrogen and progesterone in blood;
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
monitors filtrate pressure in DT via granular cells → secrete renin → angiotensin cascade → tells A.C. to make adlost
4. Polymers and self-replication
monomers => polymer (dehydration condensation). Proteinoids are abiotically produced polypeptides <= amino acids dehydration on hot, dry substrates confirms this
Disaccharides are hydrolyzed into
monosaccharides, most of which can be converted to glucose or glycolytic intermediates
c. Yolk
more extensive than sea urchin; cells from vegetal pole rich in yolk material form yolk plug near dorsal lip.
a. Bryophytes
mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Gametes are produced in gametangia (protective structures) on gametophytes, dominant haploid stage of life cycle of bryophytes. Antheridium (male gametangium) produces flagellated sperm that swim through water. Archegonium (female) produces egg. Zygote grows into diploid structure (still connected to gametophyte).
F. Anchorage dependence
most cells only divide when attached to an external surface such as neighboring cells or side of culture dish.
a. Parenchyma
most common, have thin walls, storage, photosynthesis, and secretion.
c. Type III
most individuals die young, with few surviving to reproductive age and beyond (oysters).
a. Concealment
most individuals in flock are hidden from view.
a. Type I
most individuals survive to middle age and dies quicker after this age (human).
3. Cohesion-tension theory
most water movement is explained by this; major contributor (above two minimal).
Nervous system vs endocrine
neuronal communication is rapid/direct/specific. Hormonal is slower/spread through body/affects many cells/tissues in different ways/longer lasting
- Transport vacuoles
move materials between organelles or organelles and the plasma membrane
- Translocation
movement of carbohydrate through phloem from a source (leaves) to sink (site of carb utilization). Described by pressure-flow hypothesis:
- Respiration
movement of gases in and out; also means cellular respiration producing ATP within mitochondria.
1. Osmosis
moves from soil through root and into xylem by gradient (continuous movement of water out of root by xylem, and high [mineral] inside stele). This osmotic force (root pressure) can be seen as guttation, formation of small droplets of sap (water and minerals) on ends of leaves in morning.
d. Brown algae
multicellular and have flagellated sperm cells (giant seaweed)
e. Rotifera
multicellular with specialized organs enclosed in pseudocoelom, complete digestive tract; filter-feeder.
- Variations in characteristics
multicellular; heterotrophic; diploid generation; three layers embryonic development.
Obligate aerobes
must have O2 to live. - Obligate anaerobes: must not have O2 to live.
7. Primitive autotrophic prokaryotes
mutation, heterotroph gained ability to produce its own food => cyanobacteria.
Symbiosis - relationship between 2 species. Can be
mutualism (beneficial/beneficial), commensalism (beneficial/neutral), parasitism (beneficial/detrimental)
f. Lichens
mutualistic associations between fungi and algae (usually chlorophyta/cyanobacteria provide carb); also provide Nitrogen if algae is nitrogen-fixing; fungus (ascomycete) provides water and protection (pigments from UVlight, or toxic chemicals for grazers) from environment.
- Gap junction
narrow tunnels between animal cells (connexins); prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow passage of ions and small molecules; essentially channel proteins of two adjacent cells that are closely aligned (smooth muscle single of spreading action potential). In animal cells. Tissue like heart have these to pass electrical impulses.
- Plasmodesmata
narrow tunnels between plant cells (narrow tube of endoplasmic reticulum-desmotubule; but exchange material through cytoplasms surrounding the desmotubule).
- Balanced polymorphism
natural selection due to polymorphism. Example: different color in insects, one color can camouflage to different substrate, and the other that can't will be eaten. Only insects with same color can mate (isolated from other subpopulations).
V. Cell Division
nuclear division (karyokinesis) followed by cytokinesis
Sensory (Afferent)- receive initial stimulus (Ex
neurons in retina of eye) A→BRAIN
Motor (Efferent)- stimulate effectors, target cells that elicit some response (Ex
neurons may stimulate the muscles, sweat glands, or cells in the stomach to secrete gastrin. BRAIN → M
Atom is made up of
neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to electron interactions
- Missense mutation
new codon codes for new amino acid => minor or fatal results as in sickle cell (val(new) for glu(old))
- Silent mutation
new codon still codes for the same amino acid. - Nonsense mutation: new codon codes for a stop codon.
Budding
new individual splits off from existing one (hydra)
Zone of elongation
newly formed cells absorb water and elongate.
b. Elongation
next tRNA binds to A site, peptide bond formation, tRNA without methionine is released, the tRNA currently in A site moves to P site (translocation) and the next tRNA comes into A site and repeat process.
4. Realized niche
niche that an organism occupies in absence of competing species is its fundamental niche. When competitors are present, one/both species may be able to coexist by occupying their realized niches, that part of their existence where niche overlap is absent (occupy areas of niche that don't overlap so no competition for resources)
Nucleotide
nitrogen base, five carbon sugar deoxyribose, phosphate group
1. Nitrogen fixation
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil (N2 → NH4+); Lighting + UV (N2 → NO3-)
- Neutral mutation
no change in protein fxn
Saturated
no double bonds (bad for health, stack densely and form fat plaques)
- Require the following conditions
no mutation, all traits are neutral (no natural selection), population must be isolated (no gene flow), large population (no genetic drift), mating is random, no net migration.
- Turner syndrome
nondisjunction in sex-chromosome. Gametes can be XY or O (no chromosome) => XO sterile, physically abnormal; Klinefelter (XXY); Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Abiotic
nonliving (temp, climate, light and water availability, topology)
Methyl (CH3)
nonpolar and hydrophobic
Cofactors
nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes.
4. Telophase
nuclear division, nuclear envelop develops, chromosomes => chromatin, nucleoli reappear.
5. Prophase II
nuclear envelop disappears and spindle develops etc, no chiasmata and no crossing over.
8. Telophase II
nuclear envelope reappears and cytokinesis occurs => 4 haploid cells (each chromosome = 1 chromatid).
4. Telophase I
nuclear membrane develops. Each pole forms a new nucleus that has half number of chromosomes (from homologous pair to each chromosome = 2 sister chromatids). Chromosomes reduction phase to haploid.
c. rRNA
nucleolus is an assemblage of DNA actively being transcribed into rRNA. As ribosome, has three binding sites: one for mRNA, one for tRNA that carries a growing polypeptide chain (P site); one for 2nd tRNA that delivers the next aa (A site). Terminations sequences include UAA, UGA, UAG. Together w/ proteins, rRNA forms ribosomes. Ribosome is assembled in nucleolus but large and small subunits exported separately to cytoplasm.
1. Prophase
nucleus disassembles: nucleolus disappear, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and nuclear envelope breaks down. Mitotic spindle is formed and microtubules (composed of tubulin) begin connecting to kinetochores.
1. Prophase I
nucleus disassembles: nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelop breaks down, chromatin condenses, spindle develops. MT's begin attaching to kinetochores. Crossing over means genetic recomb, NT seq. might change!
1. Methanogens
obligate anaerobes that produce CH4 as by-product of obtaining energy from H2 to fix CO2 (mud, guts).
Heterotrophs
obtain energy by consuming organic substances produced by autotrophs.
Saprobes (saprophytes)
obtain energy from dead, decaying matter => decomposers.
6. Primitive heterotrophic prokaryotes
obtained materials by consuming other organic substances (pathogenic bacteria).
Malphigian tubules
occurs in arthropods (terrestrial insects). Tubes attached to mid digestive tract (midgut) collect body fluids from hemolymph that bath the cells; fluids are deposited into midgut. Fluids include nitrogen wastes (in form of uric acid crystals; H2O, salt retained. As fluid passes through hindgut, retained materials pass out of walls and wastes continue down the tract for excretion through anus.
tuberculosis
parasitic on cow or man
1. Primary succession
occurs on substrates that never previously supported living things (volcanic islands, lava flows). Essential and dominant characteristic of primary succession is soil building.
b. Batesian mimicry
occurs when animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does possess a defense.
- Disruptive selection
occurs when environment favors extreme or unusual traits while selecting against common traits. Short and tall are favored while average is selected against.
e. Logistic growth
occurs when limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of habitat.
- Bottleneck
occurs when population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, etc) => vulnerable to genetic drift.
a. Mullerian mimicry
occurs when several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same coloration → effective with single pattern such [predator only has to learn one pattern is bad instead of lots of variants] as yellow and black body markings (dangerous) from bees, yellow jackets, and wasps.
4. Mimicry
occurs when two or more species resemble one another in appearance. There are two kinds:
d. Exponential growth
occurs whenever reproductive rate (r) is greater than zero (J-shaped).
1. Hydrologic cycle (water cycle) a. Reservoir
oceans, air, groundwater, glaciers.
Class Cephalopoda
octopus and squid; have high O2 demand, giant nerve fibers, closed circulatory system
c. Meiosis
of diploid nucleus restores haploid condition; daughter cells develop into haploid spores which germinate into haploid hyphae (has 1 fungal strain) => merge into dikaryon and repeat.
- Intrinsic rate
of growth is when the reproductive rate (r) is maximum (biotic potential).
5. Pollination
of many kinds of flowers occur as result of Coevolution of finely-tuned traits between flowers + pollinators
Via cooperativity
one O2 binds → the rest bind easier. Likewise: one O2 released → the rest release easier
- Epistasis
one gene affects phenotypic expression of 2nd gene. Pigmentation (one gene controls (turn on/off) the production of pigment, and 2nd gene controls color or amount). If 1st gene codes for no pigment => 2nd gene has no effect.
anthrax
parasitic on sheep
diphtheria
parasitic upon man;
- Law of segregation
one member of each chromosome pair migrates to an opposite pole so that each gamete is haploid (aka each gamete has only one copy of each chromosome), occurs in anaphase I.
Anagenesis/phyletic evolution
one species replaces another straight path evolution
a. Euglenoids
one to three flagella at apical (leading) end; instead of cellulose cell wall, thin, protein strips called pellicles that wrap over cell membranes => heterotrophic in absence of light; some have eyespot that permits phototaxis (ability to move in response to light).
Note
one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis defines a gene as the DNA segment that codes for a particular polypeptide. Also, genetic code is universal for nearly all organisms and most AAs have more than one codon specifying them (redundancy/degeneracy)
Aphotic zone
only animal and other heterotrophs
3. Blastopore
opening into archenteron, becomes mouth (protostomes) or the anus (deuterostomes).
E. Foraging Behavior
optimize feeding (minimize energy spent and risk)
Coenzyme
organic cofactors , usually donate or accept electrons
1. coenzyme
organic molecules can be organic (ex.vitamins)
Oparin & Haldane
organic soup theory; if there was O2 (very reactive), no organic molecules would have formed.
Taxonomy
organisms are classified into categories called taxa. A species name is given a name consisting of genus (closely related animal) name and species name. Domesticated dog is in genus Canis and name Canis familiaris; Wolf is Canis lupis.
- Natural transformation of species
organisms produced offspring with changes, transforming each later generation slightly more complex (no extinct or split into more species) => incorrect.
- Negative feedback
original condition is canceled so that conditions are returned to normal.
1. B cells (antibodies)
originates and mature (?) in bone marrow (B cell for bone); response to antigens. Plasma membrane of B cells contains antigen receptor-antibodies (immunoglobulins).
2. T cells (foreign)
originates in bone marrow but mature in thymus gland (T for thymus). T cells have antigen receptors but do not make antibodies; they check molecules displayed by nonself cells. In the thymus, if a T cell binds to a self-antigen, it is destroyed. If not, released for work in lymphoid tissue. Discrimination of self and nonself are as follow:
3. Spongy mesophyll
parenchyma cells loosely arranged below palisade mesophyll. Numerous intercellular spaces (air chambers-CO2).
Compact bone- highly organized, dense bone that doesn't appear to have cavities from outside
osteoclasts burrow tunnels (Haversian canals) throughout. Osteoclasts are followed by osteoblasts, which lay down new matrix onto tunnel walls forming concentric rings (lamellae). Osteocytes trapped between the lamella (lacunae) exchange nutrients via canaliculi. The Haversian canals also contain blood+lymph vessels and are connected by Volkmann's canals. Entire system of lamellae+Haversian canals is called an osteon (Haversian system). Compact bone is filled with yellow bone marrow that contains adipose cells for fat storage.
When glucose supply is low, body uses other energy sources, in the priority order of
other carbs, fats, and proteins. First converted to glucose or glucose intermediates, then degraded in glycolysis or CAC.
1. Chorion
outer membrane. Birds and reptiles: membrane for gas exchange. Mammals: chorion implants into endometrium, and later, the chorion and maternal tissue form the placenta (a blend of maternal and embryonic tissues across which gases, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged)
Ear - Structure is three main parts
outer, middle and inner ear; transduces sound energy into impulses
1. Epidermis
outside surface of root. In zone of maturation (epidermal cells produce root hair), when zone of maturation ages, root hair die. New epidermal cells from zone of elongation becomes cell of new zone of maturation.
a. Ovary
ova, or eggs, are produced. Each female has two ovaries.
1. Female Reproductive Cycle
ovarian cycle (ovary) + menstrual cycle (uterus).
IV. Photosynthesis
overall 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
4. Desertification
overgrazing of grasslands that border deserts transform the grasslands into deserts → agricultural output decreases, or habitat available to native species are lost.
Fetal circulation
oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from placenta carried to fetus via umbilical vein → half enters Ductus venosus (allows blood to bypass the liver) →carried to inferior vena cava → RA → RV → Ductus arteriosus (conducts some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta [bypassing the lungs/fetal pulmonary circulation]) → aorta. Other half enters liver/portal vein → RA → Foramen ovale (allows blood to bypass pulmonary circulation by entering the left atria directly from the right atria since there is no gas exchange in fetal lung) → LA → LV → aorta. Illustrated here.
- All alleles sum to 100%
p + q = 1 - All individuals sum to 100%: p2 + 2qp + q2 = 1. } both must be true for HW!
c. Apicomplexans
parasites of animals; apical complex (complex of organelles located at an end (apex) of the cell); no physical motility; form spores which are dispersed by hosts that complete their life cycle (malaria caused by sporozoan).
tapeworm
parasitic in man
- Ion channels
passage of ions across membrane. Called gated channels in nerve and muscle cells, respond to stimuli. Note that these can be voltage-gated (respond to difference in membrane potential), ligand-gated (chemical binds and opens channel), or mechanically-gated (respond to pressure, vibration, temperature, etc).
- Macroevolution
patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. Patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary relationships among species and groups of species).
Membrane proteins
peripheral (loosely attached to one side surface), integral (embeds inside membrane), transmembrane (all the way through, both sides - this is a TYPE of integral)
Pesticides vs biological control
pesticides effective but dangerous to humans; biological control alternatives safer: crop rotation, natural enemies, natural plat toxins, insect birth control.
Food capture
phagocytosis→food vacuoles
3. ATP synthase generates ATP
phosphorylate ADP + Pi => ATP. (3H+ is required for 1ATP).
1. Cyanobacteria
photosynthetic; releasing O2; contain accessory pigment phycobilins; have specialized cells called heterocysts that produce nitrogen-fixing enzyme into NH3.
- Skin
physical and hostile barrier covered with oily and acidic (pH 3-5) secretions from sweat glands.
4 methods for material to cross capillary wall
pinocytosis, diffusion through capillary cell membrane, movement through pores in the cells (fenestrations), movement through space between the cells
b. Assimilation
plant uses CO2 in photosynthesis, animals consume plants (this is carbon fixing - reduced from its inorganic form of CO2 to organic compounds) (just like in N-fixing: N2 is relatively inert, N-fixing frees it up for use)
b. Assimilation
plants absorb inorganic PO43- (phosphate) from soil; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they eat.
b. Assimilation
plants absorb water from soil; animals drink and eat other organisms.
c. Release
plants and animals release phosphorous when they decompose, and animals excrete in waste products
- Pioneer species
plants and animals that are first to colonize a newly exposed habitat (usually opportunistic, r-selected species); can tolerate harsh conditions. (ex. Lichens and mosses)
1. Long-day
plants flower in spring and early summer when daylight is increasing.
- Storage vacuoles
plants store starch, pigments, and toxic substances (nicotine).
c. Release
plants transpire; animals and plants decompose.
1. Outer membrane
plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
C. Growth Factor
plasma membrane has receptors for growth factors that stimulate cell for division (such as damaged cell)
2. Penetration
plasma membranes of sperm and oocyte fuse, sperm nucleus enter oocyte.
c. Suppressor T cells
play negative feedback role in immune system
Carbonyl (C=O)
polar and hydrophilic
Hydroxyl (OH)
polar and hydrophilic
Phosphate (PO3)
polar, hydrophilic, acid
Carboxyl (COOH)
polar, hydrophilic, weak acid
Amino (NH2)
polar, hydrophilic, weak base
Chitin
polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a nitrogen-containing group attached to ring. Structural molecule in fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)
2. Population size remain stable
populations generally fluctuate around a constant size.
Plants
possess waxy cuticles on leaf surface and stomata and have stomata on the lower leaf surfaces only; leaves shed in winter; desert plants have extensive root systems, fleshy stems, spiny leaves, extra thick cuticles, and few stomata
- Polyploidy
possession of more than normal two sets of chromosomes (3n, 4n in plants <= nondisjunction => two viable diploid gametes and two sterile gametes with no chromosomes => tetraploid 4n zygote formed => repeat with diploid gametes male/female => reproductive isolation with normal gametes).
3. Diploidy
presence of two copies of each chromosome. In heterozygous conditions, recessive allele is stored for later generations => more variations is maintained in gene pool.
4. Pressure is reduced in sieve-tube members at sink as sugar are removed for utilization by nearby cells
pressure begins to build up at sink (from bulk flow source → sink). However, sink is where sugar are used => removed from sieve-tube members by active transport => increases [water] at sink => water diffuses out of cell => relieve pressure.
* Prezygotic Isolating mechanism
prevent fertilization
G. Maintaining Reproductive Isolation
prevent gene flow (no separation by geo barrier; may be random or result of NS)
- Lymphocytes
primary agents of immune response, leukocytes that originate in bone marrow but concentrate in lymphatic tissues such as lymph nodes, thymus gland, and spleen.
3. Secondary consumers
primary carnivores, eat primary producers.
- Penetrance
probability an organism with a specific genotype will express a particular phenotype
Oxidative Phosphorylation
process of ADP → ATP from NADH and FADH2 via passing of electrons through various carrier proteins; energy doesn't accompany the phosphate group
3. Pr and Pfr are in equilibrium during daylight
red light is present as sunlight Pr → Pfr and far-red is also present (Pfr → Pr)
Ferns
produce cluster of sporangia called sori that develop on undersurface of fern fronds (meiosis => spores).
1. Keratinocytes
produce the protein keratin that helps waterproof the skin
- Sporangiospores
produced in capsules (sporangia) that are each borne on a stalk called sporangiophore.
- trp operon (E. coli)
produces enzyme for tryptophan synthesis; regulatory genes produce an inactive repressor => RNA pol produces enzymes. When tryptophan is available, no longer need to synthesize it internally: it binds to inactive repressor and activates repressor => able binds operator and block RNA pol. Tryptophan is corepressor.
Microsporangium
produces numerous microspore mother cell, which divide by meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores-male) => mature into pollen grains (represent gametophyte generation) which divides into 3 cells (in flowering plants) or 4 cells (in conifers). One is vegetative (tube) cell that controls growth of pollen tube, others = sperms.
- Gibberellins (GA)
promote cell growth (flower and stem elongation), inhibition of aging in leaves, promote fruit development and seed germination. High [] causes bolting (rapid elongation of stems).
- Auxin (IAA-indoleacetic acid)
promotes plant growth (elongation of cells), increase [H+] in primary cell walls => activate enzymes loosen cellulose fiber (increase cell wall plasticity) and turgor pressure expands cells to grow. Produced at tips of shoots and roots (apical meristem) (inhibition of lateral buds when it is produced at terminal bud of growing tip). It is a modified tryptophan aa. After synthesis it is actively transported (ATP) from cell to cell in a specific direction (polar transport) by means of chemiosmotic process
Strong covalent bind
prosthetic group
Small intestine - proteolytic enzymes
proteases, maltase and lactase, phosphatases/nucleosidases (nucleotides); lipase
1. Epidermis
protective, covered with cuticle (protective layer containing cutin-waxy) which reduces transpiration (water loss through evaporation); may bear trichomes (hair, scales, glands).
- Phytochrome
protein modified with light-absorbing chromophore. Two forms: Pr (P660-red) and Pfr (P730-far red). They are reversible. When Pr is exposed to red light => Pfr and vice versa.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
protein stimulates production of 2nd messengers (G-protein → cAMP-produced from ATP; IP3-produced from membrane phospholipids which triggers Ca release from ER).
- Synaptonemal complex
protein structure that temporarily forms between homologous chromosomes: gives rise to the tetrad w/ chiasmata and crossing over
Saprophytism
protists and fungi that decompose dead organic matter externally and absorb nutrients
d. Memory T cells
similar fxn to memory B cells
5. Organic molecules were concentrated/isolated into protobionts
protobionts (precursors of cells = like cells, metabolically active but unable to reproduce). Microspheres and coacervates (spontaneously formed lipid or protein bilayer bubbles) are experimentally (abiotically) produced protobionts that have some selective permeable qualities.
Protozoa and Termites
protozoa digests cellulose for termites, termites protect and provide food
- Channel proteins
provide passageway through membrane for hydrophilic (water-soluble) substances (polar, and charged).
- Intermediate filaments
provide support for maintaining cell shape.
Notochord
provides dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support; replaced by bone during development; in most vertebrates, it becomes nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc; arrived from mesoderm.
- Transversion mutation
purine to pyrimidine or vice versa
- Growth rate of population
r = (births - death)/N Change: ∆N/∆t = rN = births - deaths
3. Radial and spiral cleavages
radial in deuterostomes forming (indeterminate) cells at animal and vegetal poles that are aligned together, top cells directly above bottom cells. In protostomes (spiral-determinate), cells formed on top are shifted relative to those below.
b. body symmetry
radical symmetry (one orientation-front and back); bilateral symmetry (dorsal-top, ventral-bottom, head-anterior, tail-posterior).
3. Genetic drift
random increase/decrease of allele by chance. Small population => larger effect.
b. Cleavage
rapid cell divisions without cell growth; each cell = blastomere (less cytoplasm than original zygote)
3. Adaptive radiation
rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor; occurs when ancestral species is introduced to an area where diverse geographic/ecological conditions are available for colonization.
R - selected population
rapid exponential population growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, little postnatal care (ex. bacteria). Generally found in rapidly changing environments affected by density independent factors. Characterized by opportunistic species (e.g. grasses, insects that quickly invade a habitat, reproduce, then die)
Equilibrium
rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production
3. Temperate grasslands
receive less water (+ uneven seasonal occurrence of rainfaill) and are subject to lower temperatures than savannas (e.g. north American prairie)
e. Rhodophyta
red algae (red accessory pigments phycobilins); multicellular and gametes do not have flagella.
7. Only the most fit individuals survive
survival of the fittest.
- Sex-linked
refers to single gene resides on sex chromosome; when male (XY) receives an X from mother, whether it is dominant or recessive will be expressed because there is no copy on the Y chromosome.
2. Operator
region that can block action of RNA polymerase if occupied by repressor protein.
- Chiasmata
region where crossing over occur of non-sister chromatids.
c. Release
release CO2 through respiration and decomposition + when organic material is burned
2. Ovulation
releases secondary oocyte from vesicular follicle (caused by LH surge). If fertilized by sperm → (finishes meiosis II) ovum/egg (diploid once completely fertilized) + polar body (degenerate)
c. Tail
remainder of flagellum; sperm is propelled by whiplike motion of tail and midpiece.
Unrelated
remember we don't just break down glucose, we can produce it (gluconeogenesis)
c. RNA splicing
removes nucleotide segments from mRNA; before mRNA moves into cytoplasm, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP's) and the spliceosome delete the introns and splice the exons. (prokaryotes have no introns!)
- Short tandem repeat (STR)
repeat of 2-5 nucleotides and different between all individuals except identical twins.
- Regulatory proteins
repressors and activators, influence RNA pol's attachment to promoter region
3. Nitrogen cycle
required for amino acid and nucleic acids. (this cycle is important, memorize this)
2. Carbon cycle
required for building organic materials. Basis for this is photosynthesis + respiration
4. Phosphorus cycle
required for manufacturing of ATP and all nucleic acids. Cycles for other minerals (Ca, Mg) are similar to phos cycle.
4. Osteoclasts
resorb (destroy) bone matrix, releasing minerals back to blood. Develop from monocytes.
3. Resources are limited
resources do not increase as population grow larger.
2. Humoral response (antibody-mediated response)
responds to antigens or pathogens that circulate in lymph or blood (bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses, blood toxins). Basically the B-cell stuff. Humor is body fluid and the following events:
- Photoperiodism
response of plants to changes in photoperiod (relative length of daylight and night); plants maintain circadian rhythm (a clock that measures length of daylight and night); endogenous mechanism (internal clock that continues to keep time even if external cues are absent). External cues (dawn, dusk) reset clock for accuracy.
- Gravitropism (geotropism)
response to gravity by stems and roots (auxin and gibberellins).
- Phototropism
response to light (achieved by hormone auxin). Auxin is produced in apical meristem => move downward by active transport into zone of elongation => generate growth.
- Thigmotropism
response to touch (e.g. vines on surface)
B. Natural Selection
responsible for producing adaptations (superior inherited traits) that increase individual's fitness (ability to survive, leave offspring)
- Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLPs)
restriction fragments between individuals are compared, fragments differ in length are observed because of polymorphism (different length in DNA sequences). Inherited in Mendelian fashion so often used in paternity suits, RFLP analysis used at crime scenes to match suspects.
7. Reduction in species diversity
result of human activities.
III. Cellular Respiration
review page 46 in Cliffs.
So
right/left AV valves and pulmonary/aortic SL valves
3. Endodermis
ring of tightly packed cells at inner most portion of cortex. A band of fatty material (suberin) called Casparian strip creates water-impenetrable barrier between cells => All water passing through endodermis must pass through endodermal cells and not between cells => control movement of water.
- Ethylene (H2C=CH2)
ripening of fruit; production of flowers; influences leaf abscission (aging [senescence] and dropping of leaves). Together w/ auxin, can inhibit elongation of roots, stems, and leaves. Stimulates ripening by enzymatic breakdown of cell walls
2. Capillary action
rise of liquids in narrow tubes, contribute to movement of H2O up xylem; results from forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between H2O and tube => meniscus Is formed at top of water column. No meniscus in active xylem.
a. Reservoirs
rocks and ocean sediments (erosion transfers P to water and soil)
Root cap
root tip, protects apical meristem behind.
- ER
rough ER (with ribosomes) creates glycoproteins by attaching polysaccharides to polypeptides as they are assembled by ribosomes. Smooth ER (no ribosomes) synthesizes lipids and steroid hormones for export. In liver cells, smooth ER has functions in breakdown toxins, drugs, and toxic by-products from cellular rxn. Can also store ions, e.g. Ca 2+
d. Nematoda
roundworms; pseudocoelomate with complete digestive tract; free-living soil dwellers help decompose and recycle nutrients (causes trichinosis in human, incompletely cooked meat).
Ex
salmon hatch in freshwater, migrate to ocean to feed, return to birthplace to breed based on imprinted odors associated w/ birthplace
i. Echinodermata
sea stars, urchin, sand dollars; coelomate deuterostomes; complete digestive tract; adults have radial symmetry but are bilateral when young; some features are bilateral (ancestors are believed to be bilateral).
2. Osteoblasts
secrete collagen and organic compounds upon which bone is formed. Incapable of mitosis. As matrix released around them → enveloped by matrix → differentiate into osteocytes (remember, Blast means Build)
f. Bulbourethral glands (aka Cowper's)
secrete small amount of fluid of unknown function into urethra.
Arthropods
secrete solid uric acid crystals to conserve water
- Interferons
secreted by cells invaded by viruses/pathogens that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins defend against virus.
e. Prostate gland
secretes milky alkaline fluid into urethra; neutralizes acidity of urine that may still be in urethra, also vagina acidity. Also neutralizes seminal fluid (too acidic from metabolic waste of sperm)
3. Luteal phase
secretion of estrogen and progesterone from corpus luteum after ovulation.
- Translocation
segment is moved to another chromosome. (21 on 14 can cause Down's as well)
Crustaceans
segmented body with variable number of appendages and have gills. Crab, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and barnacles
g. Annelida
segmented worms (leeches-suckers at both ends; earthworms, and polychaete worms).
- Industrial melanism
selection of dark-colored (melanic) varieties in various species of moths (peppered moth) as a result of industrial pollution.
SEVEnUP
seminiferous tubules → epidydmis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra → penis
Fission
separation of organism into two new cells (amoeba)
d. Basidiomycota
septa, reproduce sexually by producing haploid basidiospores. Plasmogamy => mitosis =>fruiting body (basidiocarp) such as mushroom; Karyogamy occurs in terminal hyphal cells called basidia, followed by meiosis to produce 4 haploid basidiospores.
c. Ascomycota
septa; reproduce sexually by producing haploid ascospores. After plasmogamy of hyphae from different strains, dikaryotic hypha produces more filaments by mitosis; karyogamy and meiosis occurs in terminal hyphal => 4haploid cells => mitosis to produce 8 haploid ascospores in a sac called ascus; grouped together into fruiting body ascocarp (yeast).
b. A poly-A tail (-A-A-A..A-A-3')
sequence is attached to the 3' end of the mRNA. Tail consists of 200A; provide stability and control movement of mRNA across the nuclear envelope.
1. Promoter
sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase attaches to being transcription.
Primary structure
sequence of amino acids
Polysaccharide
series of connected monosaccharides; polymer
- Inflammatory
series of non-specific events that occur in response to pathogens. EX: when skin is damaged and bacteria enter the body
histones
serve to organize DNA which coil around it into bundle nucleosomes (8 histones);
1. Herds, flocks, schools
several advantages, uses cooperation (carry out a behavior more successfully as a group_
- RNA interference
short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) block mRNA transcriptions (fold back within itself = dsRNA), translation, or degrade existing mRNA. siRNAs: dsRNA gets chopped up, then made single stranded. The relevant strand will bind to DNA (prevent transcription) or mRNA (signals destruction)
- Plasmids
short, circular DNA outside chromosome (carry genes that are beneficial but not essential for survival); replicate independently; episomes are plasmid that can incorporate into bacterial chromosome.
- Vessel elements
shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ends. A column of vessel elements (members) is called a vessel. Perforations are where H2O passes through from one vessel member to the next (lack both 1st and 2nd cell wall). Perforations are an advantage to tracheids.
- Ecological pyramids
show relationships between trophic levels.
- Western Blot
similar method for proteins: electrophoresis, blot to membrane, primary antibody specific to protein added to bind to that protein, then secondary anti-body-enzyme conjugate will bind ti primary and mark it w/ enzyme for visualization
3. Embryology
similar stages of development (ontogeny) among related species => establish evolutionary relationships (phylogeny). Gill slits and tails are found in fish, chicken, pig, and human embryos. "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny".
Prokaryotic cells
single chromosome is short, circular DNA with/without histone; may contain plasmid; no nucleus; no organelles; flagella consist of protein flagellin instead of "9 + 2" microtubules.
- Pleiotropy
single gene has more than 1 phenotypic expression (gene in pea plants that expressed seed texture also influences phenotype of starch metabolism and water uptake; sickle cell anemia leads to different health conditions).
1. Point mutation
single nucleotide changes causing substitution, insertion, deletion (latter 2 could cause frameshift).
Fragmentation + Regeneration
single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into new individuals (sponge/planaria/starfish)
Monosaccharide
single sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)
b. Plasmodial slime molds
single, spreading mass (plasmodium) feeding on decaying vegetation; when no food => stalks bearing spore capsules form => haploid spores released from capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid/flagellated cells, fuse to form diploid cells => grow into plasmodium; no mutualistic with others.
Environmental sensory input
skin gathers info about environment by sensing temp, pressure, pain, touch
Protection
skin is a physical barrier to abrasion, bacteria, dehydration, many chemicals, UV radiation
Fibrous - connect bones without allowing any movement (Ex
skull, pelvis, spinous process and vertebrae)
Deme
small local population (e.g. all the beavers along specific portion of a river)
a. Initiation
small ribosome unit attaches to 5' end of mRNA; tRNA-methionine attaches to start sequence of mRNA AUG, and large ribosomal unit attaches to form a complete complex.
2. Convergent evolution
two unrelated species that share similar traits by environment (analogous traits).
- Muscle fibers of single muscle don't all contract at once. Single neuron innervates multiple muscle fibers (collectively called motor unit). Usually
smaller motor units activated first, then larger ones as needed → smooth increase in force. Fine movement uses smaller motor units.
f. Mollusca
snail, octopus (complex brain), squids (most have shells), bivalves (clams and mussels); no shell is octopus, small and internal shell in squid; coelomate bodies, complete digestive tract, open circulatory system with internal cavity called hemocoel. Exoskeletons are calcium carbonate.
1. Sugars enter sieve-tube members
soluble, move from site of production (palisade mesophyll) to phloem sieve-tube members by active transport => high [solute] at source than at sink [root].
Note
some primitive animals (e.g. sponges, cnidarian) will develop mesoglea, a noncellular layer, instead of mesoderm
cnidoblasts
specialized cells located in the tentacles and bodywalls of coloenterates; interior of cnidoblasts filled with stinging cells (nematocysts)
Immunity
specialized cells of the epidermis are components of immune system
4. Guard cells
specialized epidermal cells control opening and closing of stomata (allow gas exchange).
Adipocytes
specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but triglycerides
1. Habitat isolation
species do not encounter. 2. Temporal isolation: species mate/flower during different seasons/time.
b. Parasite
spends most of its life living on host, host usually doesn't die until parasite complete one life cycle.
5. Fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA
sperm and ovum nuclei fuse → zygote (diploid-23 pairs in human).
a. Fertilization
sperm penetrate plasma membrane of 2nd oocyte.
a. Gray crescent
sperm penetrates frog egg → reorganization of cytoplasm → pigmented cap of animal pole rotates towards point of penetration while gray, crescent-shaped region forms opposite the point of penetration. Spemann found in early cleavage, each individual cell could develop into a frog only if it had a small portion of gray crescent.
4. Completion of meiosis II in 2nd oocyte
sperm penetration triggers meiosis 2; ovum + polar body (discharged through plasma membrane) produced.
h. Arthropoda
spiders, insects, crustaceans; jointed appendages, well-developed nervous system; body segments, exoskeleton (chitin). Two kinds of life cycles: Nymphs (small version of adult, change shape as grow proceeds). Larvae are maggots specialized for eating; when they reach certain size => enclose themselves within pupa (cocoon) to undergo metamorphosis. Classes include:
Cartilaginous - bones attached by cartilage, allow little movement (Ex
spine and ribs)
a. Porifera (parazoa)
sponges; feed by filtering water through sponge wall of flagellated cells (choanocytes-flagella creates a flow of water for feed-filter). Water exits through osculum. Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes (digesting + distribute nutrients); sponge wall contains spicules (skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. Sessile (fixed).
Book lungs
stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chamber
b. Helper T cells
stimulate activation of B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and suppressor T cells
5. Thylakoids
suspended within stroma (stacks); individual membrane layers are thylakoids; entire stack is granum membrane of thylakoids contain (PSI + PSII), cytochromes, and other e- carriers. Also phospholipid bilayer.
- Cytokinins
stimulate cytokinesis, stimulate (and influence direction of) organogenesis; stimulate growth of lateral buds (which weakens apical dominance-dominance growth of apical meristem); delay senescence (aging) of leaves. Structurally they are variations of the nitrogen base adenine; include naturally occurring zeratin and artificially produced kinetin
Tropic hormones
stimulate other endocrine glands
- Vaccines
stimulate production of memory cells from inactivated viruses or weakened bacteria (artificially active immun)
Ecology
study of distribution+abundance of organisms and their interactions w/ other organisms + their physical environment
Systematics
study of evolutionary relationships among organisms (Phylogeny = evolutionary relationships).
A. Population Ecology
study of growth, abundance, and distribution of populations.
Noncompetetive inhibition
substance inhibits enzyme by binding elsewhere than active site, substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.
Competitive inhibition
substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by binding at the active site. Can be overcome by increasing substrate cxn. Km changed but Vmax is not
c. Morula
successive cleavage results in solid ball of cells (~8+ cells stage) (first 8 cells are totipotent)
- Recognition proteins
such as major-histocompatibility complex on macrophage to distinguish between self and foreign; they are glycoproteins due to oligosaccharides attached.
- Vector
such as plasmid because DNA molecule used as a vehicle to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell.
5. There is variation among individuals in a population
such as skin color (very pale to very dark).
Muscular tail
such tail is lost during embryonic development in human.
nucleoside
sugar+base
b. Hybrid vigor (heterosis)
superior quality of offspring resulting from crosses between two different inbred strains of plants => hybrid superior quality results from reduction of loci with deletion of recessive homozygous conditions and increase in heterozygous advantage.
Functions
support of soft tissue, protection of internal organs, assistance in body movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and energy storage in form of adipose cells in marrow
- Natural selection
survival of the fittest (Darwinism) => now called neo-Darwinism (synthetic theory of evolution).
- Want to test for specific gene sequence in someone's DNA? Method 1 (single test only)
take drop of blood, cut up DNA, use PCR method w/ specific primer for that region. If that gene is there → lots of copies. Gene not there → no copies. Method 2 (test for many things at same time): take drop of blood, PCR it to amplify. We have a solid support w/ pieces of ssDNA w/ specific sequence covalently attached → will hybridize to anything complementary (e.g. disease genes). On that same solid support we can put sSDNA pieces specific for other genes, can do this hundreds of times at different spots on this DNA microarray. Take desired amplified DNA, heat it to denature, add to DNA microarray, any DNA that hybridizes is a match. The amplified DNA we added is already fluorescently tagged → hybridization wash to get rid of weakly bound sequences (e.g. not a complete match) →add a dye that will show heavily if something has bound to our microarray. Can also do this starting w/ mRNA → reverse transcriptase → PCR amplify → etc.
j. Chordata
temporary features during embryonic development.
- Food vacuoles
temporary receptacles of nutrients; merge with lysosomes which break down food.
- Expressivity
term describing the variation of phenotype for a specific genotype
Chaparral
terrestrial biome along California coastline characterized by wet winters, dry summers, scattered vegetation
Stanley Miller
tested theory of above and produced organic molecules.
- Polygenic inheritance
the interaction of many genes to shape a single phenotype w/ continuous variation (height, skin color).
9. Marine biomes
the largest biome covering ¾ of world surface. Provides most of earth's food + oxygen. Includes estuaries (where oceans and river meet), intertidal zones (where ocean meet land), continental shelves/littoral zone (shallow oceans bordering continents), coral reefs, and pelagic ocean (deep). Have a relatively constant temperature (water's high heat capacity + volume), amount of nutrient materials and dissolved salts. Divided into regions classified by amount of sunlight received, distance from shore, depth, open water vs ocean bottom.
7. Splitting of Water (photolysis)
the loss of 2e- from PSII (initially) is replaced when H2O splits into 2e-, 2H+, and ½O2.(H+ goes for NADPH formation and ½ O2 that contributes to release as oxygen gas). This occurs at PSII.
nucleolus
the maker of ribosomes (rRNA). rRNA is synthesized in nucleolus + ribosomal proteins imported from cytoplasm = ribosomal subunits form; these subunits are exported to the cytoplasm for final assembly into complete ribosome . Nucleus bound by double layer nuclear envelope w/ pores for transport (mRNA, ribosome subunits, etc) in/out. Note there is no "cytoplasm" in nucleus, there's a nucleoplasm instead.
a. 5' cap (-P-P-P-G-5')
the sequence is added to the 5' end of the mRNA; Guanine with 2 phosphate groups => GTP; providing stability for mRNA and point of attachment for ribosomes.
1. Kingdom Protista
the subcategories are phylum. This is an artificial kingdom; poorly understood
Holoenzyme
the union of the cofactor and the enzyme (called apoenzyme when part of holoenzyme);
+ When T cells encounter nonself cells
they divide and produce four kinds of cells:
b. Collenchyma
thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions.
Arteries
thick-walled, muscular, elastic, pump oxygenated away (except for pulmonary arteries that transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs). Wrapped in smooth muscle typically innervated by sympathetic NS
c. Sclerenchyma
thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support.
- Cytoplasm
this is an area, not a structure! metabolic activity and transport occur here. Cyclosis is streaming movement within cell. Doesn't include nucleus, but does included cytosol, organelles, everything suspended w/in cytosol but nucleus
B. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
this replenishes ATP when Calvin cycle consumes it
Steroids
three 6 membered rings and one 5 membered ring (hormones) and cholesterol (membrane component)
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone
1. Ground tissues
three kinds differ by nature of cell walls.
Insects
three pairs of legs, spiracles, tracheal tubes for breathing
c. Platyhelminthes
three types of acoelomate flatworms; Free-living flatworms (planarians-carnivores in marine or freshwater). Flukes are internal animal parasites/external parasites that suck tissue fluids/blood. Tapeworms are internal parasites that often live in digestive tract of vertebrates; appear segmented (only as 2nd for reproduction => not considered true segmented animal). Tapeworms do not have digestive tract, only need to absorb predigested food around them.
1. Earth and atmosphere form
through volcanoes (CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN, little/no O2).
Pyrimidines
thymine, cytosine (singe ring) - 3 H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)
2. Density
total number of individuals per area or volume occupied.
1. Secondary compounds
toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would-be herbivores (tannins in oaks/nicotine/ tobacco are toxic)
Note
transcription is occurring in the 3' to 5' direction of the DNA template strand (but synthesis of the RNA strand is, as always, 5' to 3')
Ionic
transfer of electrons from one atom to another (different electronegativities)
2. Melanocytes
transfer skin pigment melanin to keratinocytes
c. Vas deferens
transfer sperms from one epididymis to urethra.
- Passive immunity
transferred antibodies from another individual- EX: newborns from mother
2. Resource partitioning
two species occupy same niche but pursue slightly different resources or securing their resources in different ways, individuals minimize competition and maximize success (multiple species-slightly different niches).
Disaccharide
two surge molecules joined by a glycosidic linkage (joined by dehydration)
- Guard cells
two surrounds the stomata. Cell walls of guard cells do not have the same thickness (thicker when border the stomata). Guard cell expand when water diffuses in. Due to the irregular thickness and radical shape, the sides with thinner cell walls => expand => creates opening (stoma). Water diffuses out => kidney shape collapses and stoma closes.
- Golgi
transport of various substances in vesicles.
g. Penis
transport semen (fluid containing sperm and secretions) into vagina.
b. Phloem
transport sugar. Made of cells called sieve-tube members (elements) that form fluid-conducting columns (sieve tubes); living at maturity although lack nuclei and ribosomes. Pores on end of member form sieve plates (areas where cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with next cell). Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells (living parenchyma that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member) and connected by plasmodesmata.
c. Vascular system reduces dependency on water (cells no longer need to be close to water) => formation of specialized tissues
true leaves, true stems (support leaves), true roots. Xylem is water transport, phloem (sugar transport).
* The following are vascular plant (tracheophytes)
true root, leaves, and stems; germination of antheridium + archegonium (swim) produces diploid zygote into sporophyte (dominant generation).
Homozygous
two copies of a gene (standard in diploid).Hemizygous: one single copy of a gene instead of two. (male has XY sex chromosome → hemizygous)
- Hybridization
two different forms of a species (closely related species) mate and produce along a geographic boundary called hybrid zone (more genetic variations => hybrid can live beyond range of either parents).
2. Primary e- acceptor
two excited e- passed to primary e- acceptor; primary because it is the first in chain of acceptor.
Phospholipid
two fatty acids and a phosphate group (+R) attached to a glycerol backbone
- Linked genes
two or more genes that reside on the same chromosomes and thus cannot separate independently because they are physically connected (inherited together). Linked genes exhibit recombination about 18% of the time.
3. Parallel evolution
two related species made similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from common ancestor.
1. Competitive exclusion principle (Gause's principle)
two species compete for exactly the same resources (or occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful (no two species can sustain coexistence if they occupy the same niche).
- Allele
variance of genes such as different color.
Cold-blooded (poikilothermic)
vast majority of plants and animals; body temp. is close to that of surroundings, so metabolism is radically affected by environmental temp.
- Cell plate
vesicles from Golgi bodies migrate and fuse to form cell plate, out growth and merge with plasma membrane separating the two new cells (plants). Cells don't actually separate from each other, middle lamella cements adjacent cells together.
- Lysosomes
vesicles produced from Golgi that contain digestive enzymes (low pH for function); any enzyme that escape from lysosomes remains inactive in the neutral pH of cytosol (other source says autolysis) (lysosomes in plant cell - maybe, but generally taught as none).
2. Lysogenic
viral DNA is incorporated into DNA of host cell; dormant state (provirus/prophage [if bacteria]); remain inactive until external stimuli. When triggered, begins lytic cycle.
1. Lytic Cycle
virus penetrates cell membrane of host and uses host machinery to produce nucleic acids and viral proteins that are then assembled to make new viruses - these viruses burst out of the cell and infect other cells
3. Formation of fertilization membrane
vitelline layer forms fertilization membrane blocks additional sperm (due to cortical reaction: exocytosis of enzymes produced by cortical granules in egg cytoplasm during fertilization - slow block when seen in mammals)
1. Surface-to-volume ratio (S/V)
volume gets much larger when cells grow (4/3 πr^3) vs. SA (4 πr^2). When S/V is large, exchange becomes much easier. When S/V is small, exchange is hard, leads to cell death or cell division to increase SA.
4. Temperate deciduous forests
warm summers, cold winters, and moderate precipitation. Deciduous trees shed leaves during winter. Soil is rich due to leaf shed. Vertical stratification: plants+animals live on ground, low branches, and treetops. Principal mammals hibernate through cold winter.
Excretion
water and salts excreted through skin
2. Water enters sieve-tube members
water diffuses into source by osmosis.
3. Ice Floats
water expands as it freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).
c. Oomycota
water molds, white rusts; either parasites or saprobes (gets nutrition from nonliving/decaying organic matter); form filaments (hyphae) which secret enzymes that digest surrounding substances like fungi. Hyphae lacks septa (cross wall) which is in true fungi that partition filaments into compartments; they are coenocytic (lack septa), containing many nuclei within a single cell; cell walls are made of cellulose rather than chitin of fungi.
b. Cuticle
waxy covering that reduces desiccation (drying up/water loss)
Hydrogen
weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a highly electronegative atom and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)
Ex
whale sound, elephant infrasound, frog calls, and songs of male birds
c. Termination
when RNA pol reaches a special sequences often AAAAAAA in eukaryotes.
c. Bulk flow
when a water molecule is lost from a leaf by transpiration, it pulls up behind an entire column of water molecules (generated by transpiration, which is itself caused by heat action of the sun).
* Clonal Selection
when antigen bind to B cell or when nonself binds to T cell → divide into daughter cells, only B or T cells that bears effective antigen receptor is "selected" and reproduces to make clones.
- Florigen
when flowering is initiated, this flowering hormone is produced in leaves and travels to shoot tips
b. Primitive streak
when gastrulation begins, invagination occurs along line called primitive streak (rather than a circle). As cells migrate into here, results in an elongated blastopore rather than circular as in sea urchins and frogs.
3. Pressure in sieve-tube members at source moves water and sugars to sieve-tube members at sink through sieve tubes
when water enter, rigid cell walls do not expand => pressure build up. Water and sugar move by bulk flow through sieve tubes (through plates between sieve-tube members).
c. Embryonic disc
within cavity created by trophoblast, inner cell mass clusters at one pole and flatten into embryonic disc (analogous to blastodisc of birds and reptiles). Primitive streak develops → gastrulation → development of embryo + extraembryonic membranes (except chorion)
- Dicot
xylem cells fill center of vascular cylinder (shape X with phloem (sieve-tube members and companion cells) in the spaces of X).
a. Blastodisc
yolk of bird egg is very large, not involved in cleavages; cleavages only occur in blastula that consists of flattened, disk-shaped region that sits on top of yolk (blastodisc).
6. Hybrid inviability
zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity.
TOTAL energy from 1 glucose is?
~36 ATP, but in prokaryotes 38 ATP (not actual yield, mitochondrial efficacy varies)