Final 2

Ch. 2 The primary bridge across which messages pass between the left and right halves of the cortex in the

corpus callosum

CHANGE BLINDNESS

failure to notice changes in visual stimuli because of a visual disruption (ex: saccades)

Agnosia

the inability to recognize familiar objects.

semantics

the meanings of words and sentences

binding

the process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object

Saccades

Quick switch from one fixation to another; varies in speed; we plan saccades; worse vision during swap

What is retroactive interference and what is its role in memory?

RI: New information interferes with old information Role in memory: can cause forgetting

Strengths of your practical

- Reliable, lab experiment, standardised, controls - Quantitative data, scientific, objective

focused attention stage

2nd stage "free-floating" features are combined and then we can perceive the object

Miller's Magic Number (Chunking)

7 +/- 2

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Heuristic

A rule of thumb, a shortcut; more automatic

mnemonic

An active, strategic learning device or method

Ch. 8 Memory for our life narrative is caled

Autobiographical memory

Apperceptive Agnosia

Bad at percieving whole patterns (combining features)

Global Aphasia

Bad speech production + poor comprehension (effects Broca's and Wernicke's area)

Recency effect

Better memory for items at the end positions of the list

Deep processing and memory

Better than shallow processing for memory

Broca's Aphasia vs. Wernicke's Aphasia

Broca's: non-fluent (bad speech) but good comprehension Wernicke's: good speech but bad comprehension (not meaningful)

Semantic

Category or not ex: Yellow; Is this a color? (Deep)

Ch. 6 Primacy effects are associated with

Cued recall

Randomising

Each participant is assigned either Condition A or B first randomly

Declarative has two parts...

Episodic and Semantic

Exp 2 Cell phone Changes + results

Had revelance rating of certain things; no special allocation

Who was HM?

Henry Molaison

operant conditioning

How behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcements or withdrawal of negative reinforcements

Exp 4 Changes cell phone

IV cell phone convo vs. passenger; DV likelihood of exiting

Semantic Activation Network Model

Idea of nodes (concepts) where connections are directional, labeled pathways; activation spreads through network

Sequential recall

In the order they were presented in

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific Study of the mind

Levels of Processing

Shallow (surface characteristics or rehearsal) vs. Deep (meaning based)

Language

Shared System of symbols and rules that let us communicate

Imaging

Showed ink blots and asked what they saw. Participants searched their own stored images to find the best match.

Feature List

Simple, one-element characteristics or properties of a concept.

Sensation

Simple; concious exp w/ stimulus; person + environment

Feeling of Knowing

Likelihood of recognizing something that you can't recall

Chapter 14-15

Memory, The Brain, and Amnesia Ex: 50 first dates

Correlational

Natural variables for complex relationships but no causation

Proactive Interference

Old learning hurts memory of new information

Downhill Change

Participants often want to change stories to remove unusual aspect and put in normal; easy to imagine + blame is put on unusual event

Action slip

Performing unintended automatic action instead of intended, controlled action

What type of data do case studies gather?

Qualitative, but can also give quantitative (e.g. IQ tests)

What level of comprehension are we referring to when we are understanding information based on exact wording?

Surface form

Blocking

Temporary retrieval failure or loss of access Ex. TOT

Recency Effect

Tendency to remember words at the end of a list

What part of the brain acts as a relay station by which our senses (except for smell) must go through before reaching the neocortex?

Thalamus

Baseline neglect

The failure to take the baseline probabilities of events into consideration

Filter model of attention

The fliter lets attended messages and filters out unattended messages

synapse

The region where neurotransmitters cross from one neuron to another is called the

Why did Baddeley and Hitch propose the WMM?

They noted problems with the MSM because it was overly simplistic and it emphasised the role of rehearsal as being critical to learning.

Reading comprehension

Understanding based on text

Distinctiveness/Von Restorf effect

Unique, isolated items are remembered better

Repeated measures design

Using the SAME participants in each condition of the experiment

Occipital Lobe

Vision

The difference between Short Term Memory & Working Memory.

WM = STM (Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad, Episodic Buffer) + Central Executive

Displacement

We can talk about what is not there; i.e. future or past

Airport Screening IV

Whether target is present (20 percent) or absent

Wilhelm Wundt

Who is credited with being the 1st experimental psychologist?

Sentence

Would the word fit the sentence: " He met a _________ in the street"? Y/N Friend

Which of the following is NOT an adequate account of the reminiscence bump?

a loss of interference in the nervous system when one is this age

Chunking

a meaningful unit or grouping of information held in short term memory

Ch. 3 What is a saccade?

a rapid eye movement

PLASTICITY

brain reorganizes after damage; ability to re-boot.

Retrieval mode

brain state that you are using your environment at retrieval cues

convergence

closer stimuli is more cross eyed you get

fusiform face area

face recognition in the brain

Testing effect

improves memory

semantic relatedness

links are of different lengths, reflecting strength of the association between two concept nodes

Situation models include...

semantic + episodic knowledge and inferences

Seven plus or minus two units of information describes

the capacity of short-term memory

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember early life events and very poor memory for your life at a very young age

what is emotion?

the state of mind a person is in as well as the physiological response at that time.

attention

Ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations

Ignored Information w/ Attention

Able to give location, frequency (male vs. female), and intensity; cannot give whether speech vs. noise or language

Modality free

Able to process different forms of information e.g. acoustic, visual

Type 1 error

Accepting the alternative hypothesis when results were not significant and null hypothesis should have actually been retained. Level of significance was too lenient

What is the major difference between the attentional filter as described in broadbent's theory and in treisman's theory

According to braodbent, the filter completely blocks the unattended stimuli. According to treiseman, the filter attenuates the unattended stimuli

Experiments that proved Broadbent wrong

"Dear Aunt Jane" "The Name effect" Also "Expertise" In a dichotic listening-shadowing task, Underwood asked either naive subjects or an experienced researcher to detect a target digit. Inexperienced subjects detected only 8% of the digits in the nonshadowed message. The researcher detected 67% of them.

william james

"Taking possession by the mind" Paying attention enhances brain activity

Quasi Experiment Pro

Accounts for individual differences (can examine complex relationships)

What did you conclude in your practical?

Acoustic similarity had no effect on STM. Does not support Baddeley and Hitch's theory.

Generation effect

Acting out information leads to better

By having subjects view pictures of faces and houses, O'Craven et al. showed that the brain takes possession of objects using attention. What did they find?

Activity in the fusiform area increases when people pay attention to the face relative to haouses

testing effect

Additional experience gained from tests actually helps you remember the information better

Comprehension

Additional processes that are involved in understanding real world samples of language and text

Exp 2 Cell phone Purpose

Address critique that importance of objects changed results

What is the primacy effect

After studying a sequnce of times, people are more likely to remember itmes

What are case studies?

Allows data gathered to be in-depth and detailed. Gathers data from many different sources and different research methods

What part of the brain is critically involved with your instinctual emotions that are important for survival (e.g., fear)?

Amygdala

Research failed to teach apes English speech. What conclusion can be drawn form this result?

Apes cannot reproduce english speech because they lack the vocal anatomy necessary to enable human speech sounds

The disruption (a loss of all or some) of previously intact language skills caused by a brain-related disorder or injury is

Aphasia

semantic priming effects

Appear to be automatic; occur at very short SOAs Can be conscious, but only at long SOAs

What are the two components in the phonological loop?

Articulatory loop (inner voice) and Primary Acoustic Store (inner ear)

The dorsal pathway in vision is responsible for for processing (?) information

"where"

Strengths of episodic/ semantic memory

- Case study of KC - suffered LTM impairment to his episodic memory, resulting in inability to form or recall personal events in life, but could recall factual information - Detailed explanation of types of LTM - Neurophysiological evidence - episodic memory seems to be affected by pre-frontal brain damage rather than semantic memories

What happened after presentation of words in Baddeley's experiment?

- Complete six tasks involving memory for digits - Given eight seconds to write down numbers

Why is shallow processing typically bad for memory?

- Little attention to meaning but meaning is most important to remember.

Improvements of your practical

- More control - Better sampling method and more participants

What can be concluded from the key question?

- Psychologists can design intervention programs that minimize effects of dementia - Sensory stimulation - photo albums, pictures in a book, magazines, music, scents, etc. - They need to draw on prior knowledge of what they are trying to recall.

amygdala

- responds to highly emotional events - fear experience - memory of emotional events

Issues and debates - how psychological understanding developed over time

- studying development of WMM over time - MSM informed later memory models

Issues and debates - reductionism

- under emphasis on the interconnections between parts of the brain in favour of individual parts responsible for memory - artificially breaking memory up into parts like STM and LTM for study purposes

what is the Cocktail Party Effect and which model of atttention does it support?

-- hearing your name in an unattended channel that you are ignoring. --it supports a late-filter model of attentional selection (although attenuator theory can explain it too)

Quasi Experiments

1+ IVs and 1+ Quasi-IVs/Grouping variables

Major differences between Broadbent and Triesman's models

1. Broadbent suggests that there is an attentional filter very early in the processing stream, which filters out stimuli based on physical characteristics. Treisman suggests that there is an attenuator that gives processing preference to stimulus based on what we are trying to do at the moment. Each stimulus has a different activation threshold. Attention is goal directed . Broadbent suggests that the filter blocks out all unattended stimuli. The unattended stimuli do not receive any processing if attentional capacity is overloaded. Treisman suggests that the attenuator does not block out processing, it simply gives preference to the attended stimuli. If there is enough cognitive resources, the unattended stimuli can get processed, too.

Wilcoxon test

1. Calculate the difference between pairs of scores by each participant (A-B) 2. Rank the score differences 3. Calculate sum total of ranks for positive differences and negative differences 4. Smaller score is the T value

Inferential test decision tree

1. Difference or relationship 2. Nominal or ordinal data 3. Independent groups or repeated measures

What were Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's aims?

1. How digit span changed from 5 - 17 years old. To investigate the capacity of the phonological loop and its differences in ages. 2. Whether digit span was affected by age and dementia 3. If development patterns found in the Spanish study matched English study

What are the differences between episodic and semantic memory?

1. Nature of stored memories 2. Time referencing 3. Spatial referencing 4. Nature of retrieving memories 5. Independence of each store

Language Universals

1. Semanticity 2. Arbitrary 3. Flexibility 4. Naming 5. Displacement 6. Productivity/Generativity

Stages of Donald Broadbents flow diagram of filter model of attention

1. Sensory memory 2. Filter (identifies message being attended to based on physical characteristics, all other messages filtered out) 3. the detector (processes higher-level characteristics of message like its meaning) 4. The output of the detector is sent to short-term memory

-how do we shadow effectively?:

1. Spacial location: left or right ear 2. Frequency (male v female sound) 3. Intensity: how loud something is

Karpicke and Roediger (2008) subjects learned foreign language vocabulary in 1 of 4 conditions

1. repeated study and test on all word pairs. 2. once an item is recalled it is dropped from further studying 3. once an item is recalled it is dropped from further testing 4. once an item is recalled it is dropped from further studying or testing.

How long does short term memory last?

15-20 seconds or less

Short Term Memory Duration

18 seconds maybe; effected by interference

Duration of STM

18-30 seconds

Franciscus Donders

1868 performed the first cognitive psychology experiment

Which of the following is the approximate year for the beginning of cognitive psychology?

1960

preattentive stage

1st step in processing an image of an object Objects analyzed into separate features (color, shape, movement) and these are independent because they are processed in different areas of the brain

In vigilance tasks, performance starts to decline after

20-35 minutes

Cortex

3 mm; gyrus (hilltop) + sulcus (valley); higher mental functions

How many participants were involved in your practical?

32 participants gathered via opportunity sampling

According to Cowan (2010), we are able to maintain between ___ and ___ items in our short-term memory without chunking items.

3; 5

What were the results in Part 1 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

5 years - 3.76 6-8 years - 4.34 9-11 years - 5.13 12-14 years - 5.46 15-17 years - 5.83

According to Miller (1956), we are able to maintain between ___ and ___ items in our short-term memory.

5; 9

Miller's Magic #

7 things (plus or minus 2)

What's the capacity of STM?

7+/-2 CHUCKS OF INFORMATION

How many people are affected with dementia?

800,000 people have dementia in the UK and is set to rise to 1 million by 2021

What is the representativeness heuristic?

A bias to judge the likelihood of an event based on -- its similarity to the population it was drawn from -- the process that produced it

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

rehearsal

A deliberate recycling or practicing of information in the short term store

repetition priming

A general form of implicit memory in which a previous encounter with information facilitates later processing on the same information, even unconsciously

Which of the following is NOT an example of metamemory in a studying context?

A judgement about how anxious you are.

Phonology

A language's sounds and rules for combining sounds

What is the word superiority effect

A letter is easier to identify when it is presented in the context of a word than when it is presented alone

feature comparison model

A model proposing that items are categorized by matching the item's features to category features

Connectionism

A more complex way to model human memory rather than a semantic network is to use the approach.

TWO IMPORTANT FACTORS OF COGNITIVE REVOLUTION

A need for practical understanding of mental phenomena » A growing dissatisfaction with behaviorist explanations » Slow accumulating changes in nature of verbal learning research

Reductionism

A person trying to understand complex events by breaking them down into their components is using

Attentional capture

A rapid shifting of attention usually caused by a stimulus such as a loud noise, bright light, or sudden movement

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

Ch. 6 ____ is a useful prompt or reminder for the information to be retrieved

A retrieval cue

Nerve impulse

A signal transmitted along a nerve fiber.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

retrevial cue

A useful prompt or reminder for the information

What is an accidental angle in object recognition

A viewpoint at which important geon structure are obscured.

critical lure word

A word highly related to the other words on the list, but never actually appears

which of following is an accurate description for deeply amnesic patients like HM and KC?

they are unable to recall any episodic events form long term memory, regardless of when the events occurred.

based on principles of episodic and semantic memory, what would be some good methods to study for this exam?

time/frequency distributed practice generation levels of processing organization distinctiveness emotion

What is lexical decision task?

to decide whether a letter string forms a real word

Being able to perceive the necker cube in multiple ways is an example

top down processing

Ch. 1 The sentence "I do not have to attend to what the cat will eat tomorrow" includes ten occurrences of the letter T. Radvansky and Ashcraft text argues that people's difficulties finding all of the T's reflects

top-down processing

orienting attention

triggered by abrupt stimuli; reflexive redirection

In semantic memory research, the result that typical members of a category tend to be judged as members of the category more rapidly than atypical members is called the

typicality effect

action slips

unintended, often automatic, actions that are inappropriate for the current situation

Experiment that used change detection to determine STM capacity is about 4 units

used change detection and flashed a scene with boxes, when there were just 3 boxes people did good, anymore and they did bad

Ch. 5 The reason for doing a dual-task study is to assess

what happens when working memory resources are drained

The reason for doing a dual-task study is to assess

what happens when working memory resources are drained

reconsolidation

when a memory is retrieved, this puts it in a plastic, malleable state where it can be changed before it is stored in memory again

Sparse coding

when a particular object is represented by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent

balanced dominance

when a word has more than one meaning and all meanings are equally likely

biased dominance

when a word has more than one meaning and one meaning is more likely

fan effect

when more words associated with a concept, response times were longer

What is shadowing

when people repeat out loud an auditory message as he/she listens to that message

when would shallow processing lead to better memory than deep processing?

when the test is over the surface (shallow) characteristics of the thing being studied

Mental lexicon includes

words and their meaning

Working Memory in KC

working memory is intact, he then put together a sentence and then three minutes later he was unable to remember the words that he put together in sentences.

What are connectionist models?

» Computer-based models of complex mind/brain systems that are inspired by the structure of the nervous system

We talked about 4 different purposes of (or approaches to) attention. What are they?

» Orienting »Selective attention » Capacity (mental resources) » Automaticity and control

What's an example of selective attention in the real world?

» Paying attention to a lecture and ignoring other noises in the room.

In the paper on cell phones and driving: what was the hypothesis that they supported with their data?

» That inattention blindness is caused by talking on the phone while driving (which causes declines in performance)

What is one piece of evidence against the idea of repressed/ recovered memories?

• Often developed in therapy under suggestive conditions (false memories are easy to create) • Violates what we know about memories (emotion) • You can forget that you remember something before retractions & research

Who proposed the Multi-store model of memory?

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

selective attention

Attending to one thing while ignoring others

Who proposed the Working Memory Model?

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Who proposed reconstructive memory?

Bartlett (1932)

Availability Heuristic

Based on ease of retrieving relevant info

STM retrieval

Based on rapid scanning of stored information. Rehearsal is important for maintaining information in the STM, increasing strength of memory trace.

The availability heuristic

Based on the ease with which the relevant information comes to mind

Watson

Behaviorism only observable quantifiable behavior was justified psychology

Depth Cues

Binocular (two eyes needed) and monocular (one eye needed)

Which of the following is an example of chucked stimuli?

CBSPOTUS

Retrograde Amnesia

Can't recall information that occur before injury

Acoustically similar sounding word list

Cat Mat Hat Lot Hot Dot Cot Den Pen Hen

The collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding, as well as the act of using those processes is known as ___.

Cognition

Channel

Cognitive system taking in info; is limited by capacity and error

Grammar

Complete set of rules that generate acceptable utterances (not illegal utterances)

What does fMRI measure?

Concentration of oxygen in the blood stream in the brain

Perception

Conducted experiments to test memory for shapes and objects and found that participants often assign verbal labels. Perception of the shape or object influenced how it was remembered.

Farah argued that people can lose their ability to recognize faces but not objects because face recognition relies on a different cognitive process compared to other objects. What is the name of this process?

Configural processing

The difference between Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory.

DM: Memory for facts & events (Semantic + Episodic Memory) Non-DM: Habits, Skills & Procedures. Ex: Playing the Piano 🎹

What's the mechanism of forgetting in Short Term Memory>

Decay vs Interference > Proactive Interference

Binocular Cues

Diff images from 2 eyes (binocular disparity); intersection of images (convergence)

Issues and debates - different themes

Different memory models

Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA) model

Different parts of the brain are involved in different types of memory processing.

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty making new declarative/episodic memories; usually spares nondeclarative, semantic, working, and implicit memory

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil conclude about Spanish and English digit spans?

Digit span in Spanish population is significantly shorter than English speaking cultures, due to word length effect associated with digits.

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil conclude in Part 1?

Digit span increased with age from 5 - 17 years

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil conclude for Part 2?

Digit span of older people is similar to 7 year olds. Digit span declines with age, but dementia does not affect digit span.

Rods

Dim light + bad accuracy/acuity

Disengagement:

Disengagement: Unlock attention from a given visual stimulus.

Animals lack the ability to communicate using the language universal of

Displacement

anterograde amnesia

Disruption in acquiring new memories for events occurring after the brain injury

Patient K. C. could not remember events in his personal life (episodic memory) but is able to remember facts (semantic memory). This is an example of ___.

Dissociation

Distal stimulus vs. proximal

Distal is reality; proximal is what we see

Distributed vs. Massed

Distributed practice is better memory (better to space out sessions)

Craik and Watkins (1973)

Does Rehearsal Matter? subject study a list of words and their task is to recall the last word that starts with the letter D. Surprise memory test of all the D words. They changed how many words appear before the D word. Subjects generally performed very poorly rehearsal and maintenance of information in STM does not guarantee good memory

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Does one level on one variable predict level on another?

Rhyme

Does the word rhyme with chair? Y/N Pear

Level of processing effect

Don't need to ask people to "remember" stuff. Intention to remember is irrelevant Important= You think about the task they used. Not the task change the level of processing

filter model of attention uses what?

Donald Broadbent Uses dichotic listening and shadowing

Brain orientation

Dorsal (top), ventral (bottom), posterior (front), anterior (back) Medial (mid-line) Lateral (away from mid-line) Cutting three ways: Coronal, saggital, transverse

An individual with brain damage in Broca's area has difficulty producing speech but has no problem with comprehension. Another individual with brain damage in Wernicke's area has impairment in comprehension but has no problem with producing speech. This example demonstrates ___.

Double dissociation

Pavio (1971) proposed the ___, which states that words that denote concrete objects, as opposed to abstract words, can be encoded into memory twice: once in terms of their verbal attributes (words) and once in terms of their imaginal attributes (pictures).

Dual coding hypothesis

The modal modal

During retrieval, information is transferred from LTM to WM.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

EEG is based on recordings of electrical brain activity measured at the surface of the scalp. Pro: Very good temporal resolution (down to ms), noninvasive Con: Poor spatial resolution, no subcortical coverage

What is the difference between encoding specificity and transfer appropriate processing?

ES: cues match at study and test (studying ideally in the same room as the test) TAP: processing matches at study and test (studying with practice problems for a math test)

Counterbalancing

Each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts. Divided equally between the conditions and experiment them in different order. e.g. one group tested in A then B, other group do B then A.

What is source monitoring

Each event is rembered by both its content( a phone conversation) and the source of that content( whom did one have that phone conversation with) and the different factors affect the rememberance of each

Who conducted a study on himself using nonsense syllables constructed as consonant-vowel-consonant trigrams to examine the retention and forgetting memories as a function of time?

Ebbinghaus

Origin of Memory Research

Ebbinghaus single-handedly created the field of memory research. Prior to him, memory was considered an unresearchable phenomenon.

The importance of retrieval conditions

Encoding --> Storage --> Retrieval Encoding= process information deeply in order to have strong memory Shallow= Week memory Trace strength= permanent at the time of encoding Multiple choice test is easier than a recall test.

Engaging:

Engaging: Lock attention onto a new visual stimulus (and ignoring distractors).

Stages of Info Processing

Environmental input --> sensory register --> short term mem <--> long term memory and/or response

___ memory is based on your personal experiences, whereas ___ memory is based on your conceptual knowledge.

Episodic; semantic

Book example of Levels of Analysis

Evaluating a car performance: You could take it for a drive and assess gas/brakes. You could look under the hood and asses the engine. You could look inside the engine and see what happens inside each part.

Absent-mindedness (shallow processing)

Everyday memory failures in remembering information and intended activities, probably caused by insufficient attention or superficial, automatic processing during encoding

spontaneous memory

Ex. Remembering a specific event that happened during a specific chemistry class when you were in high school

What is the difference between the approach of experimental cognitive psychology and the approach of behaviorism?

Experimental cognitive psychologist want to explain why people behave the way they do

How was digit span measured in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

Experimenter read aloud sequences of digits, one per second. Read increasing sequences of digits to recall in correct order.

Change blindness

Failure to notice changes in visual stimuli due to disruption in image

Inattention blindness

Failure to notice changes that are easily visual due to focus on one part of scene

What is the two-stage theory called in which people create and relate lists of descriptions of concepts in semantic memory?

Feature comparison model

What are the gestalt grouping principles?

Figure ground relations, similarity, proximity, closure, good continuation, common fate

Early Info Processing Models

Fixed + no overlap; one at a time w/ serial processing

Wernicke's aphasia

Fluent spontaneous speech; poor comprehension; poor repetition and naming

Forgetting episodic memory

Forgetting due to retrieval cue failure (forgetting when and where something happened). Memory trace can be transformed/ changed

If a child is able to imagine what kind of punishment he or she might get for not turning in a class assignment in the future, this example represents which stage of Piaget's cognitive development?

Formal Operations

Smith & Graesser (1981)

Found better memory in atypical events than scripted events

John Watson

Founded behaviorism

How many times were the learning trials repeated in Baddeley's experiment?

Four learning trials (presented with same list four times)

Schema

Framework/body of knowledge about topic

Semantic Memory

General World Knowledge

Engle Tradition

General nature of working memory capacity as a measure of executive attention and de-emphasizes the multicomponent working memory approach advocated by Baddeley

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Generates + maintains image; real world attributes of objects; influenced by knowledge + expectations

What is Miller's magic number?

George Miller 1956 7+ or -2

Brown Peterson Paradigm

Given words to remember, distractor, repeat numbers, and recall

ERPs

Great for measuring time; not good for location/necessary processes/subcortical structures

The cocktail part problem

He wanted to know what happens to the verbal stimuli that is being ignored. Do people automatically process information that they ignore? In a dichotic listening task, he asked subjects to shadow one channel. Later he asked subjects what was presented in the unattended channel. Listeners seldom noticed when that message was spoken in a foreign language or even in reverse speech. People often have no memory of information presented in the unattended channel -- even if the information was presented 35 times (Moray, 1959)!

What happened to HM's memory?

He was assessed of having anterograde (loss of ability to make NEW memories) and retrograde (loss of ability to recall events PRIOR to the injury) amnesia.

Schemas + Memory

Helps memory that matches; hurt memories that do not match; helps organize info; may make us overgeneralize

Ch. 7 Priming effects reveal what about semantic memory?

How it is structured

Issues and debates - practical issues in the design and implementation of research

How to measure memory and validity of experimental design

Inattention blindness naturalistic example

If you are looking into a store window and focusing on the items inside, you don't notice streaks on the window. However, when you focus on the streaks you don't notice the items inside

Isolation or Von Restorff Effect

Improved memory for one piece of information that is made distinct form the information around it.

Ebbinghaus

In 1885; studied, delayed test; one of first experiments in cognition

How is information organized in semantic memory?

In a network of nodes

Difference between TOT and feeling of knowing

In feeling of knowing, despite a strong feeling that you could recognize something later, you cannot say much more about the inaccessible info. In comparison, when a person is in a tip of the tongue state, there is a feeling that retrieval is immanent

Multitasking

In general, increasing different types of tasks makes it harder. When breaking tasks into parts, it makes it easier

Overall results of cell phone paper

Inattention blindness on phone with distracted, disengaged conversation

Failure to see an object we are looking at directly because our attention is directed elsewhere is called ___.

Inattentional blindness

Later Info Processing Models

Includes parallel processing where stages aren't fixed and can overlap; has serial processing still included

What is the function of lateral inhibition

Increase the contrast of edges

What are the 3 experimental designs?

Independent measures, repeated measures and matched pairs

Ch. 8 The inability to remember life events before two to four years of age is called

Infantile amnesia

dendrites

Information comes into a neuron through the

Spatial referencing of semantic memory

Input can be fragmentary, we can piece factual information together that has been learned at different points in time.

Ch. 6 Forgetting one memory as a result of the influence of other memories occurs as a result of

Interference

Monocular Cues

Interposition, linear perspective, relative size, elevation

B.F. Skinner

Introduced operant conditioning

Wernicke's area

Involved in language understanding

Broca's area

Involved in speech planning and programing

Ch. 8 Prospective memory

Is better when it is event-based

Exp 4 Cell phone Purpose

Is cell phone convo different from passenger?

Case

Is the word in Capital Letters ? Y/N POWER

Episodic Memory

Is tide to a certain time and place

True Experiment Pros

Isolates cause-effect; high control

Agnosias

Issues w/ different regions; importance of patterns

What was the problem with traditional behaviorism as revealed to experimental psychologists doing work during WWII?

It did not address practical concerns, such as vigilance

Ch. 7 In what way was the foundational research by Bartlett different from than by Ebbinghaus?

It focused on meaningful materials

In what way was the foundational research by Bartlett different from than by Ebbinghaus?

It focused on meaningful materials

What did Bartlett believe about memory?

It should not be divided into its parts and treated as independent from other functioning, but should be studied to capture the relationship between memory

Why do we need iconic memory?

It stores information from previous fixations; then allows other processes to put the information together into a continuous experience

How do we define language given that researchers can't agree on a single definition?

It's defined by the language universals (semanticity, arbitrary, flexibility, naming, displacement, productivity/generativity)

Dissociating Explicit and Implicit Memory

Jacoby and Dalla (1981) subject studied words under three levels of processing conditions( structural, phonemic, semantic) Two different Test: standard yes/ no recognition test word naming- name briefly presented word they wanted to show that you don't need amnesia patient to show that you don't need explicit and implicit memory. You can have one or the other People can identify the word 2 thirds of the time for ht word naming test.

The representatives heuristic

Judging the probability of something based on how much it resembles its population or the process that produced it

What is the metacomprehension measure called when people are asked to estimate how well they understood the materials they studied for and are compared to their actual test performance?

Judgment of learning

Endel Tulving

Just because you can't access information at this moment, does not mean its is not in your memory. Available and accessible Only way to know if its Available it has to be accessible

A woman is lifting weights at the gym. She is able to discriminate that the weights that she is currently holding is slightly heavier than the previous weights she lifted. This is an example of a ___, the smallest amount of physical change that a person can detect.

Just noticeable difference

Covert attention experiment (stationary eyes)

Keep eyes on a fixated point, arrow shows you where to focus attention, box appears in that corner (valid) or the other corner (invalid) people did better when knowing the place where attention should be directed

according to the modal model proposed by atkinson & shiffrin, what causes information to transfer from short-term to long term memory

Keep information in short term memory for a long time by rehearsal

Nondeclarative Memory

Knowing how (skills) + hard to explain how you know

Ch. 8 Source monitoring is

Knowing where information came from

Top Down Processing

Knowledge + context drive comprehension; helps us get rid of ambigity

Metamemory

Knowledge about (meta) one's own memory how it works, and how it fails to work

Metamemory

Knowledge about how memory works + strategies

Non declarative/ Implicit Memory

Knowledge that influences though and behavior without any necessary involvement of consciousness

Retrieval from LTM

LTM exists for all sensory modalities, multiple copies of a memory were retained. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (Brown and McNeill 1968) showed that people were able to accurately predict that they could recognise a correct answer even if they could not recall the answer at that moment in time.

Issues and debates - psychology as a science

Laboratory experiments and controls

Linguistic Relativity

Language can effect perception.. i.e. ability to recognize colors as different

Semanticity

Language conveys a meaning

Semanticity

Language conveys meaning

Phonology

Language sounds + rules for combining sounds

Wernicke's Area

Language understanding

Temporal lobe

Language, hearing, visual pattern recognition

Iconic Memory Capacity + Time

Large capacity w/ brief length of time

Scheme/Scripts

Large scale bodies of knowledge about real world settings and events Guide our understanding and interactions with the world and other people Like the script of a play

Scripts

Large scale semantic knowledge structures that guide interpretation and comprehension of ordered daily experience

Law of Large Numbers/Sample Size

Larger sample size = more representative of population/process

Quasi Exp Con

Less control/lower internal validity = unable to determine cause

Results of Cell phone Exp 1

Less likely to recognize road signs; time looking did not matter; inattention blindness

Lexical Decision Task

Letter strings test; looks for priming

Word Superiority Effect

Letters better identified in context of known words

A timed task in which people decide if letter strings are or are not English words.

Lexical decision

Photopigments

Light sensitive molecules

Kahneman's Capacity Model

Limited capacity; we allocate to different tasks; we divide attention

What were the 4 conditions in Baddeley's experiment?

List A - 10 acoustically similar words List B - 10 acoustically dissimilar words List C - 10 semantically similar words List D - 10 semantically dissimilar words

Which were the baseline control groups in Baddeley's experiment?

List A and C

Famous John Watson experiment

Little Albert

Why is shallow processing typically bad for memory?

Little attention to meaning but meaning is usually What's most important to remember.

What are some of Ebbinhaus's discoveries

Logarithmic forgetting function Repetition improves memory Spacing effect

Affirming the Consequent

Logical fallacy where you presume that if A (an earthquake) is caused by B (a volcano), then that the presence of an earthquake proves there is a volcano

Denying the Antecedent

Logical fallacy where you presume that if A is not present (i.e. not being hungry), then B will not be present (i.e. not eating); being hungry is not the only cause of eating

Denying the Consequent

Logically valid. Agrees with rule if A, then B... reverses it and says that if B (no eating) is not present, then A (hunger; the cause) is not present.

Affirm the Antecendent

Logically valid. Agrees with rule that if A, then B (if hungry, you will eat.)

Hippocampus

Long term memory

Declarative/Explicit Memory

Long-term knowledge that can be retrieved and then reflected on consciously

Sematic Memory

Long-term memory for general world knowledge

Episodic Memory

Long-term memory for personally experienced information

Airport Screening Paper Purpose

Looking to see if visual search can be improved with practice when scanning for weapons; whether practice would transfer to recognize other weapons

Exp 3 Cell phone changes

Looks for when deficits happen; whether memory reflects performance; changed to follow car and measure ERP (changes in attention)

Decay

Loss of info across time A. caused by fading B. an older theory of forgetting form long term memory

maitenance rehearsal

Low level, repetitive information recycling

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

MRI uses magnetic fields and radiowaves to produce high-quality images of brain structures without injecting radioactive tracers. A magnet creates a magnetic field around the head, and radiowaves are sent through the magnetic field. fMRI relies on the magnetic properties of blood to enable scientists to see images of blood flow in the brain as it occurs -- the BOLD (Blood oxygen level dependent) signal. Pro: Good spatial (down to mm) and relatively good temporal resolutions (down to 1-2 seconds). Noninvasive. Con: The BOLD signal is not the same as neuroactivity. Spatial and temporal resolution not great. Highly susceptible to motion artifacts. fMRI-Measures oxygen level in blood****

single cell recording

Mainly used in animal studies. A micro-electrode is inserted into the brain to obtain a record of extracellular potential in a single neuron. Pro: Very good spatial and temporal resolution. Con: Very invasive. Whole brain coverage impossible.

Standardisation

Making an experiment the same experience for all participants. Standardised instructions and standardised procedures.

TRUE EXPERIMENTS

Manipulate a variable

True Experiment

Manipulates Independent Variable, which we measure effect w/ dependent variable

Which inferential statistics test did you use in your practical?

Mann-Whitney U

Difference, ordinal data and independent groups

Mann-Whitney U test

What statistical test did Baddeley use?

Mann-Whitney U test: - looking for a difference - interval data (number of recall) - independent groups design

Pattern recognition

Meaning given to stimulus

Ch. 6 Elaborative rehearsal is

Meaning-related complex rehearsal/encoding

Simple Span Tasks

Measures short term stores (visuospatial/phonological); remember lists in order

Complex Span Tasks

Measures whole working memory system; remember lists in order when processing info

Results for acoustically dissimilar sounding words

Median - 7 Mode - 8 Mean - 7.12 Range - 5 SD - 5.66

Results for acoustically similar sounding words

Median - 8 Mode - 8 Mean - 7.94 Range - 4 SD - 1.73

Interference ( Episodic Memory)

Memories go through a period of consolidation to make them permanent.

Which of the following is true?

Memory is a process of reconstruction

transfer-appropriate processing

Memory is best when the kind of processing you do @ study matches for what you do @ test.

Encoding (Emotion)

Memory is better emotionally arousing items compared to neauttal items

False memory

Memory of something that did not happen

episodic memory

Memory of the personally experienced events

Forgetting semantic memory

Memory trace more robust and less susceptible to change.

STM encoding

Memory trace was held in an auditory or verbal form because of phonological similarity effect. Suggests STM encoding is primarily acoustic.

Who were the participants in Baddeley's experiment?

Men and women from the Applied Psychology Research Unit subject panel, Cambridge. Each group contained approximately 20 participants.

Real world attributes + visuospatial sketchpad

Mental Object rotation time is equivalent to time needed to rotate in real world

Diagnostic Effects of each VSSP

Mental Rotation: Mentally turning, spinning, and manipulating objects Boundary extension: People overestimate the boundaries of a visual scene than what was actually viewed. Representational momentum: Misremembering the movement of an object further along its path of travel than its actual last seen position.

What is the nature of episodic memory?

Mental diary - about experiences or events that occur. A record of events.

MEMORY

Mental process of acquiring and retaining info for later retrieval and the mental storage system that enables these processes.

STM capacity research

Miller - STM limited to around 7 items. 'Magic number seven, plus or minus two'

Schacter's sins of commission

Misattribution Suggestibility Bias

Misinformation effect

Misleading information hurts accuracy of memory; consistent helps memory

2 Parts of Metamemory

Monitoring (Judgments of Learning, feeling of knowing, etc.) and Control (strategy use)

What is the pressure called when a person focuses too much attention on the task and how they are doing it? For example, instead of focusing on the actual exam, the individual is looking at how fast or slow he or she is going compared to other classmates.

Monitoring Pressure

A person who loses vision in one eye can still perceive depth because of...

Monocular depth perception cues

What was the experimental hypothesis of your practical?

More acoustically dissimilar sounding words will be recalled than acoustically similar sounding words

Chunking

More complex units for memory; allows for more storage

Unexpected and Bad Events

More likely to trigger counterfactual thinking

Wong and wisstein showed that perception of objects presented in the figure (of the face-goblet picture) is

More precision than perception of object presented in the background

The study looking at implanting false memories of putting slime in a teachers desk showed?

More reports of false memories if there was a picture

The study looking at implanting false memories of putting slime in a teachers desk showed:

More reports of false memories if there was a picture.

Time/Frequency

More time & more repetitions typically lead to better memory.

The fatty coating of the neuron that helps to speed up the neural communication is known as the ___. This part of the neuron is often referred to as white matter.

Myelin sheath

Inattentional blindness is ______ due to presentation rate

NOT

Objectivity

Need to be impartial and judgement free

Task specific resources:

Needed for some tasks but not others. The nature of the task determines which resources are needed. Two tasks will only interfere if they share the same type of resources.

Evidence for Disengagement

Neglect is usually caused by parietal lobe damage. Patients usually have trouble with disengagement. Patients with Balint's syndrome also have trouble with disengagement. Balint's syndrome: Patients can focus on one object when it is presented alone, but they cannot focus their attention on more than one object even if the two objects are presented in close proximity

Double-blind procedure

Neither the participant nor the researcher knows the aim of the study. Eliminate experimenter effects.

Network models of Semantic Memory

Network: an interrelated set of concepts. Node: a point or location in the semantic space. Pathways: labeled, directional associations between concepts.

receptors

Neurons specialized to pick up info from the environments, such as in the eye, ear, and skin

Retroactive Interference

New learning hurts recall of old information

Interference

New/old info competes with new/old memory; worse w/ more info and similarity; temporary forgettnig

Retroactive interference

Newer material interferes backward in time with your recollection of older iems

Herbert Terrace conculded that paes like Nim Chimpsky cannot learn language. Which of the following is NOT a reason that led to this conclusion?

Nim could not construct meaningful utterances

William James

No experiments, reported observations of his own experiences

Arbitrary

No inherent connection between symbols and language used (words and meaning)

Ch. 8 Which is a way of representing propositions?

Node plus pathway

According to the semantic network, concepts can be considered as ___, a point or location in semantic space.

Nodes

Nodes and Pathways (Semantic Memory)

Nodes: a point/ location in the semantic memory Pathways: labeled , directional , associations between concepts

What type of memory is well developed when babies are first born?

Nondeclarative Memory

What did the articulatory suppression effect show?

Occupying the AL with irrelevant information reduces performances

The Articulatory Suppression Effect shows:

Occupying the articulatory loop with irrelevant information reduces performance.

MENTAL PROCESSES

Occur rapidly; below the level of conscious awareness

Order effects

Occurs when repeated measures design is used. Practice effect - become practised at the test and improve their performance Fatigue effect - become tired or bored so performance deteriorates

Proactive Interference

Older material interferes forward in time with your recollection of the current item.

What's the Brown-Peterson paradigm? What does it show?

On each trail you see 3 consonants countdown by 3s from a random number. After a variable delay period, you recall the consonants. Its show effect of proactive interfence.

How the Attenuation model of attention works

Once the attended and unattended messages have been identified, both pass through the attenuator but the attended messages emerges at full strength while the unattended is weaker (attenuated)

Moray's experiment showed not all information is filtered out and may be processed enough to determine it's meaning. Other researchers followed up with this experiment and performed the "Dear Aunt Jane" experiment which found....

One ear participants heard "Dear 7 Jane" and in the other heard "9 Aunt 6" Rather then reporting hearing "Dear 7 Jane" which was presented to the attended ear, they reported hearing "Dear Aunt Jane" This proposed they were taking the meaning of the words into account... an example of top down processing

Distraction

One stimulus interfering with the processing of another stimulus

QUASI EXPERIMENTS

One variable cannot be manipulated

Conclusion of Sachs study

Only for a brief time can we remember the exact wording of a meaningful sentence

ERP

Only gives involved areas; can only give activity

Retrieval of episodic memory

Only possible if it has been encoded and stored. Retrieval changes the memory that is stored, as a new episode that links to it is now encoded and stored.

Ordinal data

Ordered in some way, e.g. ranking

You should think about similarities between unique items and think about differences between similar items to remember the items best. This is the principle of:

Organization & Distinctiveness

You should think about similarities between unique terms and think about differences between similar items to remember the items best. This is the principle of what?

Organization/Distinctiveness

Perception

Organization/Intepretation of sensations

Organization

Organizing information into groups based on relationships is better for memory based on relationships

Types of Attention

Orientation, Selection, Control, Mental Resource

Orientation + Attention

Orienting reflex where we switch attention w/ abrupt changes

What part of the four major regions or lobes of the brain is involved with spatial and sensory processing?

Parietal lobe

Ch. 6 During TOT state, a person has access to _____ in long term memoey

Partial information

Effort after meaning

Participants connect a stimulus with knowledge or experience they already possessed. Once the stimulus gains meaning, it can be more readily stored.

What happened after the fourth learning trial in Baddeley's experiment?

Participants given a 15 minute interference task involving copying eight digit sequences. A surprise retest on the word list sequence was given after.

Demand characteristics

Participants have certain expectations concerning the experiment. Actual communication, what the participant may have heard about the experiment, effect of the experimenter causes the participant to alter their behaviour to meet the expectations.

Sachs (1967) study

Participants heard a paragraph and were interrupted with a 4-choice recognition test for one critical sentence either immediately or after hearing an additional 80 or 160 syllables of the text Immediate: 90% After 80-160 syllables: only the choice that changed the meaning had high performance; the paraphrases and the original sentence could not be distinguished from each other

Participant variables

Participants themselves may affect results as they have different characteristics, such as intelligence, level of motivation, age, personality, skills.

inattentional blindness gorilla experiment

Participants told to count the number of passes between people, then a gorilla walks through and almost half didn't notice

Which of following is a double dissociation?

Patient A shows normal performance in task X but impaired performance in task Y, while patient B shows normal performance in task Y but impaired performance in task X

Henry Molaison (H.M.)

Patient who dealt with epilepsy and had seizures. Due to this, he had a radical surgery that removed his hippocampi. Due to surgery, demonstrated importance of hippocampi and experiment conducted by Brenda Milner showed difference between implicit and explicit memory locations.

Evidence for Shifting

Patients with damage to the midbrain have trouble making voluntary eye movements, which are essential for shifting attention from one target stimulus to another. Patients with Balint's syndrome might also have trouble shifting attention.

What is inattentional blindess?

People do not perceive visual stimuli tha are not attended to

Load theory of attention

People have a processing capacity and perceptual load

Why did Ebbinghaus use nonsense syllables in his memory experiments?

People have no previous learning of nonsense syllables

In the Loftus and Palmer study, individuals were shown a film of a car accident. A week later, they were asked questions about the accident. What did the researchers find?

People stated that there was broken glass when the question implied that the cars smashed each other.

Remembering

Perception is an active construction of what we think we see using our prior knowledge.

___ refers to how we interpret and understand sensory info, whereas ___ refers to the stimulation from the environment and how it gets processed in the nervous system.

Perception; sensation

Who proposed the theory that when you close your eyes, your brain stops processing much of the information in the environment and frees attention resources that can now do other kinds of thinking?

Perfect, Andrade, and Eagan (2011)

Ch. 6 Episodic memory generally convey

Personally experienced events

STM duration research

Peterson and Peterson - using an interference task to prevent rehearsal. Required to remember a single trigram for intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 secs. Correct recall of trigram was likely after a short interval but performance dropped after 15-18 secs.

Action slip

Phenomenon in which a person does an unintended, but more automatic action in place of an intended, less automatic action

Levels of analysis with the brain

Physiology of cognition can be studied at levels ranging from the whole brain, structures within the brain, to chemicals that create signals within these structures

Duration of LTM

Potentially a lifetime. Bahrick (1975) found that identification of names and faces in High School Yearbook was between 70-80% accurate 48 years after leaving school.

Capacity of LTM

Potentially infinite. Brady (2008) showed 2500 objects over 5.5 hours. Participants were shown the original object paired with a different object, identification was 92% and if different object was similar 88%

Results of Aiport Screening

Practice effects (better at recognizing faster + when eyes see object); not more likely to fixate on target; practice does not transfer to new objects

Ch. 4 Which of the following is NOT an aspect of attention?

Practice in using attention increases its limits almost indefinitely.

Strengths of Feature Comparison

Predicted semantic relatedness effect Predicted typicality effect

Judgements of Learning

Predicting how well something is learned/chance of remembering; most accurate when delayed judgement

Judgment of Learning (Arbuckle & Cuddy 1969)

Predicting likelihood of future recall after learning but before testing

Hawthorne effect

Presence of the experimenter can affect performance

In a serial recall test, people were able to recall more items in the early positions called a ___ effect (possibly due to a strong memory storage) and recall items in the final positions called a ___ effect (possibly due to an immediate recall).

Primacy; recency

Dual Task Method

Primary task: the one we are most interested in Secondary task: to be performed simultaneously with the first one .

Emotion and memory

Prioritized processing, more brain regions are active during the encoding of emotional material.

PROS & CONS OF INDIV. DIFF.

Pro: can assess complicated relationships between occurring variables Con: loss of control; may not be ecologically valid; no cause & effect

PROS & CONS OF TRUE EXP.

Pro: isolate cause & effect relationships; experimenter has high control Con: can lower ecological validity

PROS & CONS OF QUASI EXP.

Pro: takes individual differences into account Con: loss of control

The difference between proactive interference & retroactive interference. (P —> O R —> N)

Proactive Interference: Old learning interference with New learning. Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with Old learning

Brain imaging

Procedures that make it possible to visualize areas of the human brain that are activated by different types of stimuli, tasks, or behaviors. The two most common techniques used in perception research are positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

The lexical decision task involves how long people can identify whether letter strings are or are not English words. What type of model is this task called?

Process model

BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING

Processing of information driven by data and features. (Pandemonium & Geon Models)

TOP-DOWN PROCESSING

Processing that's driven by knowledge and context EX: PUTTING A PUZZLE TOGETHER KNOWING THE FINALIZED IMAGE

What's the generation effect?

Producing the to be remembered stimulus from a cue > better memory

Generation Effect

Producing your own examples leads to better memory.

Ch. 8 _____ is remembering to do something in the future.

Prospective memory

Imagine taking pictures of many different types of cats and then morphing all those images together to get an average or idealized representation of a cat. This example represents a form of ___.

Prototype

Evidence for Engagement

Pulvinar nucleus is involved in preventing attention from being focused on an unwanted stimulus as well as directing attention to significant stimuli. In a PET study, LaBerge and Buchsbaum (1990) found increased activity in the pulvinar nucleus when subjects have to ignore a stimulus.

What were the results in Baddeley's experiment?

Recall of acoustically similar sounding words and acoustically dissimilar sounding words was not statistically significant. Acoustic does not affect LTM. Semantically similar words were more difficult to learn than dissimilar words.

Dendrites

Receive signals from other neurons

What aspect(s) of visual search got better with practice in the McCarleyet al. paper on visual screening of luggage?

Recognition of the camouflaged target improved not fixation

What did the paper looking at visual search like that in TSA screening find?

Recognizing the target once fixated gets better with practice People don't fixate more with practice

Two factors that influence recognition

Recollection Familiarity

Schemata

Reconstruction versus Episodic Recall: Recall is a reconstruction based on elements from the original story and our existing schema . A schema may override cognitive processing

Recording electrode and reference electrode

Recording tip inside neuron and reference located some distance away so its not affected by the electrical signal Difference in charge between them is fed into the computer and displayed on the screen

Ch. 6 The deliberate cycling or practice of information is called

Rehearsal

composite memory

Related ideas are fused with an existing memory

Thalamus

Relay for sensory receptors

According to Grice's (1975) conversational maxims for following the cooperative principle, what is the conversational rule called when utterances should stay on topic to the discourse?

Relevance

Partial Report vs. Whole Report

Remember part of a thing vs remember all of it

Intentional

Remember this word: DAY

Episodic memory

Remembered experiences

Semantic memory

Remembered facts

A superior memory than would otherwise be expected for life events around age 20 is known as ___.

Reminiscence bump

Maintenance =/ LTM

Repeated exposure does not necessarily enhance long term retention. ex: When asked to reproduce or recognize coins, people have trouble Type of Processing Matters

Rehearsal

Repeating stimulus over and over Like trying to remember a phone number

Process Models

Represent the processes that are involved in cognitive mechanisms, with boxes usually representing specific processes and arrows indicating connections between processes

Problems with analytic introspection

Results varied from person to person and difficult to verify because they were interpreted by inner mental processes

What did the test in your practical suggest?

Results were significant when tested against critical values. But was not in the direction we predicted it to go in. Accept null hypothesis

Repressed Memories proof that they may be real

Retrieval cues help, suppression can cause forgetting, a few cases agree

Retrieval

Retrieval was largely ignored until the 1960's Forgetting was explained as the failure of transfer from STM to LTM or perhaps as info not being processed "deeply" enough, or even as info simply being lost from LTM. Not knowledge you are lacking,but memory

Retroactive Interference & it's role in memory.

Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with Old learning It causes forgetting

___ interference occurs when new information blocks your ability to remember old information, whereas ___ interference occurs when old information blocks your ability to remember new information.

Retroactive; proactive

A man with a head injury can't remember how he got the injury. However, his ability to encode new memories seems to be fine. What's wrong with him ?

Retrograde Amnesia

A man with a head injury can't remember how he got the injury. However, his ability to encode new memories seems to be fine. What's wrong with him?

Retrograde Amnesia

Ch. 6 Loss of memories prior to an injury is called

Retrograde amnesia

Solutions of semantic memory model limitations

Revised model - connections reflect associative strength & typicality.

Articulatory loop

Revives memory traces by rehearsing them, subvocal speech.

Phonemic

Rhyming or not ex: Yellow does this rhyme with mellow ( shallow)

Although both hemispheres communicate with each other, different functions or actions of the brain tend to rely on one hemisphere over the other known as cerebral lateralization. For instance, the ___ hemisphere tends to be involved with spatial processing, whereas the ___ hemisphere tends to be involved with language processing.

Right; left

Example of selective attention

Rodger focusing on his math homework while ignoring the people talking in the library

Example of divided attention

Rodger playing his phone game while also listening in on the conversation going on around him

What did Baddeley conclude?

STM is largely acoustic and LTM uses semantic coding.

What's the difference between STM and WM?

STM: Holds information for a brief period of time WM: Is concerned with the processing and manipulating information that occurs during complex cognition

what's the difference between the idea of STM and the idea of WM?

STM: simple storage system WM: simple storage system + central executive

What's the difference between the idea of STM and the idea of WM?

STM: simple storage system WM: simple storage system + central executive

During a ___, eyes sweep or jerk from one point to another in fast movements.

Saccade

Ratio data

Same as interval, but there is a true zero point, e.g. cm or seconds

Ch. 6 The reduction in the number of trials necessary for relearning compared to the original learning is a result of

Savings

What measures did Herman Ebbinhaus use in his memory experiment?

Savings To determine how much was forgotten after a particular delay: savings= (original time to learn list) - (time to relearn list after delay)

A ___ is a mental framework or body of knowledge about some topic. For example, if a person was to think of a classroom, one might think of student desks, an instructor, and a board.

Schema

Schema theory

Schemas are parcels of stored knowledge or mental representations of information about a specific object or event. Used in recognition and interpretation of unfamiliar objects and events.

Late Filter Models

Selection based on meaning; all info is processed and in memory; limit in response; all in pattern recognition

late filter model

Selection for attention is based on meaning• All info is processed for meaning and "gets into" memory Attention is limited in terms of how to respond

Early Filter (Broadbent)

Selection is based on physical characteristics; ignored is not analyzed for patterns

Early Filter Model (Broadbent)

Selection is based on physical characteristics• Selection occurs before pattern recognition cocktail party phenomenon disproves this theory

When you remember information better by relating it to yourself in some way, this memory effect is known as the ___.

Self-reference effect

Which type of long-term memory storage deals with general world knowledge or facts unrelated to one's personal experience?

Semantic

Do the stores operate independently or are they interrelated?

Semantic memory can operate independently of episodic memory. Episodic memory is unlikely to operate without semantic memory as we need to be able to draw on previous knowledge of objects, people and events to understand them.

___ focuses on how semantic retrieval is faster or slower due to nodes being closer or farther apart, whereas ___ focuses on how semantic retrieval is faster or slower due to the weights of the nodes (i.e., these weights can either fire or inhibit semantic retrieval).

Semantic network; connectionism

Ch. 7 SOA is

Semantic order of activation

What types of memory are spared in anterograde amnesia?

Semantic, implicit, non-declarative, STM

Language Universals

Semanticity, Arbitrary, Flexibility, Naming, Displacement, Productivity/Generativity

Chapter 5

Sensory and short-term memory

In the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, which of the three basic components holds environmental stimuli temporarily as the information gets converted into a usable mental form?

Sensory memory

What are the 3 basic memory stores?

Sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory

Somatosensory Cortex

Sensory specialization in parietal

Semantic Knowledge is built through...

Sensory/perceptual/motor experiences

Central Fissure

Separates frontal lobe

Connectionism

Several levels of knowledge necessary for performance can be represented as massive, interconnected networks. Performance consists of a high level of parallel processing among the several levels of knowledge. The basic building block of these interconnected networks is the simple connection between nodes in memory.

overt attention VS covert attention

Shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes Shifting attention from one place to another while keeping eyes stationary

Word length effect

Short monosyllabic words were recalled more successfully than longer polysyllabic words. Longer words filled up the limited capacity resulting in decay. The LONGER the word, the more capacity was used up and forgetting more likely.

Word length effect

Short words are recalled better than long words. Faster speakers have higher working memory span.

Heuristic

Shortcut, automatic

Chess Expert vs. Novice

Show chess pieces on board in random and game positions and told to recall positions; masters better at game postiions; equal on random positions

Why was Franciscus Donders experiment important?

Showed mental responses cannot be measured directly but must be inferred from behavior

The feature analysis usually involves bottom-up processing but can use top-down when..

Showed people an orange triangle, blue circle, and black circle with hole. Illusory conjunctions occurred as normal. However, when told they were carrots, lakes, and tires they didn't occur. Because previous knowledge was being applied.

How did HM contribute to understanding memory?

Shows that there is short term and long term memory storage. Informs us that short term memories need to be transferred to long term storage to be able to be retrieved again.

Lesions

Sign of Brain Damage; in small number of subjects; brain heals; shows necessary areas

Working Memory

Similar to short term memory Contains components for actively manipulating information.

The difference between simple & complex span task.

Simple Span Task: Remembering a short list in order. Complex Span Task: Remembering a short list in order while processing other materials @ the same time , Working Memory (WM)

Span Measure

Simple: Retention of a list of items; digits span, letter span. Complex: Retention of a set of items along with an additional cognitive process

What's the difference between simple and complex?

Simple: remember short lists in order; STM Complex: Remember short lists in order while processing other material at the same time; WM

Flexibility

Since connections between the symbols and their referents are arbitrary, we can change them

Methods of Neuroimaging

Single Cell Recording Event-related Potentials (ERPs) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) (Functional) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI/fMRI) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Which of the following neuroimaging techniques has the best spatial resolution?

Single cell recording

Non Declarative

Skills, Priming, Simple Classical conditioning, Non associative learning

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924)

Sleep prevents interference from occuring

Phonemes

Smallest segment of sound in a given language

Phonemes

Smallest segment of sound in language

Problems with Short Term Memory

Some patients without long term memory deficits w/ short term mem problems

WMM Individual differences

Some people have better STM than others. Poor WM has been associated with dyslexia and Specific language impairment.

Ignoring "task-irrelevant stimuli" is not only due to the load of the task you are doing but also how powerful the "task-irrelevant stimuli" is

Someone whisper could be ignored but if a load siren went off you would probably notice that Demonstrated by the Stroop Effect

Ch. 8 Fiction becoming fact is a result of a problem in

Source monitoring

What did Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil find about Spanish and English digit span?

Spanish figures were about one digit span below English speakers. Due to differences in word length as Spanish words take longer to say, so takes more space in the phonological loop.

spacial resolution

Spatial resolution is a term that refers to the number of pixels utilized in construction of a digital image. Images having higher spatial resolution are composed with a greater number of pixels than those of lower spatial resolution

Relationship and ordinal data

Spearman's rho test

Broca's Area

Speech Production + Grammar specialization in frontal lobe

Semantic Mem Activation

Spreads over time; strength weakens over time; spreads to properties first

Activation (Semantic Memory)

Spreads throughout a network along the links to other concepts activating nodes it encounters along the way.

Morris, Bransford, and Franks

Standard old/ recognition test: single word at a time and asking if we have seen the word or not Deep task creates a stronger memory trace test condition can change how you view memory strength

Property Statement

Statements in which the relationship being expressed is "X has the property or feature Y" (e.g. "A robin has wings.")

How do we resolve the meaning of words?

Step 1: activate all meanings at a low level Step 2: deactivate irrelevant meanings based on context

Phonological Similarity Effect

Stimuli that sound similar are harder to recall than stimuli that sound dissimilar. The phonological similarity effect even happens with visual stimuli... but why? Articulatory Control Process

Triesman's Attenuation Model (revised after donald broadbent's was shown to be wrong)

Stimulus analysis proceeds in a hierarchy starting with analysis of physical features, syllables, letters, words, grammar, and meaning. If cognitive capacity is overloaded, the later stages of analysis are omitted. Detection thresholds of stimuli consistent with the current goals are lowered.

Attention can be influenced by----

Stimulus salience- physical properties of a stimulus (color, contrast, movement) This is bottom-up processing

The prime

Stimulus that causes the priming (first)

The target

Stimulus that receives activation from the prime (second)

Templates

Stored models of catagorized patterns that let us identify meaningful things

Structural models vs Process models

Structural models: represents structures in the brain that are involved in specific functions Process models: illustrates how a process operates

Syntax

Structure of sentence; putting words in meaningful order

Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)

Studied a list of 48 words Free Recall: 18.8 words Cued recall (given category names as cues): 35.8 words What happens to those 17 words?

Edward Toleman

Studied rats in mazes which the rats created a cognitive map

what is the evidence for the preattentive stage

Subjects were shown a screen with two black numbers and four different colored shapes. There might be a green circle and red triangle and subjects sometimes reported seeing a red circle and green triangle (Illusory conjunctions) this is because at an early stage, features are independent or "free-floating"

Ch. 8 The reminiscence bump is

Superior memory for life events

inhibition

Suppression of salient but irrelevant info that reduces its activation level

What type of reasoning involves a three-statement logical form, with the first two parts stating the premises taken to be true, and the third stating a conclusion based on those premises?

Syllogistic reasoning

A person who experiences seeing different colors when hearing different people's voices or taste experiences when feeling different textures is likely to have a condition called ___.

Synesthesia

which of the following letter is pronounced as an alveolar sound

T

Ch. 8 When you forget something, but feel like retrieval is imminent, this is called

TOT state

Info Processing w/ Computer Analogy

Take in input; we encode it; recode it; decide; make new expression; save; output

The testing effect show that

Taking a test can improve memory

The testing effect shows that:

Taking a test can improve memory.

Which of the following is most likely to trigger a form of attention capture?

Tarantula

Airport Screening DVs

Target recognition, response time, saccades, probability of fixation (eyes scanning over object), false alarms, dwells (longer fixation time on thing)

Task general resources

Task general resources: Relevant to all task, no matter what their nature. Any two tasks will interfere with each other.

What can scientists do with transcranial magnetic stimulation

Temporarily impair a specific brain region

Transient anomia

Temporary

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to look for information that confirms conclusion, belief, or hypothesis

Primary Effect

Tendency to recall the first terms of list

Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)

Tested 4 amnesics and 8 controls They had these subjects study words, and then tested one of four ways free recall: recall any words that you remember recognition: show words that they have study and some words they have not Word- stem completion: cha___ they then need to fill it out with the first word that comes to mind. Word Fragment identification: see a little bit of the words with speckles, you visual degrade it. Doesn't require to think past to what the words that you studied Amnesiac have better implicit memory

According to biederman, which of the following is not important for object recognition

Texxture of the object

B.F. Skinner's experiment with operant conditioning

The Skinner box- teaching mouse to pull lever with presentation of food or shocks

Accessibility

The degree to which information can be retrieved from memory

Baddeley & Hitch (1974) report an experiment in which participants were to perform a reasoning task of various difficulty ("A precedes B" T/F? "B does not precede A" T/F? etc.). In addition to this primary task they were to repeat "the the the," repeatedly count from 1 to 6, or repeat a set of random digits. Performance was compared against single-task performance.

The dual-task demands were particularly pronounced when the second task was the random digit task, especially in the negative passive condition

What was your practical about?

The effect of acoustic similarity on short term memory

Ch. 6 What is the finding that memory is better when people actually do something?

The enactment effect

Predictive validity

The extent to which the performance on the measure can predict future performance on a similar criterion.

Ecological validity

The extent to which the research can be generalised to other situations (real life or everyday situations).

state-dependent learning

The finding that people are more likely to remember things when their physiological state at retrieval matches that at encoding

testing effect

The finding that the additional experience that you get from test actually helps you remember the information better.

typicality effect

The finding that the more typical members of a category are classified more quickly than the less typical category members

Semantic Priming

The idea of the broad activation of concepts in semantic memory.

visual imagery

The mental picturing of a stimulus that affects later recall or recognition

Ch. 6 The mnemonic that relies on a person using a set of already familiar places is called

The method of loci

Stroop effect

The names or the words compete with the color of the words and slow down responding

Lag

The number of trials between the prime and the target

corpus callosum

The primary bridge across which messages pass between the left and right halves of the cortex is the

reconstructive memory

The process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation

spreading activation

The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links.

COGNITIVE SCIENCE

The scientific study of thought, language, & the brain

top-down processing

The sentence "I do not have to attend to what the cat will eat tomorrow" include ten occurrences of the letter T. The Radvansky and Ashcraft text argues that people's difficulties in finding all of the T's reflects

Cognitive Revolution

The shift away from strict behaviorism, begun in the 1950s, to studying how the mind operates

Syntax

The structure of a sentence; how to put words in a sequence so they're meaningful

organization

The structure of information as it is stored in memory

neocortex

The top layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level mental processes, is

Leading Questions

The words used to ask questions effect how victims estimate speed of crash

Prime in Semantic Memory

The first stimulus in a prime-target pair, intended to exert an influence on the second stimulus.

Problem with decay theory of forgetting

Theory claims that passage of time causes forgetting. Time doesn't cause forgetting. It's what happens during that time that does

Shock Associated Words w/ Unattended Channel

They found that unattended words were processed for meaning since the words themselves and related words produced more sweating (galvanic skin response)

Inattentional Blindness or Inattentional Amnesia? Experiment that says Inattentional Amnesia

They showed subjects a picture superimposed on a letter string. The letter string is either a word or a nonword, and subjects must pay attention to either the picture or the letter string and ignore the other stimulus. When Ss attend to the letter string, the brain activity associated with it is very different for words vs. nonwords, which is to be expected. But what happens when Ss were attending to the pictures? Didn't remember unattended words--- Inattentional amnesia!

Which of the following is the deepest level of processing?

Think about whether a word represents a concrete object

Overt attention example

To find a certain face in the crowd, you must scan peoples faces

What's the difference between top-down and bottom-up processing?

Top-down: relying on background knowledge, experience, context Bottom-up: data driven, relying solely on the stimulus

Parietal Lobe

Touch, spatial orientation, nonverbal

Ch. 8 Which is NOT one of Schacter's "seven sins of memory"?

Transfer

Schacter's sins of omission

Transience Absent mindedness Blocking

George Sperling's Experiment

Two parts: Whole report method and partial report method Wanted to know how much information people can take in from briefly present stimuli Showed people flashes of letter, people could report 4.5 of 12 letters BUT they report seeing all the letters So, he created the partial report, reported the row of letters associated with tone of bell. 3.3 of 4 letters recalled Overall, they saw 82%

What kinds of situations provoke counterfactual thinking/reasoning?

Unexpected negative events (e.g., missing a flight)

Mind wandering paper purpose

Wants to know whether mind wandering is related to working memory capacity

Geon Detection

We identify items by their parts

What is a dichotic listening task

When different auditory messages are presented to each ear.

When would shallow processing lead to better memory than deep processing?

When the test is over the surface (shallow) characteristics of the thing being studied

What is buildup and release of PI?

When you memorize a list of information (words, names, ideas, formulas, and just about anything else that can made into a list). and when remembering a later part of the list, an earlier memorized part of the list gets in the way EXAMPLE: When you are studying a list of cities of Britain and United States?

Difference, ordinal data and repeated measures

Wilcoxon test

Ch. 2 Items presented 20 degrees off centerline, in the right visual field, ___.

Will be processed by both eyes and then initially processed in the brain by the occipital lobe in the left hemisphere

Which part of HM's brain was removed?

William Scoville removed HM's hippocampus, which was associated with consolidating memories.

Polysemy

Words with multiple meanings; all activated at first and deactivate irrevelant meanings based on context

What's the difference between short term memory and working memory?

Working memory = Short Term Memory + Central Executive

Declining memory processes vs. spared

Working memory and episodic mem decline while semantic and implicit stay the same

Irrelevant Speech Effect

Working memory performance is impaired when subjects hear irrelevant speech. Colle and Welsh (1976) asked subjects to remember visually presented consonants. • One group of Ss listened to irrelevant speech in the background. • Silent background for the other group

Dissociation

a disruption in one component of mental functioning but no impairment of another

Ch 2. If one patient has a neurological disruption of mental process but not mental process B, and another patient has a neurological disruption of mental process B, but not mental process A, this is called

a double disassocation

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

lexicon

a person's knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words

Ch. 5 According to Sternberg, short-term memory is searched using what kind of process?

a serial exhaustive search

Visual Search

anytime we look for an object among a number of other objects Wheres waldo

Ch. 1 In terms of the flow of information processing, ______ is an influence of environmental factors on thought, whereas ____ is an influence of prior conceptions or expectations on thought.

bottom-up processing, top-down processing

ERP

brain monitoring: event-related potentials brain electrical activity; related to specific event. limitations: no cause/effect shown; no specific region

fMRI

brain monitoring: functional magnetic resonance imaging limitations: temporal, correlation & shows brain images involved.

If we have modality-specific resources (different "pools" of attention for different modalities like vision and hearing), which two tasks would be easiest to do together without one interfering with the other? a. Explain a situation to someone while texting someone else b. Remember a list of words while repeating other words out loud c. Tapping your feet in a fixed sequence while telling someone a story d. Tapping your hands in one sequence and your feet in another

c. Tapping your feet in a fixed sequence while telling someone a story

Unable to envision future

can't envision future because he doesn't have a hypo-campus anymore. They lack the capacity to put their minds backwards in time and forward in time.

Ch. 5 "Seven plus or minus two" is NOT associated with

capacity of the sensor register

Ch. 1 The study of mental activity and thinking, broadly conceived, is called

cognitive science

John McCarthy

coined the term Artificial Intelligence- Making a machine behave i ways that would be called intelligent if a human were behaving so

Which does NOT contribute to how mnemonics work?

confidence: overlearning increases our willingness to rely on memory

Prototype View

core instance of a category , an idealized representation based on average experiences with members of a category

What brain structure enables communication between the left and right hemispheres?

corpus callosum

Ebbinghaus

created all memory tasks, experimental stimuli, and procedures.

Patient K. C. was in a motorcycle accident and experienced a serious injury to the frontal regions of his brain. He had a complete loss of episodic memory but not to his semantic memory. This would be an example of a(n) ___.

dissociation

In general, memory is better after (?) practice than (?) practice.

distributed; massed

implicit

does not require to enter retrieval mode.

Another name for auditory sensory memory is

echoic memory

syntax-first approach to parsing

emphasizes the role of syntax

What component of working memory is involved in holding information retrieved from long-term memory?

episodic or retrieval buffer

Inattentional blindness (____) Inattentional amnesia Inattentional amnesia (_____) Inattentional blindness

equals does not equal

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany His approach was structuralism

principle of neural representation

everything a person experiences is based not on direct contact with stimuli, but on representations in the person's nervous system

INATTENTION BLINDNESS

failure to notice changes in visual stimuli that are easily visible due to attending to another stimuli

attentional blink

failure to see 2nd target when it occurs right after 1st Rapid Serial Visual Presentation = RSVP

Testing is better than restudying for performance on a final test if the delay between taking the initial test and final test is short

false

When the VOT for B/P sound is varied systematically, people sometimes hear b and somtimes hear P, and this change is gradual, not abrupt.

false

What is the name for the phenomenon in which a person remembers events that never happened?

false memory

An important aspect of how people make decisions that involve uncertainty and risk, as well as gains and losses based on what information is emphasized, is known as ___.

framing

Which of the following is NOT a kind of test of implicit memory?

free recall

semantic memory

general world knowledge

What is the name for the desired endpoint of problem solving?

goal

neural circuits

groups of interconnected neurons

syntactic priming

hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a statement that follows will be produced with the same construction

Ch. 4 The loss of the ability to direct attention to one side of the visual world is called _____

hemineglect

The loss of the ability to direct attention to one side of the visual world is called

hemineglect

Damage to what part part of the brain led to H.M.'s severe anterograde amnesia?

hippocampus

ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY

how close experiment is to the real world

Priming effects reveal what about semantic memory?

how it is structured

sensory code

how neurons represent various characteristics of the environment

Inferential test shows...

how strong a difference between variables is

Computer analogy

human information processing may be similar to the steps and operations in a computer program, similar to the flow of information from input to output

Craik and Tulving (1975) Deeper Task

if words fit the sentences. LOP and Modal model make opposite predictions. Ex: He is constantly thinking about this _______. ( Shoot) "No Doesn't Work"

When people inappropriately swap the terms of a statement, such as mentally converting "All B are A" to "All A are B," this heuristic is known as ___.

illicit conversion

imagination inflation

imagining that something happened increases later memory reports that it actually did happen

The amygdala is involved more for ___ memory (i.e., memories that come automatically), and the prefrontal cortex is involved more for ___ memory (i.e., memories that deal with facts and experiences).

implicit; explicit

enactment effect

improved memory for participant-performed tasks, relative to those that are not

inference

in language, the process by which readers create information that is not explicitly stated in the text

Balint's syndrome

inability to focus attention on individual objects

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

Ch. 4 Conscious processing is

intentional

Conscious processing is

intentional

At this point, it seems that the most likely explanation for forgetting in short-term memory is

interference

The observed value in Mann-Whitney is significant if...

it is equal to or LESS than the critical value

why do we need trans-saccadic memory?

it stores information from previous fixations; then allows other processes to put the information together into a continuous experience

how do we define language given that researchers can't agree on a single definition?

it's defined by the language universals (semanticity, arbitrary, flexibility, naming, displacement, productivity/generativity)

Source monitoring is

knowing where the information came from

metamemory/metacognition

knowledge about memory, cognition, and memory and mental processes

An example of Chunked Stimuli:

l o l o m g

To sum it up: Sensory memory capacity is

large and brief

Ch. 1 When did the cognitive revolution occur?

late 1950's

free recall

learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order

Jacoby and Dallas demonstrated that implicit memoy can be dissociated from explicit memory by showing that

levels of processing does not apply to implicit memory, but it applies to explicit memory

PHOTOPIGMENTS

light sensitive molecules, "bleach" when exposed to light, enough bleaching triggers action potential

Axons (nerve fibers)

long processes that transmit signals to other neurons

Ch. 5 Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model?

long-term memory

Which of the following is NOT a component of Baddeley's working memory model?

long-term memory

amnesia

loss of memory

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events before the brain injury

Important words such as your name have _____ thresholds. Unimportant words have ______ thresholds.

low high

PROXIMAL STIMULUS

pattern of energy that contacts the sensory system

misinformation acceptance

people accept additional information as having been part of an earlier experience without actually remembering that information

THALAMUS

perceptions --> gateway of sensory info

The route to automaticity is

practice and memory

Dichotic listening

presenting different stimuli into the left and right ears

GESTALT GROUPING PRINCIPLES

principles by which we organize parts into a whole; identify characteristics that help us resolve ambiguities in the stimulus.

The smallest unit of knowledge that can stand as an assertion is a

propostion

OBJECT RECOGNITION

recognition by components

GEON MODELS

recognition of 3D features; lacks top-down processing; pays special attention to edges and intersections

Perceptual load

related to the difficulty of task

Thalamus

relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

Loss of memories prior to an injury is called

retrograde amnesia

semantic cases (case roles)

roles played by the content words in the sentences

From his results, Sperling conluded...

sensory memory registers all or most of the information that hits our visual receptors but it decays in less than a second This is called ICONIC MEMORY (or visual icon)

cognitive economy

shared properties are only stored at higher-level nodes

inattentional blindness experiment

showed people crosses and had them determine if the horizontal or vertical line was longer, then after a few trails a small box appeared next to the cross, participants were asked if they noticed anything and most didn't

Cell phone paper exp 1 IV

silence vs. talking

A person with anterograde amnesia would be expected to show () semantic priming effects, compared to normal controls

similar

SENSATION

simple conscious experience associated with a stimulus; first contact between organism and environment

FEATURE

simple fragment or component of a whole pattern; this detection approach works..mostly

morphemes

smallest linguistic unit with semantic meaning; can be combined for more meaning

Broca's area

speech production

Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

ss condition= study, study condition st condition= study, test condition then everyone took the final test which occurred after 5 min, 2 days, or 7 days after the initial test or restudy session.

serial processing

stages are fixed and do not overlap

parallel processing

stages can overlap and encoding multiple stimuli at once

A female student performs poorly on a math test not because she was unable to solve the math problems correctly but because she believed the false idea that women cannot do math. The unconscious activation of negative information that leads a person (in this case, the female student) to perform worse on a task than she would otherwise is called ___.

stereotype threat

Edward Titchner

structuralism: structures, images, and feelings that made up the mind

The process of comprehension in Gernsbacher's theory, of building a mental representation of the meaning of sentences, is

structure building

massed practice

study time is grouped together into one long session

Serial recall task

subject recalls as many items as possible, in the order presented

quality within a particular sense

such as shape, color, or movement for vision

HM suffered amnesia due to the removal of region in his

temporal lobe

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

source monitoring

the ability to accurately identify the source of a memory

Central vision VS peripheral vision

the area you are looking at everything of to the side

PATTERN RECOGNITION

the assignment of meaning to a stimulus (2D) categorizing it as an instance of X

Amnesia

the catastrophic loss of memory or memory abilities caused by brain damage or disease.

processing fluency

the ease with which something is processed or comes to mind

In the leading questions/memory distortion work by Loftus, people were shown a video of a car crash and then asked how fast the cars were going when they hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted each other. One week later, the "smashed" group reported seeing broken glass to a greater extent than the "contacted" group. This most clearly demonstrates

the misinformation effect

What is the fan effect

the more info you know about a particular concpet, the slower you'll be at retiving a paricular fact about that concept

Ribot's Law

the observation that memories from early in life tend to be preserved in amnesia

phoneme

the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word

morpheme

the smallest unit of meaning in language

cognitive neuroscience

the study of the physiological basis of cognition

Retina parts

Rods, cones, photopigments

which are true about stereotype threat?

- it can reduce cognitive resources - it may depend on contextual cues - it produces a physiological response

what makes it a language?

- language universals - cognition language interactions - Phonemes & Morphemes & Syntax - Aphasias

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY ASSUMPTIONS

- mental processes exist - we can study them in objective, scientific matter - we are active information processors. - borrowed from communications engineering.

Mann-Whitney U test

1. Rank all scores as a whole group 2. Find sum of ranks for both groups, so each group will need to be divided back into their original sets 3. Use the formula to calculate Ua and Ub

What 3 main standards should a good study adhere to?

1. Possible to generalise 2. Replicable 3. Valid

Procedure of your practical

1. Powerpoint tested 2. Obtained participants 3. Read brief 4. Began Powerpoint 5. Given 1 minute recall

What is a judgement of learning?

A prediction of how well you've learned something so far

Situation models

A mental simulation of the world; includes semantic and episodic knowledge

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Frontal Lobe

Abstract Thought, planning, social skills

Aristotle

De Memoria; 350 BCE; wanted to define memory

Ch. 6 The loss of information from memory due to the passage of time is ___

Decay

What's the Von Restorff effect?

Memory is much better for the isolated item

Accuracy

What is a good means of assessing how much a person remembers from something they read earlier?

Different levels of comprehension

Surface-based, text-based, situation model

Central Executive

Switch tasks, able to inhibit automatic response, monitoring

Independent measures design

Using DIFFERENT participants in each condition of the experiment

source memory

our memory of the exact source of information

CORTEX

outside (grey matter) 3mm thick; ~2.5 sq.ft. unfolded

However, when sperling did the delayed partial report method....

(Showing letters and presenting tone after a short delay) participants could only report about one letter

GOOD CONTINUATION

(gestalt) assumes that when an edge is interrupted, people assume that it continues along in a regular fashion. ex: DNA example)

what are the components of emotion?

-subjective experience -physiological response -expression -tendency toward action

Conditional Reasoning

Determining if evidence supports, refutes, or is irrelevant to an if-then statement

Short Term Store for Auditory Info

Echoic Memory

Base Rate Neglect

Failure to consider probabilities of events

Issues and debates - ethics

HM and confidentiality

Cramming is an example of ___, and spreading study time over many shorter sessions is an example of ___.

Massed practice; distributed practice

late selection models of attention

Most of the incoming info. is processed to the level of meaning before the message to be further processed is selected

Motor Cortex

Movement specialization in frontal

Polysemy

Multiple meanings

Characteristics of Anterograde Amnesia.

Normal memory for life events brain injury is incorrect. He lives in a nursing home and then in his room he has a lot of sticky notes hung up to remember what is going on in his life. He then writes on a black board to make sure that he doesn't forget to do anything.

Observed value

Number at the end of the calculation

Memory Span

Number of items remembered about brief delay

Based on what we discussed during the short-term/working memory lectures, which of the following sequences of letters would be easiest to remeber

OXIDE AXROQ PDEBC NMAKJ

serial position effect

Originl position an item had in a study list

Judgment of Learning

Prediction of how well you learned something so far

A disruption in being able to recognize faces is known as ___.

Prosopagnosia

What memory system is well-preserved in older adults?

Semantic Memory

Ch. 8 an example of "blocking" in memory is

TOT

agent

The actor or person in the sentence

The law of large numbers

The larger the sample size, the more representative the sample will be

Retrograde V. Anterograde

The loss of memory for events before brain injury; the disruption of memory for events occurring after brain injury. inability to acquire new long-term memories.

What is prosody

The rise and fall of intonation in speech

Broca's aphasia

a condition associated with damage to Broca's area, in the frontal lobe, characterized by labored ungrammatical speech and difficulty in understanding some types of sentences

Agnosia is

a failure or deficit in recognizing objects

situation model

a mental representation of what a text is about

Recognition task

a method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers

A(n) ___ is a specific solution procedure, often detailed and complex, that is guaranteed to furnish the correct answer if it is followed correctly, whereas a(n) ___ is an informal method or guideline (i.e., a rule of thumb) rather than a formal, specified rule.

algorithm; heuristic

Working memory is associated with

allocation of attention to a task, maintenance of efficient, effective cogntive processing and behavior

connectionism

an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes

In an if-then statement, the if clause represents the ___ which states a possible cause and the then clause represents the ___ which states an effect of that possible cause.

antecedent; consequent

Ch. 2 The receptive and control centers for one side of the bod are in the opposite hemisphere of the brain. This is referred to as

contralaterality

Work by Bahrick et al. on "Fifty years of names and faces" demonstrates that some kinds of memory

can last for very long periods of time

Newell and Simon

created the logic theorist program that could apply rudimentary logic to creating mathematical theorems (created the artificial intelligence machine that John McCarthy envisioned)

Which is NOT true of semantic memory?

critically depends on pituitary functioning

Ch. 2 Cerebral lateralization is the idea that

different functions depend more on one hemisphere than the other in the brain

Change blindness

difficulty in detecting changes in a scene

CHANNELS

devices that transmit information (have limited capacity)

evidence for focused attention stage

did the same experiment but got rid of the black numbers and only had to focused on the colored shapes, this eliminated illusory conjunctions

Which of the following would not be part of a situation model of a text? a. The layout of the spaces described in the narrative b. Inferences about objects described in the narrative c. Stereotypes about people described in the narrative d. The difficulty of the syntax of the narrative

d. The difficulty of the syntax of the narrative

Surface based

exact words/syntax

HJA (John) is able to identify an inverted T when it is peresented alone, but he cannot identify an inverted T when it is surrounded by a number of upright Ts. Based on these results, what stage of object recognition is damaged in HJA

feature binding

The Pandemonium Model is what type of model of pattern recognition?

feature detection

PANDEMONIUM

feature detection example; data or images as 'demons'

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

On some level, Larry (the american prosopagnosic patient you saw in the long video) can recognize faces because

he shows heightened skin response when he makes a face identification error.

Which of the following does NOT lead to stronger memory distortions?

immediate rather than delayed retrieval

The inability to remember life events before two to four years of age is called

infantile amnesia

Encoding specificity

is the hypothesis that the specific nature of an item's encoding, including all related information that was encoded along with it, determines how effectively the item can be retrieved

Example of sensory memory

looking at a bright sign and looking away and seeing it still briefly

Negative Priming Task:

namethe red object

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement, orientation, length

Ch. 2 What are the basic building blocks of the nervous system?

neurons

retroactive interference

new learning interferes with remembering old learning

the problem with feature detection models of pattern recognition (e.g., Pandamonium) is:

no top down processing

Concepts are represented in a semantic network by

nodes

Implicit memory

non declarative

Neuropsychological and brain imaging studies show that imagining the future rely on

none of the brain regions responsible for recalling events form the past

inattentional blindness

not attending to something that is clearly visible

The ability for infants to remember the presence of an object when it has been removed from view is known as ___.

object permanence

Classical conditioning

pairing a stimulus (such as loud noise presented to Albert) with another, previously neutral stimulus (the rat) causes changes in response to neutral stimulus

Which neuroimaging techniques has the worst temporal resolution?

positron emission tomography

Ch. 4 The route to automaticity is

practice and memory

Ch. 3 A disruption in face recognition is called

prosopagnosia

Sam conducts and experiment looking at attention performance in the Stroop task for high and low WMC individuals. She compares how they do when there are a high proportion of congruent trials vs. a high proportion of incongruen trials.

reaction time is the DV, proportion is the IV

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

Ch. 1 In cognition, STM almost always refers to

short term memory

localization of function

specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain

what kinds of situations provoke counterfactual thinking/ reasoning?

unexpected negative events (e.g., missing a flight)

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:

variable that is manipulated

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

variable that is measured

Primary Visual cortex

vision specialization in occipital

Ch. 3 Sperling's studies in visual apprehension revealed that more information was available than could be reported b use of his ____ report condition

visual

More research is done one ______ attention then _____ attention

visual auditory because we can control time and characteristics easier.

We have a blind spot in our retinas, but no "blind spot" in our visual experience; why?

visual processing is linked to iconic memory, therefor iconic memory fills in these gaps

what has the research on priming shown about how we understand polysemous words?

we activate all known meanings of a words first and then the inappropriate ones are deactivated (based on the context)

Ch. 2 The ventral pathway in vision is responsible for processing ___ information.

what

Lexical level

words + meaning

Explain the Stroop task and what it demonstrates.

» Words presented in neutral, congruent, or incongruent colors » Goal is to name the color » Demonstrates automaticity of reading (over learning), response competition

Explain the Stroop task and what it demonstrates.

» Words presented in neutral, congruent, or incongruent colors » Goal is to name the color » Demonstrates automaticity of reading (overlearning), response competition

In the visual search paper looking at screening images of luggage, what improved with practice and what didn't?

»Better: recognition (given fixation) and RT » Same: likelihood of fixating the target

What's the difference between top-down and bottom-up processing?

»Top-down is driven by knowledge and context » Bottom-up is data-driven, driven by individual features of the stimuli

Time referencing of semantic memory

Detached from the time when it occurred, factual information can be recalled without reference to when it was learned.

Conditional reasoning

Determining whether evidence supports, refutes, or is irrelevant to an if - then statement

Stroop Task

Easier to identify colors without words attached; easier when words match colors; hardest when words don't match colors (reading is automatic)

Which of the following statements is true regarding adding between first graders and adults?

First graders rely heavily on counting when they add and adults retrieve answers to addition problems from memory

Primacy vs. Recency Effects

First is remembered better; last is remember better; worst memory is for middle

In the DRM task, people are shown a list of words that are semantically related (e.g., achieve, best, win, etc.). They are then asked to either recall or recognize the list of words. What would be a typical finding from this DRM task?

Individuals tend to falsely remember with great confidence a critical lure that was not on the list of words.

Retrieval Failure

Information is encoded (available) but cannot be retrieval (not accessible)

encoding specificity

Information is encoded into memory not as a set of isolated, individual items. Instead, each item encoded into a richer memory representation that includes the context it was in during encoding

A cognitive researcher wants to create a graph to examine the accuracy of remembering words on a list between young and older adults. What should be the label for the x-axis?

Independent variable age (young and older adults)

Craik and Tulving (1975) Shallow task:

Indicate whether a given consonant/ vowel pattern matches the word. VCCCV= Uncle CCVVC= Brain

When your roommate tells you that it is hard to study when the music is so loud, you know your roommate is asking for you to lower the volume without literally saying to lower the volume. This conversation, in which the roommate is telling you to do something without stating it explicitly, is an example of a(n) ___.

Indirect request

Organization

Individual items put into units based on similarities help memory

Encoding specificity principle predicts that memory performance is best when

Information is retrieved in the same manner as it was encoded

levels of processing (depths of processing)

Information receives some amount of mental processing. Some items that get only incidental attention are processed at a shallow level. Other items get more intentional and meaningful processing that elaborates the memory of that item

Beta movement

Pictures changing faster than they can decay from iconic memory

Edward Toleman's experiment

Place rat at one point and the rat either had to turn left or right to obtain food, rat learned to to right for food. Then place rat at opposite point and this time the rat knew to turn left now for food. Indicated that something other then stimulus-response was occurring in the rats mind

instrument inference

an inference about tools or methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech

anaphoric inference

an inference that connects an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence

A heuristic is

an informal "rule of thumb" method for solving problems

corpus

the frequency with which specific words are used and the frequency of different meanings and grammatical constructionist a particular language

speech segmentation

the process of perceiving indiidual words within the continuous flow of the speech signal

binding problem

the question of how an object's individual features become bound together

How can a person exceed the limit of short term memory capacity I am referring to the amount of information that can be retained (7 +/- 2), not how long information can be retained.

chunk information into larger units

Ch. 5 Which of the following can aid in using short-term memory?

chunking

Which of the following can aid in using short-term memory?

chunking

We can hold more information in STM if we use...

chunking 5-8 unrelated words to 20 words or more

The loss of information from memory due to the passage of time is

decay

The ___ theory posits that forgetting is caused by memory traces fading due to the passage of time, whereas the ___ theory posits that forgetting is caused by competing information blocking another information in memory.

decay; interference

Which of the following is the highest level cognitive process

decision making

The knowledge that you acquire in class is more likely to be stored in (?) memory

declarative

Explicit memory

declarative memory

encoding specificity principle

each item is encoded into a richer memory representation that includes the context it was in during encoding.

fixation VS Saccadic eye movement

each time you paused on a face moved your eyes to observe another face, jerky movement from one fixation to the next

Broadbent's model is called an early...

early selection model because the filter eliminates the unattended info. right at the beginning of the flow of information

The past two theories focus on messages being processed at a ____ blank stage

early stage. Other theories showed messages are processed at a later stage of processing based primarily on their meaning

low-load tasks

easy! Use up only a small amount of a person's processing capacity

Ch. 3 Another name for auditory sensory memoy is

echoic memory

In on video that you saw in class, a patient suffering from visual agnosia can identify a string but not the tea bag that is attached to the bottom of the string. Which of the following object recognition stage is likely preserved in this patient

edge grouping by collinearity

task specific resources example

if Task A draws on spatial resources and Task B draws on verbal resources, they should not interfere with each other.

Divided attention is possible for some well-practiced easy tasks, however,

if difficulty increases then automatic processing is impossible even with practice For example you can drive and have a conversation on a normal road but if construction, traffic, and bumpy roads pop up you have to stop your conversation and focus on driving

Interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Attenuation model of attention is similar to Broadbents however...

language and meaning can also be used to separate messages

Wernicke's area

language comprehension

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language Not based off reinforcement and imitation

Ch. 2 Which of the following is NOT a lobe of the brain?

lateral

cerebral cortex

layer of tissue that covers the brain

selective attention & dichotic listening

lead to discovery of filter theories

word frequency

the relative usage or words in a particular language

coherence

the representation of a text or story in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text or story is related to information in another part

syntax

the rules for combining words into sentences

Bahrick, Bahrick, & Wittlinger suggest that the reasons for the high level of residual knowledge in the "Fifty years of names and faces" include

overlearning and distributed practice

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge with distance

Episodic memories generally convey

personally experienced events

Two definitions of memory

process involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present Memory is active any time past experiences have an effect on the way you think or behave now or in the future

Which of the following is retained in memory for the longest period of time?

situation model

Action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

Double dissociation

The phenomenon in which one of two functions, such as hearing and sight, can be damaged without harm to the other, and vice versa. need two patients, each with damage to one or the other so you can compare them

central executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

The phonological loop

The phonological loop is the component in which information is rehearsed and stored in a phonological (sound) form.

relation

The topic or major event in the sentence

proposition

The unit that codes meaning. Represents the meaning of a single, simple idea The smallest unit of knowledge about which you can make true/false judgments

In the study on leadings questions, what influenced people's speed estimates?

The verb used to indicate a crash (smashed, collided, etc)

In the study on leading questions after witnessing an accident, what influenced people's speed estimates?

The verb used to indicate a crash. Ex: smashed,collided.

Associative agnosia

a failure to understand the meaning of objects due to a deficit with associating a pattern with meaning

In the Bransford & Franks (1971) experiment, people incorrectly reported recognizing the "three" phrase "The ants ate the sweet jelly that was on the table" as an "old" sentence despite the fact that that particular set of propositions had never been presented together in one sentence. This type of error illustrates

a false alarm, evidence for semantic integration, poor technical accuracy

Feature Detection Model:

a feature is a simple fragment of a whole pattern

feeling of knowing

a feeling that allows people to predict beforehand whether they will be able to remember something

event-based prospective memory

a form of prospective memory in which some event provides the cue to perform a given action

time-based prospective memory

a form of prospective memory in which time is the cue indicating that a given action needs to be performed

In studies of problem solving, a word-for-word transcription of what the participant said aloud during the problem-solving attempt is

a verbal protocol

Donald MacKay's experiment showed...

a word can be processed to the level of meaning even if it is unattended.

Capacity theories treat attention as:

a. A spotlight b. Covert processing c. Overt processing ---> d. Mental resource

What lobe of the cortex is damaged in someone with hemineglect?

a. Frontal lobe ---> b. Parietal lobe c. Occipital lobe d. Temporal lobe

The Template Model of pattern recognition is wrong because:

a. It can't account for bottom up processing b. It can't account for auditory processing ---> c. It can't account for non-canonical views d. It can't account for depth perception

LTP (long term potentiation)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

PROBLEMS W/ BEHAVIORISM

- animal instincts: animals aren't completely blank slates - behaviorism = not applicable to # of important questions - linguistics; how do we learn to speak?

Stereotypes IVs + DV

IVs: Behavior types, processing capacity, Bob behaviors

Counterfactual paper IVs, grouping, and DV

IVs: when load is applied, whether given counterfactual story or not, DVs: compensation, victim blame, company blame

Another name for visual sensory memory is ___.

Iconic memory

Blind spot in retina

Iconic memory fills in gap in visual field

topographic map

there is a spatial map of visual stimuli on the visual cortex

Von Restorff effect

"Red T-Shirt" -Memory is better for the isolated item

Savings Formula

% Savings = (OL - RL) X 100%/OL If it took 15 trials to learn originally, and 5 trials to relearn: (15 - 5) X 100%/15 savings= 67%

LESION STUDIES LIMITATIONS

- damage not restricted to one area - small # of participants - shows what brain regions are necessary (not all involved) - plasticity

PROXIMITY

(gestalt) elements near each other tend to be grouped together

SIMILARITY

(gestalt) elements similar tend to be grouped together

FIGURE GROUND RELATIONS

(gestalt) figure is determined by "what is the background and what is the foreground" ex: old lady vs young lady image

CLOSURE

(gestalt) person "closes up" an image that has gaps or parts missing. ex: even with dashes and no defined lines, you know a circle is a circle.

The inattentional blindness experiment

(length of cross lines) Was 200ms just to fast for people to actually see the square pop up? NO! becuase they re-did the experiment and told people to report any other stimuli before the task and then more noticed it

Testing Effect

(view image on slide ) He wanted to include the forgetting function for test one. Taking a test enhanced performance. It seems that testing is good for memory for about a week.

War of the Ghosts

- 20 participants read the story twice - Tested recall after several minutes, weeks, months and years - Story became SHORTENED, phrases reflected modern concepts and the story became more COHERENT - Transformations were reported to make the story more familiar

STM summary

- Acoustic and verbal encoding - Duration 15 - 30 seconds - Storage capacity 5 - 9 items - Forgetting by decay through displacement - Retrieval by sequential search

Weaknesses of WMM

- Artificial task, lack ecological and task validity - Only explains STM, not transfer to LTM - Central Executive is simplistic and vague, doesn't explain what it does, difficult to design tasks to test it

Weaknesses of episodic/ semantic memory

- Clive Wearing suffered memory impairments that affected LTM recall from episodic storage but he was still able to perform procedural tasks. Suggests a further long-term store for remembering practised skills - Difficult to test as they both work together, so research into separate stores is problematic because they cannot be isolated

How does the concept of the WMM help with understanding dementia?

- Different tasks done at the same time using the same type of processing can be difficult - Avoid such tasks - Use one store at a time

Weaknesses of reconstructive memory

- Does not deal with the process, it is a description rather than an explanation - War of the Ghosts is an unusual story that does not make sense, so it could be argued that there could be demand characteristics where the participants guess what is intended - WMM and MSM

How were the words presented in Baddeley's experiment?

- Each list of 10 words was presented by slide projector - Correct order one at a time for 3 seconds and two second slide changeover

Strengths of reconstructive memory

- Evidence - War of Ghosts and Loftus+Palmer - Can be tested experimentally, makes it scientific - Good application to real life, police and courts with eyewitnesses

Strengths of WMM

- Expands on MSM, more information - Neurophysiological evidence - case study of KF - Valid, credible as it fits with everyday situations

Weaknesses of MSM

- Experiments use artificial tasks, so might not be valid - Alternative explanations - Too simplistic an explanation. - Emphasis given to rehearsal in transfer of information from STM to LTM

Weaknesses of your practical

- Generalisability, sampling method, sample size - Validity, ecological and task

How does the concept of reconstructive theory help with understanding dementia?

- If they are saying something but appear to be mixed up, they are using mixed schemas - Listen carefully - Ask limited questions but try to follow their thought processes

What did Bartlett conclude about memory?

- It is a reconstruction each time it is recalled - Rarely accurate and prone to rationalisation (shortening) - Confabulation (making up bits and filling in gaps) - Remembering is constructive and influenced by inferences made by an individual

Apparatus in your practical

- Laptop - Two word lists (acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar) - Pen and paper - Stopwatch - Brief and debrief - Standardised procedures

How does the concept of episodic/ semantic memories help with understanding dementia?

- Might retain skills or facts from the past - Can often recall what happened a long time ago but not recently - Go with their memories and do not contradict them

Sensory register summary

- One register for each sensory modality e.g. visual, auditory - Limited, approx. 50 milliseconds duration - Capacity 3-4 items - Forgetting by decay - Retrieval by scanning

What is the issue regarding dementia?

- Problems with information-processing - Prevents ability to learn new information, difficulty remembering names or people, forgetting everyday tasks - Progressive (more damage will occur)

What was the background information for your practical?

- STM uses acoustic encoding - Similar sounding words are more difficult to sub-vocalise and encode than dissimilar sounding words - Poorer recall of similar sounding words

LTM summary

- Semantic encoding - Potentially a lifetime of duration - Limitless capacity - Forgetting through decay and interference - Semantic retrieval

Strengths of MSM

- Supporting evidence - HM case study gives physiological support - Shows they have separate stores - Baddeley conducted an experiment and found that semantic words were more difficult to recall, suggests encoding in STM and LTM were different

stress and cognitive performance

- Yerkes-Dodson law - stereotype threat

Issues and debates - culture and gender

- how memory is reconstructed based on cultural differences or gender stereotypes - differences in digit span cross-culturally if studied (Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil)

Stereotype Threat

- induces physiological response (sympathetic nervous system) - can reduce cognitive resources But whether it happens depends on situation cues

implicit memory

- influenced by prior experience on behavior w/o an attempt to remember - expressed by an increase in speed / increased probability of a response.

How does the concept of STM help with understanding dementia?

- may forget what they have been told because memory was not encoded - could ask very specific questions rather than general questions - using pictures and colours can help encoding memories, labelling

Issues and debates - nature/ nurture

- nature= HM and brain function - nurture = reconstructive memory emphasises experiences

types of pictures for experiment

- neutral - negative - scramble

Is the emotion-induced blink an automatic effect? (Can we control it?)

- not completely - attention capture by emotional stimuli can be reduced when resources are limited - however, those subject had knowledge about the task

Control of variables in your practical

- only researcher and participant in room - quiet setting - same list of 2 word groups - each word presented for 3 seconds - given 1 minute recall

components of emotion

- subjective feelings: valence (positive or negative) - physiological response: arousal (intensity) -expression -tendency to action

Event-related potentials (ERPs) are:

---> a. Good for precise timing b. Good for precise spatial location c. Good for pinpointing necessary neural processes d. Good for measuring subcortical structures

The negative priming task demonstrates:

---> a. Inhibition b. Attentional blink c. Orienting attention d. Covert attention

While at a music festival, you see the image below as a saxophone player. While at an art gallery specializing in portraits, a friend of yours sees the same image as the face of a woman. What does this situation demonstrate?

---> a. Top-down processing b. Feature detection c. Bottom-up processing d. Good continuation

Language

--A shared symbolic system for communication --A system of symbols and rules that allows us to communicate

what's the difference between Wernickes & Broca's aphasia?

--Broca's: an impairment in speech production (slow, have difficulty speaking but the language they get out makes sense) --Wernicke's: an impairment in comprehension (their speech is fluid but doesn't make sense)

what are two important factors that contributed to the cognitive revolution?

--a need for practical understanding of mental phenomena like attention to sonar signal --a growing dissatisfaction with behaviorist explanations (e.g. Chomsky's review of Skinner's book --slow accumulating changes in the nature of verbal learning research

What are two important factors that contributed to the cognitive revolution?

--a need for practical understanding of mental phenomena like attention to sonar signals --a growing dissatisfaction with behaviorist explanations (e.g. Chomsky's review of Skinner's book) --slow accumulating changes in the nature of verbal learning research

what is the information-processing approach?

--humans are active information processors --mental processes can be understood as a series of processing stages

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

if it takes you 20 trials to learn a poem that first time and 15 trial sot learn the same poem the second time. What is the percentage of savings

25% initial trails- relearn trails/ initial trails *100

Effects of repeated testing

3 group of subjects: ssss ssst sttt 2 retention intervals: 5 min 1 week

STM digit span

5 to 9 digits

Who were the participants in Part 1 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

570 volunteer Spanish participants from schools in Madrid.

Dana and Tanya each have a test. Dana has a MC test in biology and Tanya has a problem solving test in calculus. What does the concept of transfer appropriate processing have to say about how they should study?

>Deal with material in the same way at study as they'll be dealing with it at test. >Dana: deep (elaborate) processing >Tanya: Practice Problem

Serial Position Curve

A display of accuracy in recall across the original position in a list

familiarity

A general sense that a certain stimulus has been encountered before.

Frequency judgement

A judgement about which of a set of choices happens most often

Which of the following is not an example of meta memory in a studying context?

A judgment about the overall difficulty of the material

Example of specificity coding

A number of neurons responds to three different faces. Only neuron #4 responds to bills face, only #9 responds to marys face and so on

TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

A powerful magnetic pulse is applied through the scalp onto the surface of the brain, creating temporary "lesions". rTMS allows neuroscientists to perform true experiments, something that neuropsychologists have dreamt of for ages. TMS is NOT imaging****

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Algorithm

A rule or procedure that will provide a correct answer; more controlled

Ch. 8 What is a proposition in memory?

A simple idea unit

Proposition

A simple idea unit that denotes the relationship between two concepts.

Structuralism

According to structuralism, our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience the structuralists called sensations

Every morning, you leave your alarm clock on the right side of the bed so that you can snooze the alarm button. One day, you decided to leave the alarm clock on the left side of the bed. The alarm rings and you are still trying to snooze the button on the right side of the bed instead of your left. This unintended behavior of still trying to snooze on your right side of the bed instead of your left is a good example of a(n) ___.

Action slip

Endogenous vs Exogenous

Active: When attention is controlled in a top-down fashion -- endogenous orienting. Passive: When attention is controlled in a bottom-up manner by external stimuli -- exogenous orienting.

Test-Enhanced Learning

Actively retrieve the information test isn't just a concept of memory it changes memory. It doesn't just measure memory you are also reencoding the information Assessment tools in education

Hippocampus

Almost all cases of amnesia happen here. You could damage the surrounding areas and still end up with amnesia. greek word for seahorse

The ___ is an almond-shaped structure that is critically important in the processing of emotional information in the brain.

Amygdala

dual task method

An experimental paradigm in which a participant carries out a secondary task at the same time as the main primary task

Situational variables

An extraneous variable found in the environment, such as noise, time of day, temperature, disturbances etc.

If an individual has a deficit in word finding, he or she may be diagnosed with a disorder known as ___.

Anomia

feature integration theory

Answers the binding problem.

Ch. 6 Loss of the ability to form new memories after an injury is called

Anterograde amnesia

Issues w/ Behaviorism

Applicability to Real Life (bad explanations) and Linguistics (cannot explain speech)

Multi store model of memory

Attended information from sensory register is transferred to STM, from STM information can be transferred to LTM

is attention space based or object based?

Attention is both object and space based. Experiment: had neglect patients look at a rotating barbell with a red and blue ball on either sides, they would see blue ball on right and not red. But when it rotated they kept focusing on the blue circle even when it was on the neglected side.

The Searchlight Metaphor

Attention researchers have likened our attentional control system to a searchlight beam that can illuminate either a small or large area.

A brief slowdown in mental processing due to having processed another very recent event is known as ___.

Attentional blink

Because of the conflicting findings to Broadbent's model, Anne Triesman proposed a modification called...

Attenuation model of attention

Attenuation model of attention

Attenuator analyses incoming message in terms of physical characteristics, language, and meaning

Stereotyping

Attitudes and responses to events change our memory for those events. Recall involves retrieving knowledge that has been altered to fit with stereotypes the person already has.

Effects of Counterfactuals

Attribution of cause/blame

Authorized vs Unauthorized inferences

Authorized: castle door... the door inferences the castle door Unauthorized: You look nice today... so I looked bad yesterday?

___ processing requires little or no conscious involvement of our attention (e.g., reading color words), whereas ___ processing requires intentional awareness that can limit our attentional resources (e.g., identifying the ink color instead of reading the color words in the Stroop task).

Automatic; conscious

Frequency/Probability Judgments

Availability Heuristic and Representativeness Heuristic

With the idea of retrieval failure. The difference between Availability & Accessibility.

Availability: Information was encoded & could be remembered @ some point. Accessibility: You can retrieve the information.

With respect to the idea of retrieval failure, what is the difference between availability and accessibility?

Availability: inför was encoded and could be remembered at some point Accessibility: you can retrieve the information

Ch. 6 Information that is in memory, but cannot be retrieved at the moment, is said to be ___ but not ____

Available; accessible

Ch. 6 Metamemory is

Awareness of ones own memory contents and processess

Which of the following activities is not one of the advice for successful cognitive aging?

Be a recluse and spend quality time by yourself.

Testing Effect

Being tested for information boosts memory of that info

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that random processes are influenced by prior outcomes

Insensitivity to sample size

Belief that small samples and large samples should be equally representative of the parent population

One benefit & cost of the effect of Schemas on Memory.

Benefit: Structure & Organization Cost: Overgeneralization

What's one benefit and one cost of the effects of schemas on memory?

Benefits: Structure/Organization Cost: Overgeneralization

Organization over Distinctiveness

Best if items are different from each other

Distinctiveness over Organization

Best if items are similar to each other

Cues + Encoding Specificity

Best when present at time of encoding; remembered better w/ certain triggers (context, words)

Partial report + Iconic

Better for measuring; amount remembered decreases within the second

Emotion + Memory

Better memory for emotionally charged items in comparison to neutral

Primacy effect

Better memory for items at the early positions of the list

Transfer Appropriate Processing

Better test results when studying in same format as test; based on information learned

In the visual search paper looking at screening images of luggage, what improved with practice and what didn't?

Better: recognition (given fixation), saccades, and RT Did not get better: likelihood of fixating the target

Peak of Cognitive Abilities

Between 20 to 40 yrs old; peak is 22 yrs old

What's an example of a discontinuity in visual input?

Blind spot; saccade (gap in time); proxal/distal

Feature Detection Model

Bottom to Top method; based on data; we detect based on parts of complete pattern

___ processing occurs when recognition is driven by incoming information, whereas ___ processing occurs when prior knowledge, context, and expectation drive recognition.

Bottom-up; top-down

Corpus Callosem

Bridge between two hemispheres

Ch. 7 Which is NOT part of the Collins & Quillian model?

Bridging

Broadbent's Experiment that tested his model

Broadbent presented subjects with a different set of 3 digits to each ear and then asked them to recall the digits. E.g., he presented 4-6-2 to one ear and 3-5-1 to the other ear. Subjects almost always recalled the digits by ear rather than by pair. That is, they almost never recall the digits by pair such as 4-3, 6-5, 2-1, even though these numbers occur simultaneously. Physical characteristics is defined by ear here.

If a child is able to immediately focus on the voice of his mother based on her loudness and pitch without being distracted by other voices from strangers in a room, what theory does this represent?

Broadbents early selection theory

What's the difference between Wernickes & Broca's aphasia?

Broca's: an impairment in speech production (slow, have difficulty speaking but the language they get out makes sense) Wernicke's: an impairment in comprehension (their speech is fluid but doesn't make sense)

Task general OR task specific Experiment

Brooks "A bird in the hand is not in the bush" Verbally or point Yes or No for each noun OR Look at each corner of a letter and say or point weather it is an extreme top or bottom Results: Task specific two tasks that use the same type of attentional resource would interfere with each other more than two tasks that use different types of attentional resource.

What is duration of STM?

Brown Peterson Paradigm > 15-30 seconds

Iconic memory

Buffer holding info for brief periods of time; creates integrated continous experience

Who discovered individual neurons, synapses, and neural circuits

Cajal "the person who made this cellular study of mental life possible"

Retrieval of semantic memory

Can help to work out things we don't actually know before doing the working out. Retrieval does not change the actual memory.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Can temporarily hold and manipulate visual and spatial information, such as shapes, colours. Limited in capacity to around 3 - 4 objects.

Anteretrograde Amenesia

Can't recall information that occur after injury Potential causes: Surgery, close-head injury, strokes, tumors, chronic alcoholism, Alzheimer's disease.

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

Capture of attention in unattended channel when hearing name

Probabilistic theories

Categories in semantic memory are created by taking into account various probabilities across a person's experience

Exemplar theories

Category decisions are made based on all of the "exemplars" (examples) stored in semantic memory

Neurons

Cells that are building blocks and transmission lines of the nervous system Create and transmit info about what we experience and know

Baddely's Working Memory

Central Executive + Visuospatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer + Phonological loop (impacts visual semantics + episodic long term mem + language, respectively)

Which of the following working memory component is the main operating system and responsible for planning future actions, initiating retrieval and decision processes, and integrating information coming into the system?

Central executive

central executive

Central executive is the component that carries out resource allocation decisions and makes executive decisions. Tasks that require production and selection would require resources from the central executive. E.g., random number generation.

What are the 3 components of the WMM?

Central executive, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Baddeley and the Engle Approaches

Central set of principles

Chapter One

Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Two

Learning Phase

Chart on slide #34 repeated study and repeated test repeated test only repeated study only flash card method

Difference/ relationship and nominal data

Chi-squared test

What theory of categorization takes the view that people create and use categories based on a system of rules? For example, we may categorize a person as a college student if he or she goes to class, takes notes during lecture, and studies for exams. Anyone who does not qualify this criteria would not be considered a college student.

Classic view

Bridging inference

Constructing a connection between concepts that may or may not be explicitly stated

The interdisciplinary approach and scientific study of thought, language, and the brain is called ___.

Cognitive science

How did researchers show that chnaged blindness can be caused by differences in social groups

College student show changed blindness towards construction workers but not towards other college studentrs

In the emotional Stroop task, people are presented with words that elicit an emotional response (e.g., the word snake) as opposed to color words (e.g., green). Instead of reading the words, they had to identify the ink colors of those words. Which of the following statements is true?

Color naming is slower for emotional words due to intrusion to peoples cognitive processing

Cones

Color; Light areas; good accuracy

What was Part 2 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

Compare results to study in 2010 with healthy older people, people with Alzheimer's dementia and people with fronto-temporal dementia.

What is proactive and retroactive interference?

Competition with other memories. Increases with more information and similarity. Forgetting can be temporary. *Proactive interference is the primary cause of forgetting in STM

What does the garden pathe sentcne effect tell us

Comprehension and parsing occur in real time and on a word-by-word basis

Information-processing approach came about after the introduction of ___________

Computers

Results of Mind Wandering Paper

Concentration increases on-task thoughts (greatest increase in high WMC); Difficulty and effort increase mind wandering in low WMC

When do high spans and low spans differ in mind wandering?

Concentration: high WMC mind wander less as they concentrate more, low WMC mind wander more Challenge, effort: high WMC don't change, low WMC mind wander more with more challenge/effort High WMC mind wander when they are bored.

Semantic Relatedness Effect

Concepts that are more highly interrelated are retrieved and judged true more rapidly than those with a lower degree of relatedness.

When people unconsciously plagiarize something they have heard or read before because they forgot where the source came from and mistakenly thought it was their own new idea, this is an example of ___.

Cryptomnesia

Associative Inferences

Connect info in text w/ prior knowledge

Bridging Inferences

Connection between concepts that may/may not be explicit

Flexibility

Connections between words and language used can be changed

Arcuate Fasciclus

Connects Broca's Area w/ Wernicke's

Arcuate Fasciculus

Connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas

Algorithm

Controlled process; rule/procedure for correct answer

___ attention requires a voluntary mental effort or concentration, whereas ___ attention occurs as a fast, automatic process of getting sensory information into one's cognition.

Controlled; input

Working Memory and attention

Conway, Cowan, and bunting (2001) measured working memory by giving people a test to see if they cold attend to a message while their own name was being called.

Mental Resource + Attention

Coordinate multiple tasks/goals; attention is effort and limited

Clive Wearing

Could not recall past events, but could only remember how to play the piano. Suggests the LTM is not a single store but could be because of something more complex

Blame Judgments

Counterfactual Thinking

Levels of processing

Craik and Tulving (1975)

Ch. 7 Which is NOT true of semantic memory?

Critically depends on pituitary functioning

Which method is the simplest, most straightforward, and common way of scientifically studying cognitive aging in which a group of older adults is compared to a group of younger adults?

Cross-Sectional Study

Decay Hypothesis

Currently, lacks neural mechanism to explain idea of forgetting over time

Chan, Mc Dermott, Roediget

Day 1 red two articles for the experiment article took an immediate test with 12 question for control article, no immediate test Day 2 took final test for each article each test contained 24 questions experimental 12 old and 12 new control 24 new questions

Central executive

Deal with the running of the memory system and two slave systems. Has limited capacity but can deal with different types of sensory information. The attentional controller with capacity to focus, divide and switch attention.

Foregetting: Decay Vs Interference

Decay: - Lack of use & increased with time - Forgetting is permanent Interference: - Competition with other memories - Increases with more information & similarities - Forgetting can be temporary

Frequency Judgment

Decide what happens most often

What's the difference between declarative and non declarative memory?

Declarative: Memory for facts and events (semantic/episodic memory) Non-Declarative: Habits, skills, and procedures (playing and instrument)

Release from PI

Decline in performance caused by proactive interference is reversed because of a change in the to-be-remembered information.

Levels of processing

Deep (meaningful information) vs Shallow (surface characteristics) Deep is more memorable

Results of Craik and Tulving deep and shallow task

Deep taks took less than a second proportion recognized: People performed better in deep task compared to the shallow, even though they took longer How do you apply this to studying? a. in order to remember the information you need to understand it first.

Can encoding time account for the LOP effect?

Deeper processing tasks usually take longer to complete. Longer exposure= better memory performance Decision time in the orienting task was proportional to recognition performance. Shallower task take shorter time to complete, still consistent with Modal Model. Need the task to be simple, but take time to do it (Not shallow).

Associative Agnosia

Deficit in associating pattern w/ meaning (could be image w/what it is)

Ch. 7 Anomia is a

Deficit in word finding due to brain injury

Operationalised hypothesis

Defining precisely how you intend to measure the DV and alter the conditions of the IV

In feature comparison models, the ___ features are specific to a concept (e.g., a robin has feathers) and the ___ features are descriptions that are common to multiple concepts but not necessarily essential (e.g., a robin perches in trees).

Defining; characteristic

At one end of the neuron, many small branchlike fingers called ___ gather a neural impulse into the neuron.

Dendrites

In the following argument, what would the evidence statement represent? If I am a magician, then I know how to do tricks. Evidence: I am not a magician. Therefore, I do not know how to do tricks.

Denying the antecedent

Encoding in LTM

Depend on rehearsal process or association between new and pre-existing knowledge. Encoding is semantic.

Time referencing of episodic memory

Dependent on time-referencing, memories about events that happen to you are linked to the time in which they occurred.

Example of analytic introspection used in lecture

Describe this bunny without using terms such as rabbit or bunny I.E. long, pointed curves sprouting from its top

Distributed practive

Distributed vs Massed Distributing studying over a period of leads to better memory

Ch. 6 In general, memory is better after ___ practice than ___ practice

Distributed; massed

Divided Attention

Divided attention: Multiple stimuli are presented and subjects must attend to and respond to all stimuli.

Problem w/ Templates

Does not work when things are shown in variety of ways; would need infinite number

Conclusion about LOP

Doesn't consider how long it takes to process the information long term memory can form on own without repeated effort.

If you are texting on your cell phone in one hand and steering the wheel to drive the car on the other hand, this method is a good example of how doing multiple activities can slow you down due to an interference of two competing tasks. What would this method be an example of?

Dual task

Control processes of the modal model

Dynamic processes associated with the structural features that are controlled by the person and can differ by task Examples: Rehearsal Strategies to remember something Strategies to help you focus

Structural features of the modal model

Each of the three types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term)

Brown-Peterson Paradigm & what it shows.

Each trial you'll see 3 consonants. Then you count down by 3's from a random #. After a variable delay period you recall the consonants. It shows effects of proactive interference.

If at higher levels of arousal, memory improves due to the narrowing attention onto whatever is eliciting the emotions in a person, this is referred to as the ___.

Easterbrook Hypothesis

Proof that Repressed Mem may be myth

Easy to create false memories; contradict what is known; hard to suppress traumatic thoughts; can forget that they remembered

Savings

Ebbinghaus realized that even if he could not recall some CVC nonsense syllables, this failure might not indicate that all traces of the nonsense syllables had vanished from memory. Created savings: how long it takes to re-learn it again

Another name for the auditory sensory memory is ___.

Echoic memory

Behaviorism 1910 to 1950s

Emerged to explain world w/conditioning as explanation

Control mechanisms

Enhancement: related concepts that are mapped onto each other enhance each other's activation Suppression: activated concepts that are no longer relevant decrease in activation

Three types of long term memory

Episodic (memories of experiences) Procedural (involve muscle coordination) Semantic (Memories of facts)

Which long-term memory system tends to be more fragile, causing older adults to forget more quickly? This memory system tends to take longer to develop in children but tends to be the first to be lost in older adults.

Episodic Memory

Which of the following working memory component has the ability to integrate verbal and visual information through the help of long-term memory? For example, an individual is able to imagine a face of a character with his or her voice from using this working memory component.

Episodic buffer

ERP

Event Related Potentials Changes in electrical activity in areas of the brain in response to specific stimuli or events

In prospective memory, people are better at remembering ___ information rather than ___ information because it acts as a retrieval cue (e.g., a birthday party) to remember to do something (e.g., giving a present to a friend in the future).

Event-based; time-based

Implicit VS Explicit test

Explicit: Make direct reference back to a prior episode and measure intentional retrieval Implicit: you just show that you have a memory

Cell phone paper exp 1 DV

Eye tracking + recognition test (had regular of old things and conditional based on things seen while driving)

Prosopagnosia

Face Recognition Deficit

Ch. 7 The proper term for better-than-baseline response is

Facilitation

Declarative Memory

Facts + able to say what you know

Semantic Memory

Facts about world without specific events

Declarative Memory

Facts and Event

Hemineglect

Failure of attention to left visual field w/ damage to right parietal lobe

Having your cell phone in your pocket, you quickly take it out thinking that you are getting a text from a friend. However, when you turn on your cell phone, you realize your friend did not text you at all. What type of response would this be considered according to the signal detection theory?

False alarm

Implanting Memories

False memories generated more and more over time about exposure to false information

implanted memories

False memories may be deliberately implanted in adults, and strengthened over time

Ch. 8 What is the name for the phenomenon in which a person remembers events that never happened?

False memory

same-object advantage

Faster responding that occurs when enhancement spreads within an object

Selection + Attention

Filter Theories where selective attention is activated where one source is prioritized and others are neglected

Stereotypes + Source Clues Paper Purpose

Finding out how stereotypes effect attributing behavior + interaction w/ processing capacity

Focused attention

Focused attention: Paying attention to one thing at a time. It is studied by presenting people with 2 or more stimulus inputs simultaneously and instructing them to respond to only one.

Problems w/ Bottom-up/Data Driven

Forgets that knowledge + context are often as important as actual features

Retrograde Amnesia

Forgetting part of past

Nominal data

Form of categories

In a ___ recall, people are able to recall the list items in any order and in a ___ recall, people must recall the list items in their original order of presentation.

Free; serial

What's the difference between functional fixedness and mental set?

Functional Fixedness: failing to see alternative uses for objects Mental Set: using a strategy that worked in the past even though it's no longer appropriate

What metabolic measure uses blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals to examine blood flow in the brain?

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

James was known for ___, whereas Titchener was known for ___.

Functionalism; structuralism

What are three examples of the representativeness heuristic?

Gambler's Fallacy Base Rate Neglect Insensitivity to Sample Size

Types of Representativeness Heuristic

Gambler's Fallacy, Base Rate Neglect, Sample Size

What is triangulation?

Gathering data using different research methods and developing themes.

What were results in Part 2 of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

Healthy older people - 4.44 Alzheimer's dementia - 4.20 Fronto-temporal dementia - 4.22

cytoarchitectonic map

German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann produced a cytoarchitectonic map of the brain based on variations in the cellular structure of the tissues. Brodmann divided each hemisphere into 52 areas. But some of the original areas have been subdivided into a and b areas. Most Brodmann areas follow the gyri and the sulci of the cortex. One key feature of a cytoarchitectonic map is that cells in the same area are usually functionally similar.

Primacy-recency effect

Glanzer and Cunitz - first and last words in the list were recalled well, but middle words were not remembered well. First (primacy effect) had gone into LTM through rehearsal and end (recency effect) is still in rehearsal loop. Middle is not well recalled as it was displaced by new material.

When viewing a classroom, your attention can be directed to the whole (i.e., everything in the room) or parts of the whole (i.e., the desk, board, backpack). This is an example of ___.

Global-local distinction

Pandemonium Parts

Goes from: image/data demons (encode data for recognition) to computational demons (try to match simple features) to cognitive demons (try to match whole patterns) to decision demon (decides what letter is present)

What is the Cocktail Party Effect and which model of attention does it support?

Hearing your name in an unattended channel that you are ignoring. It supports a late-filter model of attentional selection (although attenuator theory can explain it too).

What was the IV and DV in Baddeley's experiment?

IV- Acoustic similarity/ semantic similarity DV - Recall of the list sequence from LTM

high-load tasks

Hard! Use more of a person's processing capacity

Articulatory Suppression Effect

Harder to remember words when repeating a different word aloud; proves phonological loop impacts memory retrieval

According to Broadbent's model, since all of the unattended messages are filtered out, we should not be conscious of information in the unattended messages. This idea was tested by Neville Moray and he found...

He did a similar dichotic listening and shadowing experiment. When he presented the subjects name into the unattended ear, about a third of subjects detected it

HM: Henry Molaison

He went in and burned off the temporal lobe. This graph is based on an estimation. One thing that hospital staff quickly noticed is that HM couldn't form new memories. They then brought in Milner a psychologist. His cognitive ability dropped significantly. Put your finger behind your ear and if you can push it in two inches then you would be in the medial temporal lobes, there is one on each side.

What was the IV and DV in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?

IV- age DV- digit span

Gestalt Grouping Principles are...

Heuristics (help us solve ambuigity + sort) and inferences

A person with Anterograde Amnesia has damage to their:

Hippocampus

Ch. 6 Damage to what part of the brain led H.M.'a severe anterograde amnesia?

Hippocampus

Short-term memory holds...

Holds articulatory or phonological information.

Primary Acoustic Store

Holds auditory traces which decay rapidly after a few seconds.

Phonological loop

Holds speech based information for about 2 seconds before decay. Deals with temporary storage of VERBAL information.

What is the key question?

How can psychologists' understanding of memory help patients with dementia?

What was Franciscus Donders experiment about?

How long does it take for a person to make a decision? Set-up: He measured reaction time (how long it takes to respond to a presentation of a stimulus) with two different measures: Simple reaction time (push button when light goes on) and Choice reaction time (push the right or left button when it lights up)

Reconstructive memory individual differences

How we perceive an object or event is based on individual interpretation, influences by past experiences, knowledge learned and beliefs we possess.

Internal validity

How well the procedure establishes a causal relationship between manipulated IV and measured DV.

What is the "information-processing approach?"

Humans are active information processors Mental processes can be understood as a series of processing stages

Ch. 8 The most likely problem for the effective and fair use of eyewitness testimony in court proceedings is ____

Humans' poor detail accuracy

Experiment that tested the duration of short-term memory

I say "ABC 309" person counts backwards from 309 Then say stop and asked them to recall the letters heard at the beginning Found that after 3 seconds of counting, people remembered 80% but after 18 seconds only 12% However, through more trials, people got worse regardless the time Thought decay was occurring

What is test-retest reliability?

If findings are consistent, and considered reliable, it can be trusted that findings will happen again.

Distinctiveness

If items to be remembered are similar, it is best to think about their differences. If items to be remembered are distinct, it is best to think about their similarities

a double dissociation

If one patient has a neurological disruption of mental process A but not mental process B, and another patient has a neurological disruption of mental process B, but not mental process A, this is called

Task general OR task specific?

If resources are task general, then it shouldn't matter what is the secondary task, as long as both the primary and secondary tasks demand attentional resources, interference will occur. If resources are task specific, then the nature of the secondary task will determine the amount of interference in dual task situations.

Ch. 8 Imagining that something happened increases the later likelihood of reporting that it did happen; this phenomenon is known as

Imagination inflation

Counterfactuals

Imagining how outcomes might have been different (simulation), contradicting the facts (counterfactual)

Counterfactuals

Imagining how outomces may have been different, contradicting facts

___ processing occurs when there is no necessary involvement of conscious awareness (e.g., typing on the keyboard without looking at the letters), and ___ processing occurs when a task is actively done through conscious awareness (e.g., writing up a report).

Implicit; explicit

"If nerve impulses are crowded closely together the sensation is intense, if they are separated by long intervals the sensation is correspondingly feeble"

In other words, pressing harder on the skin doesn't make the action potential shape or height different, it just increases the RATE of action potentials fired.

Final test performance Chart on slide 37

In the first test condition the were at 80% repeated test condition they were at 80 percent( key to remembering things) repeated study condition they were at 30 percent flash card study condition they were at 28 percent The blue bars is what the subjects predicted their performance to be.

Spatial referencing of episodic memory

Input is continuous as we experience a whole episode in relation to when and where it happened.

Ch. 8 If people witness a car accident, they may later misremember what they saw because they discussed the accident with other witnesses. This is a result of memory

Integration

___ deals with how strongly an emotion is experienced (e.g., dislike vs. hate), whereas ___ deals with whether an emotion is positive (e.g., happy) or negative (e.g., sad).

Intensity; valence

Repression

Intentional forgetting of painful or traumatic experiences

Controlled Processes

Intentional; can explain how it works (introspection); takes attention

Herman Ebbinhaus

Interested in determining the nature of memory and forgetting

Phonological similarity effect

It is more difficult to remember similar sounding words and letters compared to different sounding words. Not the case for semantic similarity, shows that it relies on acoustic encoding for storage.

Ch. 6 According to Squire, what is LTM knowledge that can influence thought or behavior without any necessary involvement of conscious awareness?

Nondeclarative

Distributed Practice

Leads to better memory than massed practice

What factors will produce increased victim blaming?

Low WMC Divided attention (under load)

True Experiment Cons

Low ecological validity from lab environment

What method did william james use to investigate the mind

Making careful observations of his own behaviors and thoughts

What was Herman Ebbinhaus's experiment?

Memorized nonsense syllables (DAX, QEH) and determined how long it took to learn the list for the first time. Then he waited a specific amount of time (the delay) and determined how long it took to relearn the list

What did Herman Ebbinhaus discover with his savings curve?

Memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after the initial learning and then levels off

Mood-Congruent Learning

Memory is better when a person's mood at encoding and retrieval are similar

Which of the following statements is true?

Memory is vulnerable to outside influences.

Issues and debates - socially sensitive research

Memory loss related to dementia is socially sensitive for the individual.

One way that it's been shown that the Visuospatial Sketchpad is tied to the real world in terms of how it works is with:

Mental Rotation Tasks

What is the nature of semantic memory?

Mental encyclopaedia - storing words, facts, rules, meanings and concepts. Associated with other facts that link the concepts together.

Assumptions of Cognitive Psych

Mental processes are real + can be measured; animals/humans process information

Situation model def

Mental representation simulating real/possible world in text (expectations about apartment and inferences)

Dichotic Listening Task

Messages unattended in one ear; attended to in other ear

The ability to monitor one's own understanding of what is being read is

Metacomprehension

Ch. 8 A person's understanding of the contents and processes of their own memory is called

Metamemory

A mnemonic people used to remember large quantities of information:

Method of Loci

When you are daydreaming or thinking about something else when you are in class listening to a lecture, this is an example of ___.

Mind wandering

According to the mean length of utterance (MLU), which of the following stages involves an increase in the complexity of syntactic understanding and usage as well as longer and longer verbal expressions? This stage typically emerges between 18 and 24 months of age.

Multiword

___ memory is knowledge that influences thought and behavior without awareness (e.g., skills and habits, priming, simple classical conditioning, and nonassociative learning), and ___ memory is knowledge that involves awareness (e.g., facts and events).

Nondeclarative; declarative

Unlike RBC, the multiple-views perspective of object recognition suggests that

None of the above Color and texture are important factors in object recognition a normalized, or three dimensional, view of an object is stored in the brain object recognition performance should not be affected by the angel at which an object appears.

Broca's aphasia

Nonfluent spontaneous speech; good comprehension; poor repetition and naming

Global aphasia

Nonfluent spontaneous speech; poor comprehension; poor repetition and naming

automatic processing

Occurs 1. Without intention and 2. at a cost of only some of a persons cognitive resources

automatic processing

Occurs without intention •Not open to introspection •Few (in any) resources are used and does not interfere with other processes •Fast

Because of this, "there is no perception without attention." was claimed. Is this true?

Of course not. Showed participants two lines with white and black dots around them. On one trial the Muller-Lyer illusion was used around the lines and people reported the top line was longer but did not report seeing the illusion... even though it is very well known

Limitations of semantic memory model

Original model doesn't account for: • Semantic relatedness & how relates 2 concepts are. • Typically Effects: faster removal if members are more typical

Metacognition

Our awareness of our own cognition and knowledge and insight into its workings is

Semantic Memory

Our permanent memory store of general world knowledge

VISION SENSORY EXPERIENCE

Our vision sensory experience is continuous, but the date/information is not.

Control + Attention

Override habits (automatic processes)

GEON MODELS & FEATURE DETECTION

PROBLEMS W/ ??? MODEL - assume that the first step is to detect features - background & knowledge and context can matter

Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment

Pairing food (which made the dog salivate) with a bell (initially neutral stimulus) caused the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell

Acoustically dissimilar sounding words

Pan Ten Mill Hit Gun Dog Get Hot Bun Pit

One of the assumptions that researchers have suggested about cognition is that mental processes operate in a simultaneous manner instead of a step-by-step fashion. This assumption is referred to as ___.

Parallel processing

Single-blind procedure

Participants are unaware of the study aim so it does not influence how they perform

divided attention

Paying attention to more then one thing at a time

misinformation effect

People incorrectly claim to remember the misinformation

Load theory of attention

People pressed on key if they saw a K or another if they saw an N. Some were easy, with only o's or others were hard with more letters (see image) which resulted in longer reaction times. However then a picture of a dog was added to both the easy and hard task. Because the easy one was a low-load task, reaction time slowed more then the hard task because they had resources available to process the dog

Stereotypes Paper Results

People rely on stereotypes when remembering source when capacity is reduced; semantic memory is relied on when episodic is undermined

What is semantic priming

People respond faster to a stimulus if they have seen a related stimulus recently

which of the following is relevant to the idea that native English speakers have trouble telling the difference between a d and dh sound in another language that speakers of that language easily perceive?

Phonemes

Phonological Loop

Phonological Loop also contains phonological store; impacted by word length where harder to remember longer words (word length effect); impacted by phonological similarity effect (confusion based on sounds)

People have a difficult time remembering a list of words, such as boat, bowl, bone, and bore, compared to a list of words, such as stick, pear, friend, and cake, because the sounds are alike at the beginning (i.e., "bo ..."), causing people to misremember what words started with "bo-." This example demonstrates the ___ effect.

Phonological similarity

Embodied Cognition

Physical Interactions with world alter cognitive processes

Modal Model of Memory

Places sensory and short term memory at the beginning of the process of memory Proposed three types of memory: 1. Sensory (initial stage that holds all incoming info for fraction of sec.) 2. Short-term (Holds 5-7 items for about 15-20 sec.) Long-term (holds info for years)

Implicit Memory

Prior Experience of behavior influences without remembering/trying to; faster response or probability of response

What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Proactive: old learning interferes with new learning Retroactive: new learning interferes with old learning

Levels of processing- Craik and Lockhart (1972)

Probability of remembering an event does not depend on how long it resides in STM, but rather on how deeply the event is processed

Representativeness Heuristic

Probability of something based on how much it resembles pop/process producing it

People given a set of materials to learn will remember those materials if they say them aloud rather than if they simply read them. This example demonstrates the ___.

Production effect

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Radioactively labeled water is injected into the body, which is rapidly gathered in the brain's blood vessels. Sensors in the PET scanner detect the radioactivity as the compound accumulates in different regions of the brain. 2D or 3D images of the distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain. Pro: Good spatial resolution. Con: Poor temporal resolution. Invasive PET measures blood flow, where the blood is going

Interval data

Real measurements are involved, e.g temperature

What did the paper on stereotypes show about episodic memory?

Reducing resources makes people more likely to rely on semantic memory when trying to make an episodic memory judgement

Savings Score (Ebbinghaus)

Reduction in number of trials (or the same time) necessary for relearning, compared to original learning

Type II error

Retaining the null hypothesis when there was actually a real effect. The level of significance was too stringent.

Example of attentional shift

Rodger was eavesdropping on a conversation when suddenly a book cart tipped over and grabbed his attention

Example of visual scanning

Rodger's attempt to identify people across the room, looking from one person's face to another

COGNITION

The collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and understanding.

Ch. 7 what are the mental representations that serve as a framework for commonly experienced aspects of life called?

Schemata

Godden and Baddeley (1975) Context Dependent Memory

Scuba Divers studied 36 words on land or under water, and then recalled them in the same context or in the other context. Based on same principles as the specifies principle Best place to study for an Exam is to study in the room in which you will take the test.

Recognition tasks

Searching through memory to verify if a presented item was previously learned.

Shifting:

Shifting: Move attention from one target stimulus to another.

Testing> restudying

Slide #28 this shows that testing slows forgetting

Miroelectrodes

Small shafts of hollow glass filled with a conductive salt solution that can pick up electrical signals at the electrode tip and conduct these signals back to a recording device (used to recorded electrical signals from a single neuron)

Morphemes

Smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning Un - 2 phonemes making 1 morpheme

Wernicke's Area

Speech comprehension in temporal lobe

Broca's Area

Speech planning + programming

Sensory register research

Sperling used a visual array of letters - participants recalled on average 4.32 letters of the whole array. Shows it can only hold limited amount of information.

The retrieval of information from our semantic network by priming concepts that relate to each other is called ___.

Spreading of activation

Short term memory

The component of memory that holds new information for up to 20 seconds

KF case study

Suffered STM impairment following a motorbike accident. Problem with immediate recall of words being presented verbally, but not with visual information. KF has impaired articulatory loop but intact VSSP

What happened to HM?

Suffered brain injury as a result of surgical procedure to relieve him from seizures caused by epilepsy.

There are two phases of consolidation. The first is a fast ___ phase, in which memories may be stored for up to 2 weeks possibly in the hippocampus, and the second is a slower ___ phase, in which memories are stored for up to a lifetime across the cortex.

Synaptic consolidation; systems consolidation

Bias

Tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experiences and to affect current and future judgments of memory

Walter Schneider & Robert Shiffrin

Tested divided attention Subject had to carry out two tasks- remember a memory set and then pay attention to distractor stimuli and determine if the memory set was seen. With practice they got better and started to do it automatically

The gambler's fallacy

The FALSE belief that random processes (coin flips, roulette wheels, etc) are sensitive to prior outcomes

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli

Encoding

The act of taking in information and converting it to a usable mental form is

Priming

The activation of concepts and their meanings -spreads across the pathways, taking some amount of time -as the priming spreads further, it becomes weaker -the priming then decays across time

Spreading Activation

The activity of accessing and retrieving information from a semantic network.

Processing Capacity

The amount of information people can handle and sets limits on their ability to process incoming information

SOA (stimulus onset asynchrony)

The amount of time between the prime and the target within a trial

What is encoding specificity?

The best cues are things that were present at the time of encoding

amnesia

The catastrophic loss of memories or memory abilities caused by brain damage or disease

Encoding Specificity Principle

The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Neuron Doctrine

The idea that individual cells called neurons transmit signals in the nervous system, and that these cells are not continuous with other cells as proposed by nerve net theory.

What is embodied cognition (or embodiment)?

The idea that the way we cognitively process info is related to how we physically interact with the world

You are an Introspectionist and you are asked to describe a pencil. Which of the following statements would violate the principles of Introspectionism?

The object is called a "pencil."

decay

The older a memory trace is, the more likely that it has been forgotten, just as the print on an old newspaper fades into illegibility

Organic Amnesia

The part of the brain is damaged which is why they don't remember things 1. retrograde= can't remember what happened prior to injury 2. anterograde= can't form new memories after injury

Cognitive science

The study of mental activity and thinking, broadly conceived, is called

neuropsychology

The study of the behavioral effects of brain damage in humans.

hippocampus

The subcortical structure important fro memory is the

Confirmation bias

The tendency to look for and notice information that confirms a conclusion, belief, or hypothesis

The visuo-spatial sketchpad

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is the component for temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information.

Experimenter/ researcher effect

The way the experimenter may influence the outcome of an experiment by their actions or presence.

What was the null hypothesis of your practical?

There will be no difference in the number of acoustically dissimilar or similar sounding words recalled. Any difference is due to chance.

Arbitrary

There's no inherent connection between the symbols and their referents (words and meaning)

What are primacy and recency effects?

These are related to the penal position curve, found in both STM and LTM

Can Amnesiac learn?

They can learn based on classical condition, but they can't form any explicit memories Claparede- shook patients hands and pricked each with a needle while doing it. No patient shook his hand afterwards, but they didn't know why

Temporal lobes and Amnesia Miner and Scoville

They would operate on people to make them less dangerous to society HM: He had bad epilepsy seizures. He would have dozen of them a day. William removed the temporal lobe to get rid of those seizures in rats, so he though this would work for HM. He then put a small audio of HM and his life. HM now has one big seizure of the year. They test his memory for years. He is the only patient who has had this operations.

Which method of online comprehension could be used to assess the conscious thoughts of people as they discuss what was read from a passage of text?

Think-aloud verbal protocol

Episodic Memory Variables

Time/frequency, massed vs distributed practice, generation, levels of processing, organization, distinctiveness, emotion

Retrieval Failure

Tip of the tongue phenomenon: momentary inability to recall some info that is stored in LTM Available: info stored in LTM remains there permanently Accessibility: Degree to which info can be retrieved from memory,

Critical value

To decide if the observed value is significant, it is compared with a critical value in a critical values table

What was Baddeley's aim?

To investigate the influence of acoustic and semantic word similarity on learning and recall on LTM.

What was the aim of your practical?

To investigate the influence of acoustic similarity on short term memory

Strayer and Drews, cell phone paper Purpose

To look at inattention blindness when driving cars

Integration

To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed

What is the socialization of rod cells in the retina?

To see in the dark

What is the role of the working memory?

To temporarily store and manipulate information being used. It is fragile and susceptible to distraction, overload and overwork

Ch. 7 In semantic memory research, the result that typical members of a category tend to be judged as members of the category more rapidly than atypical members is called the

Typicality effect

Transfer of information between STM and LTM

Transfer can be a result of rehearsal - leave a weak memory trace. Stronger memory trace by using a medical operation such as a mnemonic.

Repressed Memory Idea

Traumatic childhood event repressed to protect children

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

Treats animals as information processors » Mental processes as processing stages

Who proposed the episodic/semantic memory?

Tulving 1972

What does the ability to retrieve semantic concepts in anomia patients suggest?

Two step process for word naming: conceptual retrieval followed by retrieval of word name

Donald Broadbent's theory for the findings of the cocktail party problems

Two stimuli presented simultaneously gain access to the sensory buffer in parallel. But a filter allows one input to pass through for more thorough processing based on physical characteristics. The blocked stimuli is put on hold. The filter prevents overloading of the limited capacity attention system.

Automatic Processes

Unintentional; fast; cannot explain task; few resources used; does not interfere w/ other tasks

FUGUE (Hannah Emily Upp)

Upp disappeared a day before the start of the fall term, leaving all her belongings behind. She disappeared for three weeks, and was rescued from the water about a mile from the southern tip of Manhattan. She has no recollections of her whereabouts during these three week. She said she "was going for a run to begin in an ambulance. It was like 10 minutes has passed but it was almost three weeks"

analytic introspection

Used by Wundt A technique in which trained subjects described their experiences and thought processes in response to a stimuli Requires extensive training

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Used to actively manipulate visual and spatial information

Matched pairs

Using different but similar participants in each condition. An effort is made to match the participants in any important characteristics that might be important to the study.

Issues and debates - social control

Using understanding of memory in court situations

Issues and debates - use of psychological knowledge within society

Using understanding of memory to help with memory loss

What type of inference can you conclude based on the following condition? If I am a psychology major, then I need to take research methods. Evidence: I do not need to take research methods. Therefore, I am not a psychology major.

Valid inference

Confounding variable

Variable that affects the findings of a study directly, so much that you are no longer measuring what was intended

Extraneous variable

Variable that may have affected the DV but that was not the IV

The ___ pathway is located near the temporal lobe and is activated when identifying "what" object you see. The ___ pathway is located near the parietal lobe and is activated when identifying "where" an object is located.

Ventral; dorsal

Ch. 4 ___ is the maintenance of attention for infrequent events over long periods of time.

Vigilance

___ is the maintenance of attention for infrequent events over long periods of time. This type of attention tends to decline about 20-35 minutes.

Vigilance

The mental rotation task, in which a person must mentally turn, spin, or rotate objects to determine if they match another object of the same orientation, is an example of the ___, a working memory component.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Does Undetected Information Get Processed?

Von Wright, Anderson, and Stenman (1975) asked subjects to perform a dichotic listening-shadowing task. Some words presented in the nonshadowed channel are associated with an electric shock...Subjects report no awareness of these words. But they show heightened galvanic skin response (GSR) to these words. A heightened GSR is usually associated with a heightened emotional state such as anger, fear, surprise, or sexual arousal.

What was the background information for Baddeley's study?

Wanted to test whether STM and LTM were different. At the time, research used different research techniques. Baddeley wanted to explore the effects of both acoustic and semantic in LTM.

Who argued that psychology should be examined by observable, quantifiable behavior and not fuzzy, unscientific concepts of thought, mind, and consciousness?

Watson

What has the research on priming shown about how we understand polysemous words?

We activate all (known) meanings of a word first and then the inappropriate ones are deactivated (based on the context)

How do embodied cognition theories of semantic memory suggest we develop our knowledge?

We build our knowledge through sensory/ perpetual & motor experiences.

How do embed cognition theories of semantic memory suggest we develop our knowledge?

We build our knowledge through sensory/perceptual and motor experiences

Why is sensory memory important?

We can measure how much information we can take in immediately and how much of the information remains half a second later

Displacement

We communicate about things that are not present and may or may not happen. We project into the future and the past

classic view of categorization

We create and use categories based on a system of rules, like a scientific taxonomy

Naming

We name everything

Naming

We name everything...if it doesn't have a name, we make one up

Given New Strategy

We plan first part of sentence but before end is planned; more complex sentences means more planning

Productivity/Generativity

We produce new ways of saying things rather than repeating same sequences; different ways to convey meaning

Productivity/Generativity

We produce/generate novel ways of saying things rather than repeating the same sequences over and over.

Spitzer (1939)

Went around the entire state of iowa, to test the 6th grade. they don't know what score that they got after they took their 25 item multiple choice tests. how does taking the first test effect your performance on your second test?

What is the reminiscene bump

When people recall events that occurred over their life time, they recall more events that occurred during adolescence and young adulthood than any other periods

Lexical level

Words and their meanings

Dual coding hypothesis (Paivio)

Words that the note concrete objects, as opposed to abstract words, can be encoded into memory twice

Proactive interference is

a cost in the ability to remember due to memories of prior events

People who are threatened are likely to exhibit ___ in cardiovascular efficiency, making their thought processes and decision-making less effective.

a decrease

Rehearsal and its effect on memory

a deliberate recycling or practicing of the content of the short term memory store. prevents it form being lost or displaced by other info. Longer rehearsal = greater probability that it will be stored in long-term memory.

what is the representativeness heuristic (dựa trên kinh nghiệm)?

a bias to judge the likelihood of an event based on --its similarity to the population it was drawn from --the process that produced it

Wernicke's aphasia

a condition, caused by damage to Wernicke's area, that is characterized by difficulty in understanding language, and fluent, grammatically correct, but incoherent speech

memory impairment

a genuine change or alteration in memory of an experienced event as a function of some later event

Relearning task (ebbinghaus)

a list is originally learned, set aside for a period of time, then later relearned to the same criterion of accuracy

Paired-associate learning task

a list of stimulus terms is paired, item by item, with a list of response terms. After learning, the stimulus terms should prompt the recall of the proper response terms

In the leading questions/memory distortion work by Loftus, people were shown a video of a car crash and then asked how fast the cars were going when they hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted each other. One week later, the "smashed" group reported seeing broken glass to a greater extent than the "contacted" group. This also demonstrates

a memory impairment

hub and spoke models

a model of semantic knowledge that proposes that areas of the brain that are associated with different functions are connected to the anterior temporal lobe, which integrates information from these areas

elaborative rehearsal

a more complex rehearsal that uses the meaning of the information to store and remember it

Nerve Net

a netlike control system that sends signals to and from all parts of the body A complex pathway for conducting signals uninterrupted through the network

cryptomnesia

a person unconsciously plagiarizes something they have heard or read before, but because they have forgotten the source, mistakenly think that it is a new idea that they thought of More likely to occur when people have their attention and working memory resources directed elsewhere

Some critics argue that deeper processing produces better memory because deeper encoding tasks take longer to do than shallow takes. Craik and Tulving showed that the level of processing effect is not based on difference in encoding time because

a phonolgical encoding task (vowel-consonant pattern matching) produces worse memory performance than meaning encoding task even if it takes longer to do

peg word mnemonic

a prememorized set of words serves as a sequence of mental "pegs" onto which the to-be-remembered material can be "hung" One is a bun (cup), two is a shoe (flag), etc.

lexical decision task

a procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword

transcranial magnetic stimulation

a procedure in which magnetic pulses are applied to the skull in order to temporarily disrupt the functioning of part of the brain

back propagation

a process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network, in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network; this backward transmitted error signal provides the info needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus

What is a saccade?

a rapid eye movement

Ch. 4 Habituation is ___

a reduction in the orientation response to familiar stimuli

In (?), a list is originally learned, set aside fro some period of time, then later relearned to the same criterion of accuracy

a relearning task

garden path sentence

a sentence in which the meaning that seems to be implied at the beginning of the sentence turns out to be incorrect, based on information that is presented later in the sentence

According to Sternberg, short-term memory is search using what kind of process?

a serial exhaustive search

Searching for a red circle in a field of green squares is likely to yield

a shallow search function

temporary ambiguity

a situation in which the meaning of a sentence, based on its initial words, is ambiguous because a number of meanings are possible, depending on how the sentence unfolds

language

a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

sentence verification technique

a technique in which the participant is asked to indicate whether a particular sentence is true or false

ICONIC MEMORY

a temporary visual buffer that holds visual info for brief periods of time; large capacity, brief

When you forget something, but feel like retrieval is imminent, this is called

a tip of the tongue (TOT) state

What is the name of the phenomenon in which a person does an unintended, but more automatic action in place of an intended, less automatic action?

a. Negative priming b. Action slip c. Inhibition of return ---> d. Habituation

Someone who can't see whole patterns has:

a. Repetition blindness ---> b. Apperceptive agnosia c. Associative agnosia d. Prosopagnosia

A timed task in which people decide if letter strings are or are not English words.

a. Response time ---> b. Lexical decision c. Mirror tracing d. Mental encoding

Consider the research question and decide which of the following is true: What is the effect of hearing someone else's phone conversation, vs. silence, on attention?

a. The IV is attention b. The quasi-IV is the phone conversation vs. silence ---> c. The DV is attention d. The DV is silence

If an early filter theory about attentional selection is correct, which of the following situations would be least plausible?

a. concentrating on a person's face in a crowded room b. reflexively orienting to the sound of a loud crash nearby c. determining which of two stimuli was the heaviest --> d. recognizing a familiar voice while concentrating on a lecture

How many things can we comprehend in a single glance? Sperling's experiment

about 4 units (whole report method, increased the letters until 12)

Extratriate body area (EBA)

activated by pictures of bodies and parts of bodies

parahippocampal place area (PPA)

activated by pictures of indoor and outdoor scenes.

Stereotype Threat

activation of stereotypes can influence perception and memory

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

spreading activation

activity that spreads out along any link in a semantic network that is connected to an activated node

Amnesic patients cannot recall vents that they have experienced in explicit memory tests, but their performance on implicit tests show that they have some capacity to learn. What causes this difference?

amnesic patients cannot enter retrieval mode

Broca's area

an area in the frontal lobe associated with the production of language; damage to this area causes Broca's aphasia

Ch. 4 It appears that hemineglect is caused by

an inability to disengage attention from a stimulus on the non-neglected side

It appears that hemineglect is caused by

an inability to disengage attention from a stimulus on the nonneglected side

category-specific deficit

an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, although the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed

Prosopagnosia

an inability to recognize the faces of familiar people

A complex kind of problem solving in which relationships in one situation are mapped onto another to solve a problem is

analogy

Patient H. M. had a brain surgery to reduce his epileptic seizure, causing his hippocampus to be severed (cut). He ended up having ___ amnesia, in which he could not remember new memories for events occurring after the brain injury or damage.

anterograde

Loss of the ability to form new memories after an injury is called

anterograde amnesia

Patient M.B. damged his brain in a car accident onf Feb1, 2013 and became amnesic. Today is March 1. YOU ask him what he did on Feb 14, 2013 and he does not remeber. Assuming that this forgetting is caused by amnesia, how would you characterize this amnesia

anterograde amnesia

anterior temporal lobe (ATL)

area in the temporal lobe; damage to the ATL = semantic deficits in dementia patients and with savant syndrome

Why didn't spitzer find a testing effect after 21 days

because the initial test occurred too late

REDUCTIONISM

attempting to understand complex events by breaking them down into their components

Controlled processing requires

attention

We have ________ resources that set limits on out ______ attention

attnetional resources divided attention

Memory for our life narrative is called

autobiographical memory

Counterfactuals are probably...

automatic and spontaneous

Information that is in memory, but cannot be retrieved at the moment, is said to be (?) but not (?)

available; accessible

Metamemory is

awareness of one's own memory contents and processes

The problem with feature detection models of pattern recognition (e.g., Pandamonium) is: a. No transaccadic memory b. No top down processing c. No bottom up processing d. Can't store enough templates

b. No top down processing

If the linguistic relativity hypothesis is true which of the following would be most likely? a. People speaking a language without a word for the color blue would see more shades of blue b. People speaking a language without a word for the color blue would have trouble identifying blue c. People speaking a language with no past tense would have memory problems d. People speaking a language with no past tense would have better memory than other language speakers

b. People speaking a language without a word for the color blue would have trouble identifying blue

Shallow Processing

based on characteristics of something; not about meaning

Text based

basic idea of text

Results of exp 4 cell phone

better exiting with passengers

Deep processing

better learning

isolation effect (von Restorff effect)

better memory for information that is distinct from the information around it

Generation effect

better memory when we create the information

When controlled + automatic match...

better performance

CONVERGENCE

binocular cue; movement/position of eyes

Broadbent's model has been called a....

bottleneck model becuase the filter restricts info. flow much like the neck of a bottle restricts liquid flow

Which is NOT part of the Collins & Quillans model?

bridging

sensory memory

brief persistence of an image

Which of the following is relevant to the idea that native English speakers have trouble telling the difference between a "d" and "dh" sound in another language that speakers of that language easily perceive? a. Sophemes b. Morphemes c. Phonemes d. Naming

c. Phonemes

Paula conducts an experiment looking at attention performance in the Stroop task for high and low WMC people. She compares their reaction time to correctly name colors when there are a high proportion of congruent trials vs. a high proportion of incongruent trials. a. WMC is the DV, proportion congruent is a grouping var b. Color naming is the DV, WMC is a grouping var c. Reaction time is the DV, proportion is the IV d. Reaction time is the DV, WMC is the IV

c. Reaction time is the DV, proportion is the IV

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Logic is not...

common sense

when do high spans and low spans differ in mind wandering?

concentration: high WMC mind wander less as they concentrate more, low WMC mind wander more challenge, effort: high WMC don't change, low WMC mind wander more with more challenge/effort

comprehension

concepts & beliefs mental structures situation models

semantic relatedness

concepts that are more highly related are retrieved faster

The influence of context on perception illustrates the operation of (?) processing

conceptually driven

Ch. 3 The sign Welcome to Illnois contains a spelling error. Your initial "correct" reading of the sign reveals

conceptually driven processing

The sign "WELCOME to ILLNOIS" contains a spelling error (Illnois should be Illinois). Your (presumed) initial "correct" reading of the sign reveals

conceptually driven processing

In reasoning, the tendency to search for evidence that confirms a conclusion is called

confirmation bias

The nerve net was proven not to be _____________ and it was discovered that individual units called ______ were the basic building blocks

continuous Neurons

The receptive and control centers for one side of the body are in the opposite hemisphere of the brain. This is referred to as

contralaterality

frontal lobe

coordination of the senses and higher cognitive functions such as thinking and problem solving

Counterfactual paper results

counterfactual triggering stories increase blame; blame worse under load if during judgment; load only effected low span subjects

anomia (anomic aphasia)

deficit in word finding Retrieval of semantic concept is in tact, but retrieval of name is disrupted

Anomia is a

deficit in word finding due to brain injury

Ch. 2 Information comes into a neuron through the

dendrites

change detection

determine what changes from one scene to the next

visual word paradigm

determining how subjects are processing info in a scene as they respond to specific instructions related to the scene

The final output of the system is determined in the second stage when the messages is analyzed by the

dictionary unit contains words stored in memory each which have a threshold for being activated

quality across the senses

different experience associated with each of the senses (light for vision, sound for hearing...)

In conversation, your beliefs about your conversational partners' knowledge and interests reflect

direct theory

Donald Broadbent

discovered attention has limited capacity For example, when you are talking to a friend at a noisey party, you can pay attention to what your friend is saying and although you know other people are talking around you, you do not focus on what others are saying

graceful degradation

disruption of performance due to damage to a system that occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged; this occurs in some cases of brain damaged also when parts of a connectionist network are damaged

Decisions about size differences are sped up when the stimuli differ by a greater amount. This reflects

distance effect

If you are carrying out a hard, high-load task, little processing capacity remains, so you don't get.....

distracted But if you are carrying out an easy, low-load task, processing capacity remains available to process "task-irreverent stimuli" This is why Rodger wasn't distracted when doing hw but was when playing an easy phone game.

What do event-related potential (ERPs) measure?

electrical activity

chunk or chucking

elements that are strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks

what did the paper on emotion and attentional blink show?

emotion can induce an AB, and people who are not harm avoidant have some control over that

Ch. 1 The act of taking in information and converting it to a usable mental form is

encoding

What is another term for active attention

endogenous orienting

Posner and Petersen suggested that three mechansms underlie the visual attentional searchlight. Which of the following is NOT on of these mechanisms

engagement shifiting disengagement transfer

how did we figure out that STM forgetting was due mostly to proactive interference?

experiments conducted with the Brown-Peterson paradigm showed that repeating stimuli in STM tasks decreases performance, but performance improves if you switch to new types

Which of the following does not support the idea that face recognition is special (relative to other object recognition

expertise effect

sensory-functional hypothesis

explanation of how semantic info is represented in the brain that states that the ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on one system that distinguishes sensory attributes and another system that distinguishes function

Two different forms of memory

explicit and implicit

Ch. 4 Conscious processing, conscious awareness that a task is being performed, and conscious awareness of the outcome of that performance describe ___

explicit processing

During reading, the eye remains fixated on a word as long as the word is being actively processed. This reflects

eye-mind assumption

What is a limitation of each of fMRI and lesion studies?

fMRI: doesn't show causes ERP: doest show where activity is happening

The proper term for netter-than-baseline response (generally a result of useful advance information) is

facilitation

What is change blindness?

failing to notice changes in the environment due to disruption of the image (saccade)

what is attentional blink?

failure to see a target the second time in a rapid series of events

Organic amnesia is always caused by brain damage to the medial temporal love. Dissociative fugue is always caused by the occurrence of a psychological trauma

false

What is the fat-face-thin illusion

fat faces appear thinner when presented upside down

feature search vs conjunction search

find target by looking for single feature or find target by combining multiple features.

Patient D.F. ( studied by David Milner) suffered damge to her temporal love and could no longer match a card held in her and to the orientation of a slot on the wall. But was able to

fit the car into the slot if she was told to pretend that she was mailing a letter.

What is the term called when you remember a very detailed memory of a particular event, especially when the event was surprising or highly emotional?

flashbulb memory

PARTIAL REPORT

follow whole report method, but tell participants what row/line to look at

Ch 2. The region of the retina responsible for precise focused vision is the

fovea

The region of the retina responsible for precise focused vision is the

fovea

Objects in central vision fall on the _____ and objects in peripheral vision fall on the _____

fovea peripheral retina

The example from the text, "A room full of Ph.D.s and nobody can open a book" (using a partially open textbook to adjust height of projection from a slide projector with a broken base), illustrates

functional fixedness

what's the difference between functional fixedness and negative set?

functional fixedness: failing to see alternative uses for objects negative set: using a strategy that worked in the past even though it's no longer appropriate

Which of the following brain structure is important for face recognition

fusiform area

hypermnesia

gain of memory over time

If a fair coin toss came up all tails five times in a row and you decided that a heads would come up next because it has not been a heads for a while, this heuristic is known as ___. Although this bias might occur, the five previous tosses should not have any bearing on the sixth toss (if the coin toss is fair).

gamblers fallacy

If a person says, "A penny for your thoughts" to ask what someone might be thinking, this expression is an example of a(n) ___.

idiom

Semantic memories generally convey

general world knowledge

Based on findings on an eye-tracker, ___ readers tend to have their eyes spend different amounts of time on certain words and ___ readers tend to have their eyes go back many times to reread what they have already processed.

good; poor

neural networks

groups of neurons or structures that are connected together

A reduction in the orienting response to familiar stimuli is

habituation

Phoneme boundaries

harder to identify phonemes not within own language

A college student claimed he knew that the car dealer would sell the car at $20,000 when in actuality, he had no idea at the time. This "I knew it all along" effect or this after-the-fact judgment that some event was predictable when it was not is an example of ___.

hindsight bias

George Sterling, in his 1960 monograph, discusses the implications of results obtained from a procedure called partial report. What topic was he investigating?

iconic memory

Iconic memory

iconic memory resides in the brain and is different from afterimage.

What is the difference between iconic memory and afterimage

iconic memory resides in the brain, whereas an afterimage resides in the retina

part-set cuing

if you cue people with a subset of a list, they will have more difficulty recalling the rest of the set than if they had not been cued at all

Dual coding hypothesis

imaged words can be encoded into memory twice(verbally and visually)

Imagining that something happened increases the later likelihood of reporting that it did happen; this phenomenon is known as

imagination inflation

The ___ assumption is the idea that readers try to interpret each content word of a text as they encounter that word, and the ___ assumption is the idea that the pattern of eye movements directly reflects the complexity of the underlying cognitive processes.

immediacy; eye-mind

Neuron

is the cell that is specialized for receiving and transmitting a neural impulse

given-new contract

in a conversation, a speaker should construct sentences so that they contain both given info and new info

Information that is stored and processed in the phonological loop is most likely

in a verbal/acoustic memory code

late closure

in parsing, when a person encounters a new word, the parser assumes that this word is part of the current phrase

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

aphasia

inability to speak

BINOCULAR CUES

info from both eyes

MONOCULAR CUES

info from one eye

Episodic Buffer

information from different modalities and sources are bound together

Encoding Specificity

information retrieval context matches the encoding context

Short-term memory

information that stays in our minds for brief periods, 10-15 seconds

Although the previous experiment thought it was decay, others thought it was proactive interference

information that was learned previously interferes with learning new information

generation effect

information you generate or create yourself is better remembered compared to information you only heard or read

The tip of the tongue phenomenon suggest that spreading activation cannot be sole mechanism that operates in an associative network. To account for this effect, researchers proposed an additional mechanism. What is it?

inhibition

SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES

inside (white matter) - memory & emotion

CORPUS CALLOSUM

integrate info between left & right hemispheres

Ch. 5 At this point, it seems that the most likely explanation for forgetting in short-term memory is

interference

Forgetting one memory as a result of the influence of other memories occurs is a result of

interference

In a study by Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924), the researchers found that people who remained awake after learning recalled fewer items than those who had slept. A possible reason for this finding is that everyday activities can distract an individual's memory of other information. This example represents ___.

interference

William Wundt

introspection: looks internally at oneself and report inner sensations and experiences

Availability heuristic

is a decision-making strategy based on the ease of retrieval from memory

Elaborative rehearsal

is meaning-related complex rehearsal/encoding

Prospective memory

is remembering to do something in the future

Working Memory

is responsible for the active mental effort of regulating attention, for transferring information into and form long term memory.

Experiment with pulvinar nucleus

is the center letter an O? Look at a fixed point, if no other letters around then no attentional filter needed. However it is needed if there are multiple letters surrounding the O Heightened activity in the pulvinar with multiple letters

Vigilance

is the maintenance of attention for infrequent events over long periods of time

Episodic Memory

is when you retrieve information. From personally events Example: Explaining what happen when you got your driver license

Example of population coding

it doesn't make sense that we would have a specific neuron for each face as with specificity coding. Instead a different pattern of neurons is fired in response to each face

Why doesn't the template model of pattern recognition work?

knowledge and context can matter as much or more than features

nondeclarative (implicit) memory

knowledge that influences thought and behavior without any necessary involvement of consciousness

common ground

knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions shared between two speakers

Because some of the unattended message gets through the attenuator, the model is sometimes called the..

leaky filter model

paired-associate learning

learn the list so that the correct response item can be reproduced whenever the stimulus item is presented

According to the Hemispheric Encoding /Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA) model, people encode episodic memory in the ___ frontal lobe and retrieve episodic memory in the ___ frontal lobe.

left; right

word superiority effect

letters are easier to identify when they are part of a word than when they are seen in isolation or in a string of letters that do not form a word

fMRI

limited by time offered; correlational (unsure if it is causing it); unsure if it is necessary in use

declarative/explicit memory

long term memory knowledge that is retrieved and reflected on consciously

A ___ study is when we assess people across time to see how their lives change, whereas a ___ study is when we assess different people at different ages at the same time of testing.

longitudinal; cross-sectional

Forgetting

loss of memory

what factors will produce increased victim blaming?

low WMC Divided attention (under load)

Maintenance rehearsal

low-level, repetitive recycling

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging

Clive Wearing

man with anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia-has short term memory, but not able to process it to long term memory. Memory problem caused by infection of the brain which created alot of damage, completely destroyed his hypocampus, uses diary to remind him of what he did/thought, can still play piano perfectly though(procedural memory good, cerebellum unaffected)

Ch. 1 The mental process of acquiring and retaining information for later retrieval is

memory

HIPPOCAMPUS

memory

self-reference effect

memory is better for information that you relate to yourself in some way

State-dependent learning

memory is better when the physiological state at encoding and retrieval are similar

Visual Scanning

movements of the eye from one location or object to another

When people are given the premises of a syllogism, they may create mental representations of the described state of affairs known as ___.

mental models

Mnemonics

mental structure for learning and acquiring he information. Using visual images, rhymes , or other kinds of associations and the effort and rehearsal necessary to form them. Guides you through retrieval by providing effective cues.

Re-coding

mentally transforming a stimulus into another code or format

Cell body

metabolic center of the neuron, keeps cell alive

gestalt grouping principles

methods of grouping disconnected sensory fragments to form a coherent whole

semantic network model

model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related Collins & Quillian (1972) Process of retrieval: spreading activation

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE

monocular cue; apparent convergence of lines

TEXTURE GRADIENTS

monocular cue; closer you are, more details seen

ELEVATION

monocular cue; horizon in the visual field is higher than the foreground

MOTION PARALLAX

monocular cue; images of nearby objects sweep across their visual field faster than objects that are far away

INTERPOSITION

monocular cue; overlapped object is inferred to be farther

RELATIVE SIZE

monocular cue; we interpret sizes of images on the retina as reflecting distance

a person who loses vision in one eye can still perceive depth because of...

monocular depth perception cues (Các tín hiệu nhận thức chiều sâu một mắt)

Elaborative rehearsal

more complex rehearsal that uses info meaning to aid memory storage.

Rehearsing information makes memories

more durable

Patient K.C.

motorcycle accident at age 30 Having severe amnesia doesn't change your short term memory. But you personality will change. Typical IQ score for after amnesia will be slightly lower than 100 Graded retrograde amnesia: Patients will not be able to remember much of an episodic information close to the injury but they can remember older memories. they can't remember dates and times. They can remember general information. R is KC brain, and the other ones is normal

DIGITAL STIMULUS

object/event in the outside world

Ch. 2 Which lobe of the cortex is most important for vision?

occipital

Which lobe in the brain is important for visual perception?

occipital

Which lobe of the cortex is most important for vision?

occipital

distributed representation

occurs when a specific cognition activates many areas of the brain

patient/recipient

one who received the action in the sentence

PERCEPTION

organization and interpretation of sensations

subjective organization

organization developed by a person for structuring and remembering information

Neglect patients usually suffer damge to their

parietal love

PARIETAL LOBE

part of brain: Touch, spatial orientation, nonvberbal

OCCIPITAL LOBE

part of brain: Vision

FRONTAL LOBE

part of brain: abstract thinking, planning, social skills

TEMPORAL LOBE

part of brain: language, hearing, visual patterns, recognition

CONES

part of eye: color vision, bright light, details

RODS

part of eye: dim light, poor acuity

What is the retrieval disruption called when you have a difficult time recalling items of a list because some parts of the list has been cued?

part-set cuing effect

Using a sentence verification task, collins and quillina showed that redundant infomarion is tored at a higher levle than the particular instanc because

people respond slower to"a cnary is an animal" than "a canary is a bird"."

What is misinformation effect

people's memory of a witnessed event i negatively affected by exposure to incorrect information after the vent

Ch. 3 The process of interpreting and understanding sensory information is best described as

perception

persistance of vision

perception of light in your mind even when it isn't there anymore, like the trail of a sparkler

Which of these "sins of memory" is not like the others?

persistence

echoic memory

persistence of sound in the mind

In the Stroop Effect, the "task-irrelevant stimuli" (the words) are extremely....

powerful! because reading words is automatic for us

Why does practice improve performance on divided attention tasks

practice allows one to automatize a task, thus reducing the need to invoke controlled processes

Walter Schneider & Robert Shiffrin results

practice makes it possible to divide attention and leads to automatic processing

temporal resolution

precision of a measurement with respect to time

In a paired-associate learning task, an individual studies a list of stimulus items paired with certain response items (List 1: A-B; e.g., tall-bone) and then studies the same list of stimulus items but are paired with different response items (List 2: A-Br; e.g., tall-crowd). If the individual is unable to remember the response item for List 2 (crowd) because he or she can only remember the response item from List 1 (bone), this an example of a(n) ___ interference.

proactive

Learning a large number of french words makes it harder to learn Spanish words Learning Spanish makes it harder to remember the french you learned earlier

proactive retroactive

Ch. 5 The cost to memory because of previously encountered information is called

proactive interference

syntactic coordination

process by which people use similar grammatical constructions when having a conversation

hierarchical processing

progression from lower to higher areas of the brain

When we are getting the basic idea units or main ideas of a text, this level of comprehension is referred to as the ___.

propositional textbase

SACCADES

quick movements of the eye from one point to the next

Ways to test memory

recall and recognition you can either recall it or you can't

BEHAVIORISM

scientific study of observable behavior

what did the paper looking at visual search like that in TSA screening find?

recognizing the target once fixated gets better with practice people don't fixate more with practice

Ch. 1 Empirical observations are those that

rely on observation, experimentation, or measurement

Misattribution

remembering a fact correctly from past experience but attributing it to an incorrect source or context

Retrieval

remembering information that is stored in the long term memory

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

Shadowing

repeating what you are hearing from the attended ear

Population coding

representation of a particular object by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons

Structural models

representations of a physical structure, simplifies structures to make them easier to study/understand (for example a plastic model of a brain colored to show each section)

Ch. 1 In response to a difficult question, a person is likely to respond more slowly than if an easy question had been asked. In terms of the overall response times, the difficult question would yield

response times with higher numbers

Central Executive

responsible for assessing the attentional needs of the different subsystems and furnishing attentional resources to them

Sensory memory

retention for brief periods of the effects of a sensory stimulation Trail left by a moving sparkler or seeing a film

Encoding specificity principle

retrieval condition have a profound influence on the amount or type of information that is retrievable. If it is incompatible with the way information was originally encoded, retrieval is impossible. Match or overlap between encoding and retrieval conditions

A person who suffers loss of memory for events occurring before a brain injury is known to have ___ amnesia, whereas a person who suffers loss of memory for events occurring after a brain injury is known to have ___ amnesia.

retrograde; anterograde

Ch. 3 Visual information is NOT gathered during

saccades

When recording eye movements in an eye-tracker, the rapid jerking movements of the eyes are known as ___.

saccades

Saliency map

scanning a scene to create a map

Continuity errors in film

scene changes from one shot to the next

What are the mental representations that serve as a framework or body of knowledge fro commonly experienced aspects of life called?

schemata

Ch. 4 Which is likely to produce the shallowest search slopes in a visual search task?

searching for a red X among green Os

multiple-factor approach

seeking to describe how concepts are represented in the brain by searching for multiple factors that determine how concepts are divided up within a category

In semantic memory tasks, response time is speeded up or judgements are made more easily when the concepts are closer together in semantic distance-that is, when they are more closely related. The effect is reversed when the comparison is false; that is, RT is longer for the comparison "a whale is a fish" vs. "a whale is a bird." This is an example of

semantic relatedness effect

Category specific deficits in object recognition provide support for the existence of the following stage in object recognition

semantic system

What is the purpose of iconic memory?

serves as a buffer (brief storage) for visual processes

Donald MacKay experiment (messages are processed at a later stage of processing based primarily on their meaning)

shadowed ambiguous sentence in attended ear and biased word was played in unattended ear. Attended ear "They were throwing stones at a bank" Unattended ear: "River" or "Bank" Subjects then had to pick a sentence that most matched what they heard, Based on the biased word heard, subjects chose that sentence

Ch. 4 A different audio message is played to each ear. The task is to repeat back the message as soon as it is heard. This task is most commonly called

shadowing

Ch. 5 Recency effects are most associated with

short-term memory storage

ECHOIC MEMORY

short-term store for auditory information

WHOLE REPORT

show a grid of letters in a short period of time and have participants repeat letters

Change blindness experiment

showed people a picture and then the same picture with an item missing, when people were not told what area to look in they did bad detecting the change, however they did good when told where to look

BINOCULAR DISPARITY

slightly different images to the two eyes

what's this an example of?

slosure

When controlled + automatic do not match...

slow and error prone

meaning dominance

some meanings of words occur more frequently than others

Phonological Loop

speech and sound related component responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing

Memory performance can be measured as the percentage of the..

stimuli remembered (10, remember 3, 30%)

template model of object recognition

stored models of all categorizable patterns

TEMPLATE APPROACH

stored models of all categorizable patterns; DOES NOT WORK

Encoding

storing information into long-term memory

DRM effect

studied words + critical lures + unstudied words; we can remember words that aren't actually on a list

Massed Practice v. Distributed Practice

study time is grouped together into one long sessions; study time is spread out over many short sessions

distributed practice

studying information in small increments over time

recall

subjects are presented with stimuli, there's a delay, then they recall as many of the stimuli as possible

in one experiment, Roediger and Karpicke manipulate dhow subject learn foreign vocabulary by varying the number of times subject restudy or recall the words. The result of this experiment show that

subjects produced grossly incorrect predicitons of their perfomance

The reminiscence bump is

superior memory for life events, better than would be expected by the forgetting curve, around the age of twenty

reminiscence bump

superior memory than would otherwise be expected for life events around the age of 20, between the ages of 15 and 25

Which of the following is NOT an aspect of input attention?

supervisory attentional system

Whorf

supported the idea that how we think is influenced by the specific language that we speak

Ch. 2 The region where neurotransmitters cross from one neuron to another is called the

synapse

Ch. 1 Radical empiricists believe that the mind starts out as a

tabula rasa

Neely (1977) used an SOA manipulation in a lexical decision task to illustrate

that both automatic and controlled processing can be implicated in priming

Ch. 3 The name for a stored visual pattern used in perception is

template

The name for a stored visual pattern used in a theory of recognition is

template

which of the following is a characteristic of the testing effect

testing slows down forgetting, and its benefits persist over time

attention

the act or power of carefully thinking about, listening to, or watching someone or something

recollection

the action or faculty of remembering something.

priming effect

the activation of certain associations, thus predisposing your perception, memory, or response Strong: lag=1 No priming effect at lag=4

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

learning phase continued

the d subscript is the ones that you drop (such as is you know five then those five you will be dropped the next time you study the cards again) this is repeated test only condition repeated study only condition, you will then study all items in all study cycles. for the test you will drop only the ones that you know, so in test one you got 6 out of 20 right and then the rest cycle you only take a test out of 14 and so on. Won't be retested on it, but will study it. Flash card method: you have 20 in the beginning, you then do the testing phase and get 6 right then the next study session you only study 14 cards and so on..

Ch. 3 Sensation is

the detection of external energy from the environment

Sensation is

the detection of external energy from the environment

Binocular disparity

the difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth

What is the finding that memory is better when people actually do something?

the enactment effect

Someone tells you about an event she experienced. Later, you try to remember just what was said. According to research, such as that by Sachs (1967), you are most likely to recall

the general gist of what was said, but not the exact wording

Alvarez and Cavanagh

the greater the amount of information in an image, the fewer items that can be held in visual short-term memory

Elevation

the higher the subject is the farther away it is

A lightning strike produces visual persistence due to

the iconic sensory register

Levels of Analysis

the idea that a topic can be studied in a number of different ways, with each approach contributing its own dimension to our understanding

specificity coding

the idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object

interactionist approach to parsing

the idea that info provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the idea that the nature of language in a particular culture can affect the way people in that culture think

source misattribution

the inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of the information

Perception is

the interpretation of perceptual signals

Synapse

the junction (gap) between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Ina a brain ablation study, Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982) showed that lesions to the parietal area of the monkey brain disrupted performance on a task. What is it?

the landmark discrimination task

parsing

the mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases; the way a sentence is parsed determines its meaning

Visual Imagery

the mental picturing of a stimulus that affects later recall or recognition

Cognition

the mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, that are what the mind does

Consolidation

the more permanent establishment of memories in the neural architecture

Implicit memory

the notion that people can demonstrate after-effects of an experience in their behavior without being able to consciously recollect the experience.. sometimes called priming

Decay( Episodic Memory)

the older a memory trace is, the more likely it has been forgotten

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Organization

the structuring of information as it is stored in memory

texture gradient

the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections and memory representation

transience

the tendency to lose access to information across time, whether through forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure

Common fate:

the tendency to perceive objects that are moving together as belonging together

persistence

the tendency to remember facts or events, including traumatic memories, that one would rather forget, that is, failure to forget because of intrusive recollections and rumination

Modal Model

the three-stage memory model that divides memory into 3 areas--sensory, short term, and long term

Topographic map

their is a spatial map of visual stimuli on the visual cortex Each point on a visual stimulus causes activity at a specific location on the visual cortex. This is just passivly looking. However if they kepp looking at the spots on a disc but shift their attention, what happens? Attention enhances activity on the locations of the tomographic map where they are paying attention. "this is the brains way of "taking possesion" Based on this they could create attention maps for subjects and then have them direct attention to a secret spots and researches could know where that spot was based on brian activity! Also did this with moving images of houses and faces

Why was there no testing effect after 21 days

their performances has already bottomed out. All the forgetting has already happened by 21st day. Testing only provides benefits when you take an initial test as soon as possible.

The sentence "Paris in the the spring" us ab example of.....

top-down processing

Another thing that effects our attention is----

top-down processing and our knowledge of scene schemas

what's the difference between top-down and bottom-up processing?

top-down: relying on background knowledge, experience, context bottom-up: data driven, relying solely on the stimulus

Information-processing approach

traces sequences of mental operations involved in cognition

Which is NOT one of Schacter's "7 sins of memory"?

transfer

input units

units in a connectionist network that are activated by stimulation from the environment

hidden units

units in a connectionist network that are located between input units and output units

phonemic restoration effect

when a phoneme in a word is heard even though it is obscured by a noise, such as a cough; this typically occurs when the word is part of a sentence

lexical ambiguity

when a word can have more than one meaniing; for example, bug can mean an insect or a listening device

semantic priming

words that are semantically related to each other make each other faster during lexical decision The "other" effect predicted by Collins & Quillian

Can irrelevant emotion induce an attentional blink?

yes, emotion can induce attentional blink (when the lag between distractor and target is short)

What are two (of the three) important factors that contributed to the cognitive revolution?

» A need for practical understanding of mental phenomena » A growing dissatisfaction with behaviorist explanations » Slow accumulating changes in nature of verbal learning research

You have a friend who literally can't walk and talk at the same time; they have no ability to multitask. Bumps into things, falls over. Which approach to attention works best for thinking about this problem?

» Capacity theories (mental resources, cognitive fuel)

The Corteen & Wood experiment that examined how people's galvanic skin response changed as a function of the types of words (shock-associated cities, other cities, random words) read in the unattended channel is a problem for early filter theories of attention. Why can't the early filter theory explain this finding?

» Early filter is based solely on physical characteristics, so the unattended words should not have been processed for meaning. The GSR indicates that they were processed for meaning.

The Corteen & Wood experiment that examined how people's galvanic skin response changed as a function of the types of words (shock-associated cities, other cities, random words) read in the unattended channel is a problem for early filter theories of attention. Why can't the early filter theory explain this finding?

» Early filter is based solely on physical characteristics, so the unattended words should not have been processed for meaning. The GSR indicates that they were processed for meaning.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRUE & QUASI EXP

» True experiment --> independent variable » Quasi experiment --> at least one quasi (group) variable

We have a blind spot in our retinas, but no "blind spot" in our visual experience; why?

» Visual processes use available info to fill in the missing info

Components of Baddeley's Working Memory Model

• Central Executive • Phonological Loop • Visuospatial Sketchpad • Episodic Buffer

Dana & Tanya each have a test. Dana has a MC test in biology and Tanya has a problem-solving test in calculus. What does the concept of transfer appropriate processing have to say about how they should study?

• Deal with the material in the same way @ study as they'll be dealing with it @ test. Dana: Deep Processing Tanya: Practice Problems

According to Posner and Petersen (1990), three brain areas control the searchlight beam.

• Disengagement • Shifting • Engaging

For whom the mind wonders: WMC & likelihood of mind wondering:

• Known to predict lab tasks • Known to predict formal intellectual tasks outside the lab

controlled processing

•Occurs with intention •Open to introspection •Takes attentional resources •Slower

Good ways to study ?

•Testing Effect •Deep Processing •Generation Effect

Major Findings for the Phonological Loop

•The Phonological Similarity Effect •Irrelevant Speech Effect •Word Length Effect