Final

Which of the following scenarios is most likely to occur if the climate continues on its current trajectory?

Cities like New York, New Orleans, and Miami will be flooded by ocean water.

What is the difference between in physical appearance between the geotherm line, solidus, and liquidus line?

Geotherm= Solid Solidus= the mixture between solid and melt. Liquidus= molten rock

Nonrenewable resources are used much more prevalently today despite knowing that they pollute and will run out in the future. Why then are we NOT using more renewable resources?

Nonrenewables are not cost-effective to use.

What is Nuclear fission and Nuclear Fusion?

Nuclear fission is when an atom breaks apart. Nuclear fusion is when atoms come together.

Oxygen isotopes are often used to estimate changes in paleoclimate by measuring the ratio of 18O to 16O in ice cores. If the 18O/16O ratio is high, this indicates a(n) ________.

warm climate

Which of the following is true of ephemeral streams but NOT permanent streams?

They contain water only during rainfall.

________ is a change in atmospheric conditions over minutes to days, whereas ________ is the average of conditions over years to decades.

Weather; climate

The majority of large cave and karst systems have resulted from ________ etching into ________.

carbonic acid; limestone

________ is/are an example of conventional hydrocarbon sources.

crude oil

The outer edge of a meander, where material is being eroded, is called a(n) ________.

cut bank

Most industrial nations have intentionally decreased their production and use of refrigerants and other chlorofluorocarbons in the last 20 years to address the ________.

decrease in atmospheric ozone over the Antarctic

If a dam is built on a river, what effects might be felt downstream?

decrease in sediment supply

What would an area experiencing erosion look like compared to one experiencing deposition?

deep valleys or canyons versus large flat, open areas

In uniform sediments with a relatively constant and gentle slope at the surface, a ________ drainage network is expected.

dendritic

Landforms built by an accumulation of sediment are called ________ landforms.

depositional

what type of rock would make the best reservoir rock in a conventional hydrocarbon system?

high-porosity, high-permeability rock

A regular kitchen sponge has ________ porosity but ________ permeability.

high; low

The base level of a tributary would become ________ if a dam and a reservoir were constructed where it flowed into a trunk stream.

higher

A reservoir rock contains ________ porosity and permeability, while a seal rock contains ________ porosity and permeability.

higher; lower

In the subsurface, nonbiogenic natural gas ________.

is generated at higher temperatures than oil

The stream gradient of most rivers ________.

is greater near the source than near the mouth

The discharge of a river will increase if ________.

it rains in the drainage basin area

The majority of caves are formed by the dissolution of bedrock ________.

just below the water table

Topography dominated by depressions formed by the collapse of caves is termed a ________.

karst landscape

Which organic substance is produced by black organic shale at temperatures below (cooler than) the oil window?

kerogen

Which sequence shows an increase in coal rank from lowest to highest?

lignite, bituminous, anthracite

Sinkholes are a concern primarily for residents whose dwellings are constructed atop ________.

limestone

Which of these is the longest-lasting sink for carbon dioxide?

limestones

Rates of groundwater flow are ________ than stream flow because the water ________.

lower; must make its way through tiny pore spaces

Limestone is often used as diminution stone and as crushed stone. If you are working as a geologist for a mining company that wishes to establish a new limestone quarry, for what type of ancient depositional systems will you look?

shallow marine

Coal is formed when heat and pressure alter deposits of ancient ________.

terrestrial plants

The distinction between a valley and a canyon is ________.

that the sides of a canyon are more steep than those of a valley

Imagine you are digging a hole when the hole suddenly starts to fill with water. What have you found?

the water table

Nuclear fission produces a large yield of energy; however, this energy is not in the form of electricity. What form of energy is produced by fission?

thermal

The total sediment load of a stream consists of all of the following EXCEPT the ________ load.

turbulent

Which of the following landscapes is dominated by erosion?

glacial valley

If a 50-year flood occurs on the Mississippi River this year, what is the probability that a flood of the same magnitude will occur in the following year?

2%

Models used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change show that by the year 2100, the average annual temperature will have increased in some parts of the world by as much as ________.

4°C

The boundary surface between two stratigraphic formations is called a Choose one: A. contact. B. marker bed. C. key bed. D. nonconformity.

A Explanation: The boundary surface between two stratigraphic formations is called a contact. A key bed (or marker bed) is a unique bed that helps in correlation of strata. A nonconformity can be a type of contact, but not all contacts are nonconformities.

Identify the FALSE statement about landscapes on Mars. Choose one: A. Mars no longer has a hydrologic cycle because all water and/or ice is now gone from the surface. B. Exposed Martian materials came from volcanic activity, wind- and water-derived sediments, and debris from impacts. C. Because Mars has an atmosphere, wind can erode and deposit materials on the surface. D. Olympus Mons is a hot-spot volcano on Mars and is the highest mountain in the Solar System.

A Mars has polar ice caps that grow seasonally and soil-forming processes indicate that small amounts of liquid water exist on Mars presently, so not all water/ice on the surface is gone.

What is a batholith?

A batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock that forms and cools deep in the Earth's crust. Batholiths are vast, rising at least 100 square kilometers above the surface of the Earth, which is why they're so hard to miss. They are made up of plutons, which are themselves several kilometers in diameter..

Metamorphic aureoles typically contain nonfoliated rock like hornfels because A. they form adjacent to an intruding pluton, which provides heat for metamorphism. B. they form at shallow burial depths (less than 8 km). C. compressional forces associated with mountain building provide the necessary pressure to create hornfels. D. they form as a consequence of shearing without a subsequent change in temperature or pressure.

A. Aureoles typically form around igneous intrusions by contact/thermal metamorphism. The addition of heat, but little pressure, produces nonfoliated metamorphic rocks.

Identify the FALSE statement. Generally speaking, fossils can form when organisms A. are preserved in recrystallized limestone called marble. B. are trapped in amber. C. travel over sediments and leave imprints. D. die and get buried by sediment.

A. Explanation: Organisms cannot survive the recrystallization and low-grade metamorphism associated with making marble from limestone; therefore, fossils would not be found in these rocks.

The locations of major earthquakes A. are usually along plate boundaries. B. always mark places where plates are converging, never where they're diverging. C. can be anywhere on the globe. D. are usually toward the centers of tectonic plates

A. Explanation: Plate boundaries, whether they're converging, diverging, or sliding, are places of dramatic Earth action (called seismic belts or zones) and are often the location for major earthquake activity.

A moving, glowing cloud of hot gases and volcanic pieces A. is called a pyroclastic flow or nuée ardente. B. is so rare, none occurred last century. C. was named with a Hawaiian term because it is so common there. D. is associated with shield volcanoes.

A. A glowing cloud of gases and pieces is not uncommon with explosive eruptions; shield volcanoes, including those of Hawaii, are associated with effusive, not explosive, eruptions.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. At times of high global sea level, the Mediterranean Sea was cut off and the trapped seawater evaporated. B. About 6 million years ago, the African plate moved northward and collided with the European plate to create a dam between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. C. Only about 10% of the water flowing into the Mediterranean Sea comes from river input. D. A deposit of gypsum and halite found beneath the Mediterranean Sea is ~2 km thick.

A. It was at times of low global sea level that the Mediterranean Sea was cut off from the Atlantic Ocean and the trapped seawater evaporated. This happened multiple times in order to create a 2-km-thick deposit of evaporites.

Shale, a sedimentary rock, can be subjected to high heat and pressure through A. burial during continental collision. B. volcanism during mid-ocean ridge spreading. C. partial melting during hot-spot activity. D. exhumation during rifting.

A. Shale, a sedimentary rock found at the Earth's surface, can be buried to significant depth, which increases its pressure and temperature and may cause it to undergo metamorphism.

Identify the FALSE statement. A rock in any given class doesn't last forever because A. all rocks in the crust will, at some point, be subducted and melted to create igneous rock. B. uplift, weathering, burial, and heating/melting can transform one rock type into another. C. Earth materials can change from one type to another over time. D. Earth is an actively changing, dynamic system.

A. Since continental crust cannot subduct, it is incorrect to say that all crustal rocks will, at one time or another, be subducted to make igneous rocks.

Footprints, burrows, and feeding marks are all types of A. trace fossils. B. coprolites. C. microfossils. D. biomarkers.

A. Explanation: Footprints, burrows, and feeding marks are all types of trace fossils because they form by the action of organisms but are not relict parts of the organism's body.

When the buoyancy force pushing up on lithosphere equals the gravitational force pulling down on it, the situation is said to show A. isostatic equilibrium. B. detachment. C. epeirogeny. D. orogenic collapse.

A. Explanation: A situation in which opposing forces cancel each other is called isostatic equilibrium.

Theoretically, "snowball Earth" conditions of the late Proterozoic Eon would have persisted forever were it not for greenhouse warming caused by volcanically derived A. carbon dioxide. B. carbon monoxide. C. ammonia. D. oxygen.

A. Explanation: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, which brought Earth out of the snowball conditions of the Proterozoic Eon.

Identify the FALSE statement about Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. A. As environments change, individual organisms choose to change to better suit the new environment. B. In each new generation, some individuals are more fit than other individuals. C. Those organisms that are able to survive will pass on their characteristics to their offspring. D. Populations of organisms cannot increase forever because of limited resources.

A. Explanation: If environmental conditions change, species (not individuals) that do not evolve or become better adapted will eventually die off or become extinct. It is important to remember that evolution occurs over time (on the level of entire populations within a species) and that individual organisms cannot "will" themselves to change under changing environmental pressures.

Which of the following taxonomic hierarchies of a domain is CORRECT? A. kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species B. phylum, kingdom, order, class, genus, species, family C. species, order, class, phylum, kingdom, family, genus D. order, phylum, kingdom, genus, class, species, family

A. Explanation: Taxonomic hierarchy lists domains, such as the Eukarya, by kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Students may remember this by the mnemonic: King Phillip came over from great Spain.

Identify the FALSE statement. Beneath the continents, seismic velocities in the mantle increase with depth because the mantle becomes A. hotter. B. more rigid. C. more dense. D. less compressible.

A. Explanation: The increase in seismic wave velocity through the mantle is due to the mantle material feeling significant pressure, which increases the density and rigidity and lowers the compressibility. Increased temperature does not cause the increase in seismic wave velocity; it may cause a decrease.

Identify the FALSE statement. Internal differentiation A. "stirred" Earth's interior and thus hastened Earth's cooling. B. is the process that resulted in Earth's interior having different materials at different depths. C. involved heavy molten iron sinking to Earth's center to become its core. D. happened just before Earth's collision with a protoplanet that blasted away moon material.

A. Explanation: The process of internal differentiation generated enough heat to make Earth even hotter.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. If you walk from the outer edge of a dome in toward its center, you cross progressively younger rock layers. B. The youngest rocks of a basin are found at its center. C. Epeirogenic movements affect broader areas and produce more gently sloping structures than do orogenic processes. D. Erosion wears down mountains, and mountains collapse under their own weight.

A. Explanation: You would cross progressively older rock layers if you walked from the outer edge of a dome towards its center.

Which statement is TRUE? A. Body waves pass through Earth's interior, whereas surface waves travel at the Earth's surface. B. P, S, L, and R are all body waves that pass through the Earth's interior. C. S-waves travel twice as fast as P-waves. D. The hypocenter (focus) is the point on Earth's surface directly above the epicenter.

A. Explanation: L and R are surface waves (not body waves); the epicenter is above the focus; and S-waves travel at 60% the speed of P-waves. The correct choice describes the nature of body waves and surface waves.

The various geologic settings in which rocks can melt, metamorphose, or become sediment are ultimately generated by A. plate tectonics. B. gravity. C. heat from the Sun. D. life at the Earth's surface.

A. Explanation: Plate interactions, as a result of plate tectonics, ultimately generate the various geologic settings where Earth materials can melt, metamorphose, and/or weather to become sediments.

You're looking at a fault trace in the field. You observe a polished surface, with linear grooves on it, and fine powder along it. In more technical terms, what are you seeing? A. slickensides, slip lineations, and fault gouge B. shear zone, fault gouge, and fault breccia C. slip lineation, slickensides, and mylonites D. slickensides, mylonites, and fault gouge

A. Explanation: Slickensides are polished fault surfaces; slip lineations are linear grooves on fault surfaces, and fault gouge is a fine powder of shattered rock along a fault plane.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Any given earthquake can have more than one magnitude, but can have only one intensity. B. Moment magnitude (MW) rating is considered the most accurate representation of an earthquake's magnitude. C. Normal faults result from stretching the Earth's crust; thrust faults from squeezing and shortening it. D. All earthquake magnitude scales are logarithmic, which means a difference of one unit in magnitude reading represents a 10-fold difference in ground motion.

A. Explanation: The magnitude of an earthquake refers to the amount of energy released. Therefore, a given earthquake should have only one magnitude number.

Which of the following was NOT a line of evidence used by Wegener to develop this theory that continents drift? A. the presence of earthquakes in seismic belts along trenches, ridges, and fracture zones B. matching mountain chains on continents currently separated by oceans C. the distribution of fossil species D. the location of ancient till deposits and striations that indicated glacial movement toward the interior of continents

A. It was not until after World War II that scientists produced maps of earthquake distribution, which indicated the presence of seismic zones along trenches, mid-ocean ridges, and fracture zones—long after Wegener's time.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Weathering happens fastest on the flat faces of broken blocks of rock. B. Physical weathering speeds up chemical weathering by increasing surface area. C. When different rocks in an outcrop undergo weathering at different rates it is called differential weathering. D. Chemical weathering speeds up physical weathering by weakening the rock.

A. Weathering happens fastest on the corners, then edges, of broken blocks of rock because the reactions can attack the corners from three sides and the edges from two sides.

Radiometric dating of a magnetic anomaly stripe of rock that is 225 km away from the mid-ocean ridge axis gives an age of 4.5 million years. Assuming a constant rate, seafloor spreading in this area occurs at a rate of A. 5 cm per year. B. 1,012.5 km per year. C. 20,000 cm per year. D. 50 km per year.

A. 225 km ×1,000 m/km × 100 cm/m = 22,500,000 cm; 22,500,000 cm / 4,500,000 years = 5 cm per year

Which of the following statements about drainage basins and divides is FALSE? Choose one: A. A watershed is a ridge that separates one catchment from another. B. A trunk stream carries water away from a drainage basin. C. Precipitation that falls on the east side of the continental divide flows to the Atlantic Ocean. D. Streams on the west side of the continental divide flow into the Pacific Ocean.

A. A drainage divide separates one catchment from another, not a watershed.

A lahar is A. a volcanic mud flow that resembles fluid concrete. B. a collapsed volcanic structure. C. a lava lake in a summit crater. D. a glowing cloud of pyroclastic fragments and hot gas.

A. A glowing cloud of pyroclastic fragments and hot gas defines a pyroclastic flow (nuée ardente); a collapsed volcanic structure is a caldera; and there is no special name for a lava lake in a summit crater.

The texture produced when minerals within a metamorphic rock are layered parallel to each other is called? A. foliation. B. bedding. C. grain size. D. bedrock.

A. A metamorphic foliation is produced when minerals within a metamorphic rock are aligned either in bands or in layers parallel to each other.

Identify the FALSE statement. A subducting (or downgoing) plate A. can be either continental or oceanic lithosphere. B. has a trench along its seaward edge. C. has a volcanic arc associated with it. D. can be charted by noting its Wadati-Benioff zone.

A. A subducting plate is always oceanic lithosphere.

Fluvial landscapes that are early in their evolutionary progression have Choose one: A. narrow, deep valleys. B. natural levees. C. broad floodplains. D. oxbow lakes.

A. All of the other choices are features that develop over time.

Groundwater in underground, constricted fractures is heated past its normal boiling temperature by surrounding hot rocks. The superhot liquid expands in volume; this reduces its confining pressure, and it flashes into steam. This is an explanation of which geologic feature? Choose one: A. a geyser B. an artesian spring C. a hot spring D. a mud pot

A. An artesian spring is not a geothermal feature; hot springs and mud pots don't have constricted fractures where water expands in volume significantly and escapes as steam.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. An unconformity is a break in the rock record that indicates the area was underwater for millions of years. B. A formation is the name of a rock layer identified by such factors as rock type and approximate geologic age. C. Varieties of an element that differ only in the number of neutrons are called isotopes. D. The generally accepted age of Earth is 4.54 billion years.

A. An unconformity is a break in the rock record that indicates the area was underwater for millions of years.

Which of the following statements about hardness is TRUE? A. A copper penny will scratch gypsum. B. Apatite is harder than orthoclase. C. Diamond has a Mohs hardness of 10 because it is 10x harder than talc (hardness of 1). D. Calcite will scratch fluorite.

A. Apatite is softer than orthoclase. Mohs hardness scale does not specify true relative hardness, and diamond is about 7000 times harder than talc. Calcite will not scratch fluorite—the mineral with the higher hardness will do the scratching.

Which of the following was NOT a component of Earth's Hadean atmosphere? A. oxygen B. ammonia C. methane D. hydrogen

A. Atmospheric oxygen didn't accumulate until the Proterozoic Eon, 2.5 Ga to 543 Ma. Other gases in the Hadean atmosphere were water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.

Identify the FALSE statement. The Moon's landscape Choose one: A. is slowly changing due to the force of erosion by rivers, glaciers, and wind. B. shows evidence of meteorite impacts (craters). C. developed in part due to volcanic activity. D. is not modified by tectonic activity.

A. Because the Moon has no atmosphere and no hydrologic cycle, there is no surface modification due to erosion.

Bowen's reaction series A. allows a geologist to predict what minerals will be found in a given igneous rock. B. is an attempt to explain the logic of formation of sedimentary rocks. C. shows that minerals crystallize in a random order, with no particular pattern involved. D. explains why some compounds use ionic bonds and others have covalent bonding.

A. Bowen's reaction series was deduced through laboratory procedures that cooled molten rock; the crystal formation in the igneous rocks produced frequently followed a predictable order.

The Deepwater Horizon disaster refers to Choose one: A. a catastrophic blowout that occurred in April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. B. the meltdown of a nuclear reactor in Japan. C. an oil tanker that spilled over 2 million barrels of oil off the Alaska coast. D. a swarm of earthquakes in Oklahoma due to fracking.

A. Contrary to the incorrect answer choices—which are all events that you may have heard about in the news over the past few years (abundant earthquakes in Oklahoma ranging from magnitude 2 to 4.5, Fukushima, and Exxon Valdez)—the Deepwater Horizon disaster was a blowout of a BP oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

The current theory that explains the formation of our Moon states that it A. was formed by the collision of Earth with a Mars-sized protoplanet. B. was a separate small planet before it was captured by Earth's gravity. C. spun off the fast-spinning Earth during the early formation of the solar system. D. coalesced from gas and dust in its current place next to Earth.

A. Data support the theory that the Moon formed after a collision between Earth and a Mars-sized planet. The ejected debris coalesced around the Earth to form the Moon.

Each of the following energy sources drives landscape evolution EXCEPT Choose one: A. the Earth's magnetic field. B. the force of gravity. C. energy coming from the Sun. D. the heat within the Earth.

A. Earth's magnetic field does not drive landscape evolution like the other three choices do.

Which is NOT a physical property commonly used in the field to identify minerals? A. X-ray diffraction B. luster C. specific gravity D. color

A. Easily observable physical properties are: color, streak, luster, hardness, specific gravity, crystal form, crystal habit, cleavage, and special properties (e.g., reaction with HCl solution). X-ray diffraction is a sophisticated procedure used to examine crystal lattice patterns.

Identify the FALSE statement. Sea-level changes Choose one: A. are termed eustatic if they are local changes. B. have been as great as 300 m during the Phanerozoic Eon. C. are reflected by blankets of sediment called sedimentary sequences. D. have been recorded on the sedimentary cycle chart.

A. Eustatic sea-level changes are those that are global/worldwide.

Which geologic time interval saw the first continents, the first life, and possibly the first cratons? A. Archean B. Hadean C. Proterozoic D. Phanerozoic

A. Explanation: By the Archean, Earth had cooled enough from Hadean times to allow its surface to freeze and form continents, cratons, and plates, and contain ocean waters. Proterozoic means "first life," but it's a misnomer; life began in Archean times.

Which of the following is TRUE? A. Specifying the age of one feature with respect to another is called its relative age. B. Saying that a fossil is 4 million years old reports its relative age. C. Specifying the date on which an event took place is an example of relative age. D. Geologists learned how to determine numerical age long before they could determine relative age

A. Explanation: Relative age dating provides the age of a feature or event with respect to another feature or event in the same sequence.

Identify the FALSE statement. During the Pleistocene Ice Age A. continental glaciers covered all of North America. B. a continental land bridge west of Alaska was exposed and allowed migration of animals and people from Asia to North America. C. continental glaciers in the northern hemisphere advanced and retreated at least 20 times. D. sea level fell because water was tied up as ice.

A. Explanation: The glaciers extended just a little south of the U.S.-Canada border. New York City was under ice.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. Mountains continue to get higher as long as the rate of erosion equals the rate of uplift. B. Domes and basins in the midwestern United States are the result of epeirogeny. C. Fault-block mountains result when blocks of crust drop downward along normal faults. D. Major mountain ranges are the result of multiple orogenies over long geologic time.

A. Explanation: Equal rates of uplift and erosion will maintain mountain height, but not increase it.

The P-wave shadow zone A. forms because of changes at the core-mantle boundary. B. indicates that the outer core is more rigid than the inner core. C. results from seismic waves bending up at ~2,900 km depth. D. is a narrow band that lies 103˚-180˚ from an earthquake's epicenter where seismic waves are measured at seismometers.

A. Explanation: The P-wave shadow zone is a band that lies 103˚-143˚ from an earthquake epicenter where seismic waves do NOT arrive; the shadow zone is formed by the change in rigidity and density between the mantle and outer core.

A tsunami A. may be just a broad, gentle swelling out at sea but grows as it approaches shore. B. is dangerous near its source but dies out within about 200 miles. C. is a special kind of tidal wave caused by the gravitational attraction of the Sun, not the Moon. D. can get big but never bigger than 30 feet high.

A. Explanation: Tsunamis are caused by volcanic or seismic activity or by undersea landslides, can be up to 30 meters high, and can cross entire ocean basins.

Which of the following is NOT a way to recognize faults in the field? A. mineral-filled veins B. an offset stream channel C. a displaced marker bed D. slip lineations on a fault plane

A. Explanation: Veins form when joints (cracks) infill with mineral precipitates, but the presence of veins does not indicate movement along a fault like the other choices do.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Agriculture (planting crops on floodplains) reduces sediment load into nearby rivers. B. Dead zones can form where rivers empty pollutants into the oceans. C. Urbanization creates impermeable surfaces that prevent infiltration after rainfall events. D. Overuse of the waters of the Colorado River has reduced it to a mere trickle near its mouth.

A. Farmland has less plant cover than natural grassland or forest. The bare ground between rows of crops can erode and send large volumes of sediment into nearby rivers.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Waterfalls Choose one: A. last for millions of years because they are created by elevation differences in exceedingly hard bedrock. B. may be found where a stream crosses a resistant ledge of rock. C. form when a stream's gradient becomes very steep. D. often scour out plunge pools at their bases.

A. Geologically speaking, waterfalls are short-lived because headward erosion eats back the resistant ledge.

Which of the following statements about the hydrologic cycle is FALSE? Choose one: A. Water that manages to infiltrate the land is lost to the cycle. B. There is an exchange of water among oceans, land, and atmosphere. C. Surface snow and ice are part of this cycle. D. Sheet wash is a thin film of water that moves down slopes.

A. Groundwater eventually resurfaces, evaporates, and thus remains part of the cycle.

Which of the following regions would have the highest relief? Choose one: A. the Himalayan mountains B. the surface of the Antarctic ice sheet C. the Nile River valley D. the gentle, rolling hills of southern Scotland

A. High-relief regions have a significant change in elevation, such as mountainous regions.

These volcanic products cover 70% of Earth's surface. A. mid-ocean ridge volcanism B. flood basalts C. hot spots D. LIPs

A. Hot spots, LIPs (large igneous provinces), and flood basalts are relatively isolated geologic occurrences and do not cover 70% of the surface of the planet.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Over the span of 10 to 1,000 years, groundwater behaves as a renewable resource. B. Withdrawal of groundwater faster than natural recharge occurs has caused extreme land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, California. C. Overuse of groundwater in the Everglades of Florida has caused parts of the swamp to dry up. D. A sinkhole developed at Winter Park, Florida, due to dissolution of limestone bedrock.

A. In the timeframe of 10,000 years, groundwater would be considered a renewable resource because the hydrologic cycle would resupply the depleted reservoir. But on shorter timeframes, groundwater in many regions behaves like a nonrenewable resource because we pump water out of the ground at a much faster rate than nature can replace it.

Identify the FALSE statement. Rhyolitic lava A. may be squeezed upward and out of the vent to create a lava fountain. B. has more silica than basalt lava does. C. indicates the tendency for explosive activity. D. may form a lava dome above the vent.

A. Lava fountains form during effusive eruptions where the magma is hot, mafic, and has a low viscosity (conditions that do not coincide with rhyolitic lava formation).

Identify the FALSE statement. Lava of low viscosity A. is most often a "cool" temperature lava. B. can flow farther than intermediate- or high-viscosity lava. C. indicates an area that has little potential for explosive eruptions. D. has low silica content.

A. Low-viscosity lavas are usually very hot.

Magmas have a variety of chemical compositions because of all of the following EXCEPT A. different magmas formed in different locations are isolated and don't mix. B. they come from a variety of source rocks. C. the magmas' heat can melt rock from the walls of the magma chamber. D. the rocks that melt to make magma are composed of many minerals, not all of which melt under the same conditions.

A. Magmas formed at different locations under different conditions can meet and mix, which affects the composition of the resulting magma.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Metamorphic change occurs at high temperatures and requires melting. B. Solidification of molten rock produces igneous rocks. C. Salt precipitating out of a water solution is an example of a sedimentary rock. D. Clastic rocks contain grains that are stuck together by cement.

A. Metamorphic change occurs in the solid state and does not require melting.

The center of a mid-ocean ridge is where A. new oceanic lithosphere is being created. B. molten basalt subducts back into Earth. C. two continental plates converge. D. you find the oldest, densest, hottest oceanic crust.

A. Molten basalt is rising, not sinking, in the trough of a mid-ocean ridge. Here the crust is the hottest, but it's also the youngest, least dense of all ocean crust. The ridge has nothing to do with continental convergence—it's associated with an oceanic divergent boundary.

Which of the following statements is NOT true about the ocean floor? A. Oceanic crust contains granite and metamorphic rocks. B. The heat flow through it is greatest at the mid-ocean ridges. C. Oceanic crust is quite different from continental crust. D. It is covered by a layer of sediment composed of clay and plankton shells.

A. Ocean crust consists primarily of basalt and does not have the wide variety of rock types of continental crust.

A black, fine-grained tabular intrusion between two layers of horizontal sedimentary rock must logically be a A. basaltic sill. B. basaltic dike. C. granitic dike. D. granitic sill.

A. Only basaltic sill fits the description; granite would be light-colored, and a dike would cut across existing layers.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? Choose one: A. Open pit miners shatter bedrock with explosives and then transport waste rock to a tailings pile and ore to a crusher. B. Earth's deepest mine extends to 10 km (6 miles) below the surface. C. Open pit mines are necessary when the ore is several hundred meters deep. D. Open pit mines are called adits.

A. Open pit mines are used for ore that's within 100 m of the surface. Earth's deepest mines are 3.5 km (about 2 miles) deep and the entrances to deep mines (not open pit mines) are called adits.

Identify the FALSE statement. Pegmatites A. have intruded at great depth and cooled very slowly. B. are an igneous rock type, distinguished by their unusual grain size. C. can contain crystals up to tens of centimeters across. D. occur in tabular intrusions called pegmatite dikes.

A. Pegmatites have cooled quickly but are, surprisingly, very coarse-grained because they form in water-rich melts that allow atoms to move around quickly and develop large crystals.

Which of the following is NOT an intrusive igneous structure? A. pillow lava B. batholith C. laccolith D. sill

A. Pillow lava forms by extrusive flows at mid-ocean ridges, where seawater rapidly cools basaltic lava into pillow-shaped blobs. Batholiths are immense regions where several plutons intrude, laccoliths are domed injections of magma, and sills are tabular intrusions.

Features that are created when water dissolves surface and subsurface limestone, like sinkholes, troughs, caverns, natural bridges, and towers, are collectively called Choose one: A. karst landscapes. B. potentiometric surfaces. C. artesian surfaces. D. geothermal landscapes.

A. Potentiometric surfaces are the levels to which artesian waters have the potential to rise; geothermal landscapes would involve geysers, hot springs, and mud pots; the other terms are meaningless.

Which of the following words could NOT be used to describe portions of a rock with a porphyritic texture? A. pyroclastic B. groundmass C. phenocryst D. plagioclase

A. Pyroclastic refers to fragments that have been exploded out of a volcano; it has nothing to do with a porphyritic texture. Any fine-grained material making up the majority of the rock could be the groundmass, and plagioclase could logically be a phenocryst.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Formation of table salt: A. is an example of solidification of a melt. B. takes place when a solution has become saturated. C. is, in mineralogic terms, formation of the halide mineral halite. D. results in cubic crystals.

A. Salt is an example of precipitation from a solution.

Identify the FALSE statement. The Marcellus Shale and the Bakken Shale are Choose one: A. classic examples of conventional hydrocarbon reserves. B. previously underestimated reserves of shale oil and shale gas. C. close to populated areas (which requires little transportation costs). D. being explored using directional drilling and hydraulic fracturing.

A. Shale oil and shale gas such as is found in the Marcellus and Bakken Shales are considered unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs because the hydrocarbons do not flow into a trap and the reservoir rocks (shale) are impermeable.

What type of foliation does slate, a common material used for roof shingles, exhibit? A. cleavage B. banding C. metamorphic differentiation D. schistosity

A. Slate is used in roofing because its slaty cleavage causes it to break in regular, thin sheets.

Identify the FALSE statement. Stream piracy Choose one: A. causes the pirate stream to decrease its discharge and eventually dry up, while the captured stream continues flowing. B. results when headward erosion causes one stream to intersect the course of another stream. C. can leave a dry channel through a high ridge called a wind gap. D. created the Cumberland Gap in the Appalachian Mountains that Daniel Boone used as part of his wilderness road for settlers.

A. Stream piracy causes the captured stream to decrease its discharge and dry up, not the pirate stream (which increases its discharge and continues flowing).

Which of the following does NOT contribute to long-term climate change? Choose one: A. sunspot activity B. tectonic uplift C. position of the continents D. the evolution of certain life-forms, such as photosynthetic organisms

A. Sunspot activity contributes to short-term climate change, rather than long-term.

Identify the FALSE statement. The Big Bang. A. theory is the explanation for how our Solar System developed. B. occurred more than 13 billion years ago. C. theory states that at the instant of explosion, everything had so much thermal energy even the smallest atomic pieces couldn't exist. D. began with all matter and energy concentrated in an infinitesimally small point.

A. The Big Bang theory is the explanation for how our Universe began, not the Solar System. The nebular theory explains the development of our Solar System.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. The contacts between plates are called passive margins. B. There are 12 major plates, and several microplates. C. Plates shift the continents around as they move, so Earth's surface is constantly changing. D. Plates may consist of all ocean floor or both ocean floor and continental crust.

A. The contact between lithospheric plates is called a plate boundary. Passive margins do not occur at plate boundaries.

The discharge of a stream is Choose one: A. likely to decrease downstream in arid regions and increase downstream in temperate regions. B. constant for the length of the stream. C. calculated by dividing its cross-sectional area by its velocity. D. typically lower in spring than during summer.

A. The discharge is calculated by multiplying the area by the velocity; it varies along stream length; it is typically higher in spring.

The earliest nebulae to form in the Universe were made almost entirely of A. hydrogen and helium. B. iron and magnesium. C. chlorine and argon. D. carbon and nitrogen.

A. The earliest nebulae consisted entirely of the smallest atoms, mainly hydrogen and helium. Carbon production required the temperatures and subsequent particle velocities of stellar nucleosynthesis of at least first-generation stars.

Mt. St. Helens erupted explosively in 1980. Geologists find evidence of many eruptions of Mt. St. Helens, dating back 37,000 years. The mountain is huge and is composed of layers of lava and pyroclastics. Which of the following is therefore most likely TRUE? A. Mt. St. Helens is a stratovolcano (or composite volcano). B. The volcano is extinct. C. Mt. St. Helens sits on a transform plate boundary. D. When lava flows from Mt. St. Helens, it will be basalt.

A. The longevity, large size, and alternating eruptions of pyroclastics and lava are classic attributes of stratovolcanoes (composite cones) that form along convergent plate boundaries where subduction is occurring. These types of eruptions are produced by andesitic or rhyolitic magmas, not basaltic ones. And the lack of erosive features (indicated by the size) and location within an active subduction zone suggest that the volcano is not extinct.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Metals Choose one: A. are held together by ionic bonds, so electrons flow easily from atom to atom. B. are opaque, shiny, smooth solids. C. are termed native when they're found in Earth as the element alone, not as a compound. D. may be malleable.

A. The outer electrons move quite freely between metal atoms because they are held together by metallic bonds, not ionic bonds.

Which of the following is NOT a common metamorphic facies? A. mafic B. granulite C. blueschist D. greenschist

A. The term mafic refers to minerals and/or rocks that are high in iron and magnesium; it does not refer to a metamorphic facies.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. To produce water, a well must be drilled so it stops above the water table, within the zone of aeration. B. Porosity is a measure of how much water rock can hold; permeability is a measure of how well water can travel through that rock. C. The water table is defined as the top of the zone of saturation. D. Groundwater accounts for 95% of the liquid freshwater on Earth, but having enough accessible groundwater can be a problem.

A. The well must reach below the water table into the zone of saturation to be a producing well.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. All polarity chrons are the same length of time; they differ only in the magnetic strengths they represent. B. The width of each rock stripe is a measure of how long the polar direction remained constant. C. Positive magnetic anomalies occur over areas of seafloor when the poles of Earth's magnetic field and the paleopoles preserved in the seafloor basalt agree; negative anomalies occur when they are opposite each other. D. The series of rock stripes parallel to and bilaterally symmetrical across the mid-ocean ridge record the sequence of Earth's magnetic reversals over time.

A. Time intervals between reversals differ, so the lengths of polarity chrons also differ. Polarity chrons have nothing to do with magnetic strength.

Metallic and nonmetallic mineral resources are considered nonrenewable because Choose one: A. natural processes make minerals much slower than we can mine them. B. reserves of mineral resources do not increase. C. ore deposits are so rare. D. not every country has deposits of all the mineral resources that it needs.

A. Unfortunately for humankind, these resources, like fossil fuels, are fast diminishing. Nonrenewable resources form much slower than we are using them. Ore deposits are not rare; reserves can increase if we find new deposits, if the price of a resource increases to make it profitable to mine, etc.

Identify the FALSE statement. Volcanic gases A. are not harmful because most are less dense than air. B. are more abundant in felsic lavas than mafic lavas. C. are released by magma as it rises and the pressure decreases. D. killed over 1,700 people at Lake Nyos, Cameroon, Africa, in 1986.

A. Volcanic gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Some, including carbon dioxide, are more dense than air. Regardless of the density of the gases, volcanic gases can be extremely harmful.

Identify the FALSE statement about making observations about rocks at an outcrop. A. A rock's texture cannot be characterized from a hand specimen; it can only be done in thin section. B. Observing the entire outcrop can provide important information about rock relationships and layering. C. A hand specimen is a small piece of the outcrop that can be examined closely. D. Sand-sized and larger grains can be identified with a hand lens.

A. With a hand lens, a hand specimen can easily be examined closely in order to identify both mineral grains and rock texture.

The continents that comprised Pangaea began to split apart during the A. late Triassic/early Jurassic. B. mid Proterozoic. C. early Devonian. D. late Paleozoic.

A. l Explanation: The supercontinent Pangaea didn't exist until the late Paleozoic, and it existed for "only" about 100 million years. It began to split apart during the late Triassic and early Jurassic.

Identify the FALSE statement. Brittle deformation A. produces folds and faults. B. occurs above the brittle-ductile transition zone. C. occurs when you drop a plate on the ground and it shatters. D. creates earthquakes.

A.. Explanation: Brittle deformation produces joints and faults. Ductile deformation produces folds and foliations.

Friction A. is slow but steady movement along a fault. B. is the force that resists sliding along a surface C. happens when rock is weak and can slip smoothly, without creating shock waves. D. is the process by which faults release energy.

B Explanation: Friction, caused by bumps and snags along rock surfaces, is the force that resists sliding.

Coal develops in the following order: Choose one: A. bituminous coal → peat → lignite → anthracite. B. peat → lignite → bituminous coal → anthracite. C. peat → lignite → anthracite → bituminous coal. D. lignite → peat → bituminous coal → anthracite.

B Coal develops from peat to lignite to bituminous coal to anthracite coal.

Identify the TRUE statement. Choose one: A. Strong rocks, counterintuitively, tend to slide and produce gentle slopes. B. Water, ice, and/or air are agents of erosion. C. Climate does not affect the type of landforms created in a region. D. If the rate of uplift does not exceed the rate of erosion, the land surface rises.

B If uplift does not exceed erosion, the land surface sinks; climate does affect the types of landforms that are created in a region; and strong rocks tend to form steep cliffs.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Anthracite coal develops at depth along mountain belt borders where temperatures reach 300°C. B. Strip mining can be done economically down to a depth of about 1 km. C. Underground coal mining is dangerous because of possible tunnel collapse and possible methane gas explosions. D. Coal couldn't form until vascular land plants became abundant.

B Strip mining is effective at reaching coal seams that lie within the upper 100 m of the surface, not the upper 1 km.

Identify the TRUE statement about the landscape of Venus. Choose one: A. Venus has a very thin, low-density atmosphere that allows for numerous meteor impacts. B. Liquid water cannot exist on Venus, and therefore it has no hydrologic cycle. C. The surface of Venus is significantly older than Mars and the Moon. D. No evidence of tectonic activity (such as volcanoes, faults, or rifts) has been noted on Venus.

B The surface of Venus is younger than Mars and the Moon, since a large volcanic eruptive event between 300-1,600 Ma covered the planet in lava flows; there is abundant evidence of tectonic activity on Venus, including shield volcanoes, calderas, rifts, faults, etc.; and Venus has a thick, dense atmosphere, which helps to protect it from impacts by small objects.

Groundwater Choose one: A. moves underground mainly in underground river channels. B. typically moves slowly within the ground through porous rock layers like sandstone. C. dissolves very porous rock like obsidian faster than it dissolves limestone. D. completely fills the zone of aeration above the water table.

B The zone of saturation is below the water table; groundwater moves mainly through interconnected pore spaces in rock and sediment, rarely in underground lakes or streams; and unfractured obsidian is neither soluble nor porous.

The Paleozoic Era ended with a mass extinction event. Which of the following is hypothesized to be the cause of that extinction? A. the evolution of land plants B. intense volcanic activity in Siberia C. the breakup of Pannotia D. the formation of high-latitude ice sheets

B.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. Carbon-14 dating is used to date organisms, not minerals. B. Scientists can date any radioactive material back only three half-lives; after this there's not enough parent material left to measure. C. The "radiometric clock" starts when a radioactive mineral cools below its closure temperature. D. Isotopic dating relies on the parent-daughter ratio.

B. Explanation: After three half-lives, there's still one-eighth of the radioactive parent material left, which is easily detected. Carbon-14 can be detected for about 12 half-life periods (about 70,000 years).

Earthquake prediction is not highly reliable, but geologists do know A. that recurrence intervals can provide accurate short-term predictions. B. more earthquakes happen along plate boundaries than happen at intraplate locations. C. that swarms always precede major earthquakes and can help with short-term prediction. D. that earthquakes never happen outside of seismic belts.

B. Explanation: Earthquakes can occur outside of seismic belts, though they are rare. Accurate short-term predictions are rare and are not based on recurrence intervals, which refer to the average time between successive quakes on a fault. Swarms may precede major earthquakes, but not always, and they are often identified after an earthquake, not before. The only choice that is correct is that more earthquakes happen along plate boundaries than at intraplate locations.

Identify the FALSE statement. The low-velocity zone (LVZ), found 100-200 km beneath ocean crust, represents A. conditions where mantle peridotite partially melts and fills voids between grains. B. the crust-mantle boundary. C. the upper part of the asthenosphere. D. a weak layer in the Earth's interior.

B. Explanation: The crust-mantle boundary is called the Moho; this is not the same as the LVZ, which is deeper within the Earth (the upper part of the asthenosphere) and results from a small amount of melt in between grains.

Mt. Vesuvius erupted in a very violent explosion in 79 CE and buried the residents of Pompeii in ash. On the basis of this information, which of the following would you LEAST expect to find at Vesuvius? A. lapilli (cinders) B. basaltic lava C. ignimbrite D. rhyolite lava

B. Basaltic lava is associated with nonviolent, effusive eruptions; rhyolite lava and lapilli and ignimbrite (all pyroclastic products) indicate a rock chemistry that results in explosive eruptions.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Deltas Choose one: A. may form where a stream empties into the quiet waters of a lake or the ocean. B. that form where ocean currents exceed river currents are called bird's-foot deltas. C. received their name because some have a triangular shape, but many don't. D. are likely to slowly sink and become swampland called a delta plain.

B. Bird's-foot deltas form when river currents exceed ocean currents as distributaries extend far out into relatively calm waters.

A horizontal line on Earth's surface has a plunge of A. 45˚. B. 0˚. C. greater than 120˚. D. 90˚.

B. Explanation: If something is horizontal, it has 0° plunge; vertical plunge is 90°.

Identify the FALSE statement. A shield A. contains Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks outcropping at ground surface. B. has layers of undeformed sedimentary rock that are extremely old. C. can be associated with a cratonic platform. D. is part of a craton.

B. Explanation: Shields are deformed igneous and metamorphic rocks that have not experienced orogeny in ~1 billion years; they do not contain sedimentary rocks, which are instead more often associated with cratonic platforms.

Identify the FALSE statement. Hydrothermal fluids A. can be derived from groundwater or magma, or can be the product of metamorphic reactions. B. change a rock's chemical composition, a process known as exhumation. C. can accelerate metamorphic reactions. D. may consist of hot water, gases, or supercritical fluids.

B. Hydrothermal fluids do change the chemical composition, but the process is known as metasomatism. Exhumation means that deeply buried rocks can eventually be exposed at Earth's surface.

Recrystallization A. occurs when rocks become warm enough that they behave like soft plastic. B. changes the texture (shape and size) of the grains. C. is a process by which grains push against one another, creating dissolution. D. results in the growth of new minerals that differ from the protolith.

B. The recrystallization process doesn't change the identity or chemical composition of the mineral, it just produces larger crystals of the mineral so it changes the texture of the grains. Plastic deformation occurs when rocks behave like soft plastic; neocrystallization forms new minerals that differ from the protolith; and pressure solution occurs when grains push against each other and cause dissolution.

Which statement is TRUE? Choose one: A. Smooth-bottomed streams often have considerable turbulence. B. Stream flow is fastest in the center of the channel near the surface. C. Water travels at the same velocity along the reach of the stream. D. Water from trunk streams flows into tributaries.

B. Water does not travel at the same velocity within a stream because of friction and turbulence; tributaries flow into the trunk stream, and obstacles in rough-bottomed streams, like boulders, create turbulence.

In 1815, William Smith correlated strata from many locations and plotted it on paper to show the spatial distribution of rock units on Earth's surface. This document was the first modern A. geologic time scale. B. geologic map. C. stratigraphic column. D. geologic column.

B. Explanation: A stratigraphic column is the sequence of strata at a location, a geologic column is a composite stratigraphic column, and the geologic time scale is a dated geologic column.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. In a strike-slip fault, movement along the fault plane is horizontal. B. A thrust fault is a reverse fault with an extremely high dip (close to 90°). C. In a dip-slip fault, movement along the fault plane is vertical. D. In an oblique fault, there's both vertical and horizontal movement along the fault plane.

B. Explanation: A thrust fault is a reverse fault with an extremely low dip (less than 30°).

Which of the following statements about extinction is FALSE? A. Recent species are disappearing at such a rapid rate that researchers suggest our present time is another mass extinction. B. At least 50 mass-extinction events have occurred during the last 500 million years. C. The movement of tectonic plates can cause a mass extinction as the distribution of habitat shifts. D. Some species may become extinct because they evolve into a new species.

B. Explanation: At least five major mass-extinction events have occurred since the Cambrian era.

Banded iron formations (BIFs) formed A. during uplift of the Himalayan plateau. B. in the Proterozoic deep ocean. C. in alluvial fans at the base of the proto-Appalachian mountains. D. beneath the Laurentide ice sheet.

B. Explanation: Banded iron formations precipitated out of seawater when the oceans became oxygenated and could no longer contain large quantities of dissolved iron.

Uniformitarianism A. means neither the scientific past nor the future should be predicted because physical laws change over time. B. is illustrated by scientists' seeing pillow lava form only underwater, then theorizing that pillow lava found high in the mountains today did nevertheless form underwater. C. is an outdated theory that states catastrophes like major volcanic eruptions no longer happen. D. means Earth's surface—its oceans, continents, and atmosphere—have always been the same and always will be the same.

B. Explanation: Features of the Earth are constantly changing, and catastrophic events still happen. The present is a key to the past and to the future, so since pillow lava forms underwater today, it must have done so in the past.

Which of the following are fossil plants? A. pterosaurs and sauropods B. gymnosperms and angiosperms C. trilobites D. brachiopods

B. Explanation: Gymnosperms are naked-seed plants (conifers); angiosperms are flowering plants. Trilobites and brachiopods are Paleozoic animals (invertebrates); pterosaurs and sauropods are Mesozoic animals.

Which of the following has nothing to do with the K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) boundary? A. iridium B. Thomas Huxley C. Chicxulub D. glass spheres formed by sudden melting then freezing of rock

B. Explanation: Huxley was a 19th-century geologist who realized Earth had changed immensely over time; Walter and Luis Alvarez were the scientists who analyzed the K-T boundary layer clay. Iridium is a heavy element found only in extraterrestrial objects; glass spheres are produced after rock is melted then cooled after impact; Chicxulub is the impact site; a 13-km-wide meteorite was the cause of the catastrophe.

Identify the appropriate time period where vascular plants with woody tissues, seeds, and veins shared the land with spiders, scorpions, insects, and crustaceans, while jawed fish cruised the oceans and the first amphibians left water to visit land. A. Early Cenozoic B. Middle Paleozoic C. Middle Proterozoic D. Late Mesozoic

B. Explanation: The description fits middle Paleozoic time

The first feathered birds appeared in the A. Paleozoic. B. Jurassic. C. Cambrian. D. Pleistocene.

B. Explanation: The first feathered bird, called Archaeopteryx, didn't appear until the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The principle of A. cross-cutting relations says the feature doing the cutting is younger than the feature it cuts. B. inclusions says rock containing inclusions is older than the inclusions. C. superposition says in a sequence of sedimentary beds, the youngest is on top. D. original continuity says sedimentary layers began as continuous expanses of sediment.

B. Explanation: The principle of inclusions states that the inclusions are older than the surrounding rock.

Seismic wave velocity is affected by each of the following EXCEPT A. density of the material. B. thickness of the rock layer. C. the rock's rigidity (resistance to bending). D. compressibility of the rock unit.

B. Explanation: The thickness of the rock layer that seismic waves are traveling through does not affect the seismic velocity; however, the other properties do affect velocity of seismic waves.

Which statement is FALSE? Liquefaction A. can affect sand layers below ground surface and cause them to erupt as sand volcanoes or sand boils. B. can cause roads, fences, and pipelines to crack and separate if they straddle a fault. C. can cause sediment to turn into an unstable slurry incapable of supporting weight. D. increases the pressure of the water that fills the pore space between sediment grains.

B. Explanation: Shaking and displacement cause linear features, such as roads, fences, and pipes, to crack and separate across faults, not liquefaction.

When the mass of water that an iceberg displaces is equal to the mass of the iceberg, it floats. This is an example of A. upwelling. B. isostacy. C. gravity. D. tomography.

B. Explanation: The principle of isostacy relates to Archimedes's principle, which states that a ship (or any object) will float when the mass of water it displaces is equal to the mass of the object.

Identify the FALSE statement. The nebular theory states that A. as the Universe cooled, atoms and molecules accumulated in patchy clouds of gas called nebulae. B. as density increases due to more gas being crammed into a small space, temperature cools. C. gravity caused the inward collapse of dense gas to form protostars. D. nebulae condensed and heated to become spinning accretion disks.

B. Temperature increases as density increases.

Plate tectonics theory was widely accepted by scientists in what decade? A. 1930s B. 1960s C. 1920s D. 1980s

B. The theory of plate tectonics, which was derived from Wegener's proposal of continental drift in the 1920s, was not generally accepted until the 1960s.

Oil is most likely to form when Choose one: A. large sauropod-type dinosaurs decay in swamps. B. tiny algae and plankton decompose under conditions of heat, pressure, and low oxygen. C. leaves, twigs, and tree trunks decompose under conditions of heat, pressure, and low oxygen. D. the decomposition of organic material remains aerobic (lots of oxygen) for a long time.

B. "Leaves, twigs, and tree trunks decompose under conditions of heat, pressure, and low oxygen" describes coal formation; oxygen would lead to total decay; and dinosaurs had nothing to do with oil formation.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Mylonite A. forms by recrystallization in a fault zone. B. is a product of gneiss melting to produce felsic magma and solid mafic rock. C. has pronounced foliation parallel to the direction of faulting. D. is produced by shear stress on softened rock.

B. A migmatite (not mylonite) is a product of gneiss melting to produce a felsic magma and a still-solid mafic rock.

Which of the following is NOT considered a warning sign of imminent eruption? A. earthquake activity B. a period of quiescence in the volcano's activity C. change in heat flow from the volcano's surface D. increase in gas emissions and hydrothermal activities

B. Because a volcano has not erupted recently does not mean that it is "due" to erupt.

Identify the FALSE statement. The eruption of Mt. Tambora, Indonesia, in 1815 A. produced such dreary weather it inspired the writing of Frankenstein. B. is the only documented example of possible eruption-triggered coolness. C. produced "the year without a summer." D. resulted in extremely low temperatures in the northern hemisphere during 1816.

B. Benjamin Franklin proposed this idea based on the effects of a huge volcanic eruption in Iceland in 1783. Since 1815, the 1883 eruption of Krakatau and the 1991 eruption of Pinatubo both caused global dips in temperature.

The hydrologic cycle Choose one: A. is an example of a unidirectional change. B. is a biogeochemical cycle, involving both physical and biological phenomena. C. is the only biogeochemical cycle; all other element cycles are restricted to either the physical world or the biological world, but not both. D. never results in global change because it maintains a steady state.

B. Carbon, oxygen, sulfur, ammonia, phosphorous, and nitrogen also participate in biogeochemical cycles; it is a true cycle, happening over and over again, whereas a unidirectional change is one that proceeds in one direction and never repeats; and the hydrologic cycle can maintain a steady state for long periods but can also change the proportions of distribution and thus produce global change.

Grains in rock can stick together when they are bonded by a mineral precipitate, called A. fragments. B. cement. C. crystals. D. clasts.

B. Cement is a natural mineral precipitate that holds grains together, usually in clastic sedimentary rocks.

There are two physical properties of minerals that both result in smooth, flat surfaces with specific angles between them. The first property is externally visible and is the result of how the mineral forms; the second is inherently internal and is the result of breaking a sample of the mineral. These properties are called: A. hardness and cleavage. B. crystal habit and cleavage. C. cleavage and crystal habit D. cleavage and hardness.

B. Crystal habit is the geometry of a euhedral (well-formed) crystal; cleavage describes the way a mineral breaks. Hardness is a measure of a mineral's resistance to scratching.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Darcy's law Choose one: A. is an equation used by hydrologists. B. is a method to determine the degree of saturation of water at any specified depth. C. states that discharge equals the hydraulic conductivity coefficient times the hydraulic gradient times the area involved. D. was developed experimentally to characterize groundwater flow velocity.

B. Darcy's law has nothing to do with saturation levels; it's a formula commonly used by hydrologists to determine the quantity of water passing through an area.

Natural cracks in rock that form due to decompression as crust rises to the Earth's surface are called A. faults. B. joints. C. clasts. D. salt wedges.

B. During exhumation, rocks that were once at depth (under significant heat and pressure) are brought to the surface, thereby reducing the surrounding pressure and decreasing their temperature. When this happens, natural cracks (called joints) are formed.

The two most common gases of Earth's atmosphere are A. carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2). B. nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). C. water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). D. oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).

B. Earth's atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with minor amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, neon, methane, ozone, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide.

Earth's atmosphere Choose one: A. gets warmer as its carbon dioxide concentration goes down. B. became more oxygen-rich during the Proterozoic after the evolution of photosynthetic organisms in the Archean. C. acquires its carbon dioxide from photosynthesis by green plants. D. began as nitrogen and oxygen, left over from the solar nebula.

B. Earth's early atmosphere, after the initial hydrogen and helium from the solar nebula dispersed, consisted mainly of carbon dioxide and water vapor; it acquired oxygen from the photosynthetic process; it warms when its carbon dioxide concentration goes up.

Identify the FALSE statement. Long-term earthquake predictions A. are based on the study of historic recurrence intervals. B. are unreliable and do not provide useful information. C. involve looking for sand volcanoes and disrupted bedding in the area. D. are based on the identification of seismic zones.

B. Explanation: Long-term predictions range from a few decades to centuries.

A corpse with flesh intact, found in the Alps in 1991, was dated by the carbon-14 method and showed a parent-daughter isotope ratio of approximately 1:1, with slightly more parent material than daughter material. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 years. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. The age could logically be 6,000 years. B. The age could logically be 5,300 years. C. The age could logically be 6,730 years. D. Since the body was still organic and had not been petrified, it was inappropriate to use the carbon-14 process.

B. Explanation: Since there was still more parent material than daughter, one half-life had not quite been reached. The carbon-14 method is used on organic material, not rock.

Which of the following shows the four time divisions listed from oldest to youngest? A. Hadean, Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Proterozoic B. Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic C. Phanerozoic, Precambrian, Mesozoic, Cenozoic D. Precambrian, Mesozoic, Archean, Cenozoic

B. Explanation: The correct order is Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.

Identify the FALSE statement. A positive gravity anomaly would be formed by A. an observed gravitational pull that is stronger than the reference geoid. B. a zone of open space, such as a cave or cavern. C. extra mass at depth. D. a large reserve of dense metal ore.

B. Explanation: An open void such as a cave would produce a negative gravity anomaly.

Galena (PbS) is an important ore mineral of Choose one: A. iron. B. lead. C. lithium. D. aluminum.

B. Galena is a lead sulfide; Pb stands for plumbum, the Latin name for lead.

Rate of groundwater flow Choose one: A. is comparable to the rate of flow in an average surface stream. B. depends on the permeability of the material it flows through and on the hydraulic gradient. C. typically varies between 0.5 and 500 miles per year. D. is determined theoretically; it can't be measured, since it happens underground.

B. Groundwater flow rate is 0.5-500 meters, not miles, per year, which is much slower than flow rate of surface waters. The rate can be measured.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Igneous rocks A. form from the cooling and crystallization of either lava or magma. B. are coarse-grained if they cool extrusively. C. form in great quantity along the mid-ocean ridge. D. are abundant, making up the entire ocean crust and much of continental crust.

B. Igneous rocks are coarse-grained if they cool slowly beneath the Earth's surface.

Interconnected fractures that open onto a hillside and an impermeable rock layer intersecting a hillside are both likely locations of Choose one: A. potentiometric surfaces. B. springs. C. cones of depression. D. artesian wells.

B. Interconnected fractures provide conduits for groundwater to reach the surface and can produce springs.

Which type of chemical bond occurs when atoms share electrons? A. metallic B. covalent C. ionic

B. Ionic bonds form when cations and anions attract. Metallic bonds form when atoms share inner electrons and the outer electrons "flow" between atoms.

Choose the FALSE statement. Magnetic anomalies are A. places where the magnetic field strength is either greater or less than the expected strength. B. found only on the seafloor. C. termed normal if the atomic dipoles match Earth's current magnetic field and point from north to south. D. measured with an instrument called a magnetometer.

B. Magnetic anomalies are found on continents as well as on the seafloor. They create irregular patterns on continents and distinct alternating bands on the seafloor.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The extremely high heat of metamorphism A. can cause some felsic minerals to begin to melt. B. is necessary to elongate the large clasts in conglomerate to make metaconglomerate. C. is necessary to form migmatite. D. can produce banding by metamorphic differentiation.

B. Metaconglomerate is an example of very mild metamorphism, which requires only low heat.

Ocean crust A. is the same age as continental crust. B. is covered by a thin blanket of sediment that thickens away from the ridge axis. C. has not been sampled directly because it is too deep beneath the ocean. D. is the same composition as continental crust.

B. Ocean crust is primarily young basalt, while continental crust is much older and has a range of compositions. Ocean crust has been sampled directly by deep-sea drilling endeavors such as the Glomar Challenger. The Glomar Challenger confirmed that there is a thin package of sediment on top of ocean crust and that it thickens away from the ridge axis.

The oil window Choose one: A. refers to the holes in the drill bit through which oil enters. B. is the relatively narrow range of temperatures in which oil can form, 90-160°C. C. is the late Cenozoic, when all current oil was formed; any older oil has already decomposed. D. is the depth in Earth at which oil forms, roughly 40-50 km.

B. Oil forms no deeper than 6.5 km; gas no deeper than 9 km. Natural gas forms between 160° and 250°C; over 250°C organic matter transforms into graphite.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Human production of nuclear weapons, nuclear power plants, and radioactive medical materials has put radioactive contaminants into the surface environment. B. The danger of the ozone hole is that it allows increased amounts of harmful infrared radiation to reach Earth's surface. C. Acid runoff develops when precipitation flows through piles of sulfide-containing ores and coal. D. Photochemical smog is produced by the action of sunlight on vehicle exhaust fumes.

B. Ozone shields Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

The presence of pillow lava is evidence of what volcanic circumstance? A. an explosive eruption B. a submarine volcano C. high-silica-content magma D. caldera formation

B. Pillow lava is a low-silica-content, basaltic lava associated with underwater effusive eruptions.

Identify the FALSE statement. The rate of plate motion A. can be expressed as absolute plate velocity, which describes movement of a single plate relative to a fixed point. B. can range from 100 to 150 cm per year. C. can be expressed as relative plate velocity, which describes movement of one plate in relation to another plate. D. can be determined to within millimeters by using the global positioning system (GPS).

B. Plate motion ranges from 1 to 15 cm per year.

Quartzite A. is always either white or gray. B. is basically a solid mass of interlocking quartz grains. C. breaks around the separate grains of quartz that make it up. D. always shows strong compositional banding.

B. Quartzite is a nonfoliated (no banding) metamorphic rock that may be white, gray, purple, or green; it breaks across, not around, its component grains.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Carbon dioxide concentration of the atmosphere has increased in the last century. B. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has ruled that all future research use the one computer climate model they have concluded is the best. C. The worst-case scenario predicts that if global warming continues at its present rate, by 2050 the average annual temperature will have increased 1.5-2°C. D. Few climate scientists believe current temperature increases are entirely due to natural cycles of short-term climate change.

B. Researchers have used many different climate models that have produced conflicting scenarios of future climate. No single model has proven to be the best, although all models suggest significant temperature increases are expected by 2100.

The chain of Hawaiian Islands extends northwest across the Pacific . The island of Hawaii is the youngest, and the islands get progressively older to the northwest. How does plate tectonic theory explain this? A. Microplates break loose from the Pacific Plate as it moves, leaving this chain of islands in its wake. B. A hot spot is currently situated under Hawaii and the Pacific Plate is moving across it in a northwesterly direction. C. A hot spot moves under the Pacific Plate toward the southeast. D. The Pacific Plate is undergoing rifting, starting at the northwest end of the chain and extending southeast to Hawaii.

B. Rifting and microplates have nothing to do with the Hawaiian Islands. Since Hawaii is the youngest island, the stationary hot spot must be located there. The older islands to the northwest were created when their portions of plate sat over the hot spot.

A seal rock Choose one: A. has high porosity and high permeability. B. is a necessary ingredient of an oil trap. C. is commonly made of fractured limestone or poorly cemented sandstone. D. must lie beneath the reservoir rock in a trap to keep oil from filtering downward.

B. Rocks "commonly made of fractured limestone or poorly cemented sandstone" would be good reservoir rocks; oil doesn't leak downward; and the porosity and permeability must be low for a seal rock.

A typical reservoir rock, into which oil has migrated and collected, is Choose one: A. subjected to temperatures and pressures called the oil window. B. highly porous and permeable. C. impermeable. D. granite.

B. Sandstone is a good reservoir rock because it's porous and permeable. Granite is impermeable and would not permit oil to move into or through it. Reservoir rocks are not subjected to temperatures and pressures of the oil window—those terms relate to the formation of oil in the source rock.

Which of the following locations could not possibly be part of a shield? A. Siberia B. Hawaii C. Canada D. Northern Europe

B. Shields are the oldest areas of Earth's surface; Hawaii is a recently formed hot-spot island.

The technique that injects oxygen and nutrients into a contaminated aquifer to foster the growth of bacteria that can break down contaminant molecules is called Choose one: A. effluent. B. bioremediation. C. buffering. D. reactive barrier injection.

B. Some bacteria can break down contaminant molecules in an aquifer; encouraging their growth by injecting oxygen and nutrients is termed bioremediation.

Tension (a type of stress) A. is a compression exerted equally from all sides. B. is created by a pull perpendicular to a surface. C. occurs when rocks move sideways relative to each other. D. is the reason a balloon collapses when you take it to the bottom of a pool.

B. Tension is a stress created by pulling perpendicular to a surface, such as grabbing two ends of a piece of taffy and pulling your hands apart. A balloon collapses in a pool because of pressure; shear occurs when rocks move sideways; and pressure (again) occurs when compression is exerted equally from all sides.

Which soil layer consists of weathered bedrock material that has not yet been leached or had significant accumulation? A. B B. C C. A D. E

B. The C-horizon (layer) is the one that contains weathered bedrock that has not yet undergone significant leaching or accumulation.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. An accretionary prism is a wedge-shaped mass of sediment scraped off a subducting plate as it slides under the overriding plate. B. A spreading boundary must be in the middle of the ocean basin where it is located. C. Plate boundaries where subduction occurs are also called consuming boundaries. D. Seafloor spreading behind a volcanic island arc creates a small ocean basin called a back-arc basin or marginal sea.

B. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is in the middle of its ocean, but this is not true for mid-ocean ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Identify the TRUE statement. A. A vertical sequence of various soil layers is called a soil horizon. B. Soil consists of sediment that has been modified over time by physical and chemical reactions. C. The accumulation of decaying organic material near the top of a soil is called subsoil. D. The region within a soil where water leaves behind clay and dissolved ions is called the zone of leaching.

B. The accumulation of decaying organic material near the top of a soil is called humus; the zone of accumulation is where water leaves behind clay and minerals from dissolved ions; and a vertical sequence of various soil layers is called a soil profile.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Diamonds: A. are brought from the mantle to the surface in magma that hardens into kimberlite. B. are found in carrot-shaped structures called pegmatites. C. that have weathered out of ore bodies can end up in stream gravels. D. of industrial quality are used as abrasives.

B. The carrot-shaped structures in which diamonds are found are called kimberlite pipes. Pegmatite refers to coarse-grained minerals in dike-shaped intrusions.

"Wet" igneous rock melts at a lower temperature than the "dry" version of that same rock because A. they occur on the seafloor, where temperatures are already cold. B. the addition of volatiles in "wet" rocks lowers their melting temperature. C. "dry" igneous rocks are made of more felsic minerals. D. "wet" igneous rocks form at shallower depth in the Earth.

B. The presence of volatiles helps break chemical bonds, resulting in a lower melting temperature for the wet rock.

The tilt of of a magnetic needle changes with latitude is what part of Earth's magnetic field. A. polar wander B. inclination C. anomaly D. declination

B. The tilt of a magnetic needle changes with latitude to reflect the angle at which magnetic field lines enter the Earth. This is called inclination.

The first oil well was drilled Choose one: A. 3,000 years ago by the Babylonians in what is now Iran. B. by Edwin Drake in 1859 in Titusville, Pennsylvania. C. to a depth just short of 1 mile. D. by John D. Rockefeller in 1901 in Texas.

B. The well was a little over 20 m deep (60+ feet); Rockefeller started the Standard Oil Company in the early 1900s.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Most meteoroids are fragments derived from comets and asteroids; some are chips of the Moon or Mars. B. There are two basic classes of meteorites- iron and stony. C. A glowing streak of atmospheric gas roughly 150 km high is termed a meteor (shooting star). D. Catastrophic collisions of meteoroids with Earth are rare, but have happened during Earth's past and probably will happen again.

B. There are three basic classes of meteorites: stony, iron, and stony iron, which are meteorites that consist of both iron-nickel alloy and rock.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? A well in which the water rises on its own to a level above its aquifer is called Choose one: A. an ordinary well. B. an artesian well. C. an oasis. D. a cone of depression.

B. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A well in which the water rises on its own to a level above its aquifer is called Choose one: A. an ordinary well. B. an artesian well. C. an oasis. D. a cone of depression.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a rock? A. It is a naturally occurring material. B. It has a definable chemical composition. C. It is a coherent mass. D. It is a collection of minerals or a body of glass.

B. While having a definable chemical composition is part of the definition of a mineral, it is not considered part of the definition of a rock mainly because rocks can have very different chemical compositions based on the minerals they contain (i.e., they are heterogeneous). For example, two granite samples will not always contain the same proportions of minerals.

Identify the FALSE statement. The categories of materials that constitute Earth include A. metals, a solid composed of metal atoms. B. volatiles, a solid in which atoms are not arranged in an orderly pattern. C. organic chemicals, all carbon-containing compounds that occur in living organisms. D. melts, solid materials that have melted due to heat.

B. While volatiles are considered a category of Earth materials, they are not solids in which atoms are not arranged in an orderly pattern—that is the definition of glass. Volatiles are materials that easily transform into gas at low temperatures found at Earth's surface.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A. Fossils of modern humans (Homo sapiens) date back to about 200,000 years ago. B. The Cenozoic is known as the Age of Mammals. C. Human ancestors first appeared in the late Mesozoic. D. The human genus Homo first appeared around 2.8 million years ago.

C Explanation: Even ape-like primates didn't appear until well into the Cenozoic.

Which of the following groups of elements are most abundant in the core? A. magnesium and calcium B. sulfur and carbon C. iron and nickel D. silicon and oxygen

C Explanation: Iron and nickel make up about 90% of the core's composition.

Which of the following conditions will tend to make rocks change by ductile deformation rather than by brittle deformation? A. cool surroundings B. granitic composition C. slowly applied stress D. position fairly close to Earth's surface

C Explanation: The only choice that would tend to cause ductile deformation rather than brittle deformation is a slowly applied stress (a slow deformation rate).

Which of the following statements about how humans have influenced erosion/deposition is FALSE? Choose one: A. The area of land now covered by pavement/buildings in the United States exceeds the area of Ohio. B. Mining can produce huge valleys (pit mines) or large hills (tailings piles). C. Agriculture significantly decreases erosion rates. D. Pavement seals the ground surface and causes runoff to spill into streams rather than into the ground.

C Agriculture increases the rate of erosion, by having crops on the land surface for only part of the year.

Identify the FALSE statement. William Smith's observations A. recognized that groups of fossil species (fossil assemblages) occurred in limited intervals of strata. B. led to the principle of fossil succession. C. noted that a fossil species could disappear then reappear in much younger strata. D. were made around 1800 in fresh exposures of sedimentary bedrock in the English countryside.

C Explanation: Once a fossil species disappeared, it did not reappear. Extinction is forever.

Which of the following is NOT a line of evidence that supports the case for water on Mars? Choose one: A. Identification by Mars rovers of gypsum and hematite—minerals that form in the presence of water. B. The existence of water ice just below the surface. C. The presence of canali, which are long, straight "canals" that crisscross the Martian surface. D. Images of landforms on the surface that resemble channel networks, deep gullies, and scour features.

C The canali discovered by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli in 1877 were not canals of liquid flowing water on the surface of Mars—they were optical illusions.

A channel is Choose one: A. the end, or mouth, of a stream. B. the defined length of a stream. C. an elongate depression or trough of running water. D. a medium-sized stream.

C . A channel is an elongate depression or trough of running water (i.e., it "channels" the water). A creek is a medium-sized stream, channels are not the same as the mouth or end of the stream, and the reach of a stream is the defined length.

Which of the following statements have NOT been asserted by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports? A. It is extremely likely that human activity has contributed significantly to global climate change. B. Earth's climate system is warming. C. The warming trends observed in the past 50 years can be explained by natural forcing such as cosmic ray flux. D. Sea level is rising.

C.

Which of the following methods of determining the age of materials is a radiometric dating technique? A. dendrochronology (tree rings) B. rhythmic layering of snow layers in glacial ice C. carbon dating D. seasonal changes in growth rings in shelled organisms

C. Explanation: Carbon dating is a method of determining the numerical age of a fossil due to the radioactive decay of carbon. Counting the rhythmic layering of snow in glacial ice does not involve isotope decay (radiometric dating); dendrochronology studies growth rings in trees; and analyzing seasonal changes and rhythmic layering in shelled organisms does not involve radioactivity.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The East African Rift Valley A. is bordered by linear mountain ranges called fault-block mountains. B. has volcanoes along it because asthenosphere is rising under the rift and supplying heat. C. is produced by compressional stress. D. is a result of normal faulting.

C. Explanation: Rifting and normal faulting are the result of tensional stress.

Identify the FALSE statement. The reference geoid does not completely represent an accurate picture of Earth's gravity because A. the surface of the Earth is not smooth. B. density is not uniform within Earth's layers. C. the asthenosphere is weak and allows for lithosphere to rebound too quickly. D. lithosphere is generally strong.

C. Explanation: The lithosphere is actually rigid and holds heavy loads for significant periods of time despite the weakness/flow of the asthenosphere.

If you equate all Earth history to one calendar year, the history of our species (Homo sapiens) would occupy A. from December 15 to New Year's Eve. B. from December 31 at 3 p.m. to New Year's Eve. C. the last hour before midnight on New Year's Eve. D. the week from Christmas to New Year's Eve.

C. Explanation: Human history (the history of our human species, Homo sapiens) represents an incredibly small portion of Earth history, equivalent to the last hour before midnight if all of Earth history were equated to one calendar year.

When do fossils of archaea and bacteria first appear in the rock record? A. 1.5 Ga B. 542 Ma C. 3.7 Ga D. 2.5 Ga

C. Explanation: The first fossils of single-celled archaea and bacteria first appeared in the sedimentary rock record around 3.7 Ga.

Which of the following volcanic areas is NOT part of the Ring of Fire? A. Aleutians, Alaska B. Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines C. Iceland D. Cascades, northwest United States

C. Iceland is part of an oceanic hot-spot volcanic area straddling the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; the others all ring the Pacific Ocean.

When you scrape a mineral along a ceramic plate to observe the color of its powder, you are checking the physical property known as: A. luster. B. cleavage. C. streak. D. specific gravity.

C. Luster is how something handles light; cleavage and fracture refer to the manner of breaking; specific gravity refers to density.

Identify the FALSE statement. No perfect energy source has yet been found; all present potentially serious problems. For example, Choose one: A. wind power requires large, noisy towers. B. hydroelectric energy involves constructing dams that may affect the nearby ecosystem. C. solar cells are proven dangerous fire starters. D. hydrogen fuel cells are susceptible to damage by impact, and their storage of the explosive gas hydrogen definitely presents a safety problem.

C. Solar cells are not notorious as fire starters, but they've proven useful only in limited, small-scale situations, like cooking or heating hot-water systems.

In the 1980s, over 1700 people and thousands of cattle from a village surrounding Lake Nyos, a volcanic lake in Cameroon, died unexpectedly after the lake overturned. They were not scalded, they were not poisoned, and the area did not smell bad. What volcanic gas killed the villagers and their cattle, and snuffed out their cooking fires? A. sulfur dioxide B. water vapor C. carbon dioxide D. hydrogen sulfide

C. Carbon dioxide is the only volcanic gas that fits the description. The sulfur-bearing gases have bad odors; water vapor could kill only if it were scalding hot. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, but it would change to carbon dioxide in open spaces.

Identify the FALSE statement. The rock cycle does not exist on the Moon because A. plate tectonics is not active on the Moon. B. there are no oceans on the Moon. C. the Moon is much younger than the Earth and hasn't had enough time to weather or erode. D. the Moon has no atmosphere.

C. Explanation: Because the Moon has no atmosphere, oceans, or active plate tectonic system, the rock cycle does not exist. The age of the Moon has nothing to do with the presence or absence of the rock cycle.

Which of the following is considered a trace fossil? A. a dragonfly in amber B. mummified corpses in dry deserts C. fossilized dung D. woolly mammoths frozen in permafrost

C. Explanation: Coprolites (fossilized dung) are trace fossils; they merely indicate that an organism was there and left a trace of its presence similar to a footprint or a burrow. The other examples are body fossils, which represent the body or part of the body of an organism.

Identify the FALSE statement about early geologic thinkers. A. Nicolas Steno asserted that organisms could be incorporated into rock without losing their original shape. B. Georges Cuvier demonstrated that the skeletons of fossil organisms differed from modern ones. C. Robert Hooke was the first to develop a system to classify fossils, similar to modern organisms. D. William Smith determined that sequences of strata had a predictable succession of fossils.

C. Explanation: It was Georges Cuvier, not Robert Hooke, who was the first to classify fossils in the same systematic approach that biologists use to classify modern organisms.

Choose the proper listing of names to fit the following three descriptions: Age of Mammals, Age of Dinosaurs, and longest geologic time period. A. Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Proterozoic B. Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Paleozoic C. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Precambrian D. Cenozoic, Hadean, Paleozoic

C. Explanation: Mammals were the dominant life-form during the Cenozoic, dinosaurs were dominant during the Mesozoic, and the Precambrian represents more than seven-eighths of all Earth history.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. P-waves in a porous sandstone will travel slower than P-waves traveling through a crystalline rock. B. Seismic waves travel faster in solids than through liquids. C. Both P- and S-waves can travel through liquids. D. The velocity of seismic waves can change (speed up or slow down) as they pass through different rock types.

C. Explanation: S-waves cannot travel through liquids; a layer of liquid cannot be sheared.

Charcoal (burned wood) that was used to make prehistoric drawings on cave walls in France was scraped off and analyzed. The results were 4 mg carbon-14 (parent isotope) and 60 mg nitrogen (daughter isotope). The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,730 years. How old are the cave drawings? A. 17,190 years B. The sample is too old to be analyzed by carbon dating. C. 22,920 years D. 11,460 years

C. Explanation: The age of the drawings should be close to four times the half-life (4 mg:60 mg = 1:15; this ratio means 4 half-lives; 4 × 5,730 years = 22,920 years).

Which of the following terms is NOT associated with the process of mountain building? A. tectonic foliation B. orogeny C. cratonic platform D. brittle and ductile deformation

C. Explanation: The cratonic platform is the thin layer of Phanerozoic sediment that covers Precambrian rock. Orogeny means mountain building; tectonic foliation is layering created by realignment of rock grains; and brittle and ductile deformation are changes in shape with or without breaking.

Examining sedimentary bedding in a geologic study reveals disrupted layers formed 260, 820, 1,200, 2,100, and 2,300 years ago. What is the recurrence interval of the earthquakes that caused the disruption? Choose one: A. 200 years B. 380 years C. 510 years D. 560 years

C. Explanation: The recurrence interval is the average spacing between events. Calculating the difference in ages between each disrupted layer and averaging those values gives a recurrence interval of 510 years. [(820 - 260) + (1200 - 820) + (2100 - 1200) + (2300 - 2100)] / 4 = (560 + 380 + 900 + 200) / 4 = 2040/4 = 510

What type of unconformity forms when sedimentary rocks overlie either igneous or A. angular unconformity B. baked contact C. nonconformity D. disconformity

C. Explanation: This is the definition of a nonconformity. A disconformity is a surface between parallel sedimentary beds of significantly different ages; an angular unconformity occurs when flat lying sedimentary layers overlie tilted layers; and baked contacts are formed when igneous intrusions create contact metamorphism (a baked zone) around the intruding magma.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Seismic waves become smaller in amplitude with increasing distance from the epicenter. B. Contour lines representing Mercalli values are used to delimit zones of quake intensity; the greater the quake, the higher the intensity values and the wider the zones. C. Earthquakes never have hypocenters (foci) deeper than about 100 km (60 miles). D. Earthquake magnitude is based on ground motion recorded by a seismograph; intensity is based on the amount of damage produced.

C. Explanation: Hypocenters can be as deep as 660 km (about 400 miles).

Identify the TRUE statement about Earth's magnetism. A. Magnetic field lines are parallel to the Earth's surface at the poles. B. Earth's current magnetic polarity is "reversed," and was established 900,000 years ago. C. The magnetic pole is moving at about 55 km per year. D. In the northern hemisphere, the magnetic pole and the geographic pole coincide.

C. Explanation: In the northern hemisphere, the magnetic pole sits close to but not on the geographic pole; magnetic field lines are parallel to the Earth's surface at the equator; and Earth's magnetic field is currently in a "normal" configuration and was established 780,000 years ago.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Ocean crust does not erode and generally does not follow the path to sedimentary rock in the rock cycle. B. Most atoms that are found in continental crust never return to the mantle because continental crust is too buoyant to subduct. C. New material cannot enter the rock cycle; only the material that is in the cycle now can be recycled. D. Rocks in the Appalachian Mountains have passed through many stages of the rock cycle throughout the last billion years.

C. Explanation: New material can enter the rock cycle, as magma rises from the mantle and enters the crust.

The Himalayas are growing because A. two plates are diverging there. B. two plates are moving past each other there. C. a continental plate is colliding with another continental plate there. D. an oceanic plate is converging with a continental plate and subducting there.

C. India crashed into Asia 40 million years ago, and this continental collision produced the Himalayas. Neither plate can subduct, so the continental crust is forced upward.

Identify the FALSE statement. The tsunami event of December 26, 2004, in Indonesia A. consisted of near-field tsunamis that affected the island of Sumatra and later far-field tsunamis that struck all along the Indian Ocean coast. B. was first noticed as a withdrawal of the sea along the beach front. C. crippled a nuclear power plant, and released radioactivity into the surrounding environment. D. involved a monstrous magnitude 9.3 earthquake that lasted 9 minutes.

C. Explanation: The earthquake and resulting tsunami that devastated a nuclear power plant occurred in 2011 in Japan, not in Indonesia in 2004.

Identify the FALSE statement. Plate tectonics theory explains why volcanic activity occurs where it does. For example, A. rifting above a plume produced flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau of Washington and Oregon and the Deccan Plateau of India. B. active volcanoes in East Africa, such as Kilimanjaro, are the result of rifting (divergence) in continental crust. C. the volcanoes of Iceland owe their existence to the mantle plume underlying the convergent plate boundary on which they sit. D. the Ring of Fire bordering much of the Pacific Ocean is a long chain of subduction-zone volcanoes.

C. The mantle plume that feeds the volcanoes of Iceland underlies the divergent plate boundary known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Identify the FALSE statement. A drainage network Choose one: A. is an interconnected group of streams. B. collects water over a large area. C. is considered a trellis network when rivers flow over uniform substrate with gentle slope. D. drains water toward the ocean.

C. A drainage network is a collecting basin for area precipitation and a series of channels to conduct the water out of the area and toward the sea, but a trellis drainage network does not form over uniform substrate with gentle slope (that would create a dendritic network).

A high-pressure, fast-moving mixture of pyroclastic debris including fragments and gas typically ejected skyward from a volcanic vent is called A. a lahar. B. Pele's hair. C. an eruptive cloud or column. D. an ignimbrite.

C. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow; filaments of volcanic glass are called Pelé's hair; and an ignimbrite is a sheet of tuff formed from a pyroclastic flow. Only "an eruptive cloud or column" accurately fits the description.

A typical longitudinal profile of a stream Choose one: A. shows almost horizontal plains near the stream's headwaters, and deep valleys near its mouth. B. is roughly a convex-upward curve. C. illustrates that a stream's gradient is steeper near its headwaters than near its mouth. D. shows a cross section of the stream from bank to bank at one particular site.

C. A profile shows the cross section along the stream's entire length; the curve is concave-up; the profile shows horizontal plains near the mouth, deep valleys near the headwaters.

Which of the following elements is released into the atmosphere by all of these processes: volcanic outgassing, animal respiration and flatulence, burning of fossil fuels, and metamorphism of limestone? Choose one: A. oxygen B. sulfur C. carbon D. nitrogen

C. All of these elements are involved in biogeochemical cycles, but it is only carbon that cycles between solid, liquid, and atmospheric Earth reservoirs via all of these processes.

Accretionary prisms form due to what process? A. rifting B. divergence C. subduction D. transform motion

C. As sediment on the downgoing slab is scraped off by the overriding plate during subduction, an accretionary prism forms.

Which of the following is NOT considered sediment? A. salt crystals that precipitate out of the Great Salt Lake, Utah B. pebbles of basalt C. quartz crystals in granite D. clam shells on a beach

C. Basalt pebbles, clam shells, and precipitated salt crystals all describe sediments. Quartz crystals in granite formed by an igneous process (i.e., solidification of a melt).

Identify the FALSE statement. A. A fifth-generation star would have a greater proportion of heavier elements than a second-generation star. B. An accretionary disk eventually grows hot and massive enough to become a protostar, then a star. C. Our Universe is so old there are no first-generation stars left in it. D. Dense regions of a nebula pull in surrounding material and therefore grow in mass and density and rotate faster.

C. Because stars live for varied periods of time, the Universe always contains many different generations of stars.

Bowen's reaction series A. has a continuous track in which there is observed a progressive change from sodium-rich to calcium-rich amphibole. B. shows the sequence in which different sulfate minerals form during the progressive cooling of a melt. C. was established by laboratory experiments in which mafic melt was quenched in mercury. D. creates a progressively more mafic melt.

C. Bowen's reaction series shows the sequence in which different silicate minerals form (not sulfate minerals) from a mafic melt. Through crystallization of mafic minerals, the melt becomes more felsic (not more mafic). It has both a continuous and discontinuous track, and was developed by lab experiments.

Groundwater contaminants Choose one: A. dissipate quickly into the groundwater reservoir and often do not pose a problem. B. are always toxic materials like arsenic, mercury, and lead. C. like methane, arsenic, and salt may occur naturally in groundwater. D. are all eventually removed by rock and sediment acting as natural filters.

C. Contaminants in groundwater often remain in a contaminant plume and travel far from the source, can't all be naturally filtered out, and can be nontoxic materials like salt, iron, lime, and sulfur.

Streams come down out of steep areas onto much flatter land, lose velocity, and drop material in triangular-shaped structures called Choose one: A. point bars. B. levees. C. alluvial fans. D. oxbow lakes.

C. Deltas are analogous structures, but they form underwater. Other features are associated with meandering streams.

Identify the FALSE statement. Choose one: A. Rates of erosion and deposition are, on average, 0.10 to 10 mm/year. B. During catastrophic events, like earthquakes, the land surface can rise or sink by several meters. C. Erosion refers to the accumulation of transported sediment. D. If the rate of subsidence exceeds the rate of deposition, the land surface sinks.

C. Deposition refers to the accumulation of transported sediment, not erosion.

Intact slabs of rock used for architectural purposes are called _______________. A. slag B. clinker C. dimension stone D. Portland cement

C. Intact slabs of rock used for architectural purposes are called dimension stone.

Which of the following does NOT describe a change induced on protolith rocks due to mountain building as a result of convergent-margin tectonics and continental collision? A. The once surface rock heats up due to igneous activity and the geothermal gradient. B. Surface rock is sent to great depths beneath the new mountain belt. C. Hot magma rising beneath the converging continents heats seawater, which then rises through the crust to react with the surface rocks. D. Compression and shearing metamorphose the once surface rock.

C. During hydrothermal metamorphism at mid-ocean ridges, hot magma rises beneath the ridge axis, where it heats seawater to create hydrothermal fluids—but this does not happen during mountain building.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? Dynamic metamorphism A. may happen as uplift and erosion bring rock closer to Earth's surface. B. requires very high pressures but needs only low temperatures to occur. C. occurs as a consequence of shearing. D. happens under conditions of decreasing temperature and pressure.

C. Dynamic metamorphism is a localized metamorphic process along faults at depth by which rocks deform by shearing only—there is no change in temperature or pressure. The resulting rock is called a mylonite.

A radioactive isotope of the element potassium decays to produce argon. If the ratio of argon to potassium is found to be 7:1, how many half-lives have occurred? A. 8 half-lives B. 7 half-lives C. 3 half-lives D. 1 half-life

C. Explanation: At the end of one half-life, 1:1; two half-lives, 1:3; three half-lives, 1:7.

Which of the following is NOT a good technique for building earthquake-resistant structures? A. Bolt bridge spans to the top of support columns. B. Use supports that are capable of holding more than the static (unmoving) weight of the building. C. Use concrete-block rather than wood-frame construction. D. Wrap bridge supports with steel cables.

C. Explanation: Concrete blocks crack and tumble; wood-frame construction flexes and has a better chance of surviving quake shaking.

The Great Oxygenation Event, which added abundant oxygen to the atmosphere beginning about 2.5 Ga, was due to the A. appearance of photosynthetic plants on land. B. appearance of Ediacaran fauna. C. evolution of photosynthetic organisms in oceans. D. emergence of multicellular organisms.

C. Explanation: The appearance of photosynthetic organisms, which take in CO2 and produce O2, played an essential role in the development of atmospheric oxygen. It is important to note, though, that all life at this time in Earth's history is still in the oceans, and not yet on land.

Which statement is TRUE? A. S-waves are compressional body waves; P-waves are shear body waves. B. Shallow-focus quakes do less damage than deep-focus quakes. C. R- and L-waves are surface seismic waves. D. Surface waves are the first to show up on a seismogram recording of a quake.

C. Explanation: P-waves are compressional body waves that arrive first, followed by S-waves (shear body waves), and then by R- and L- (surface) waves. Shallow-focus waves cause the most damage because they don't lose much energy before reaching the surface.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? Earthquakes in California are A. always above magnitude 7.5 because the San Andreas is such a large fault. B. the result of widening along the San Andreas fault, which will eventually cause western California to sink into the ocean. C. shallow and occur in the upper 15 km of crust, even though the San Andreas fault cuts through the crust to deeper depths. D. the result of reverse faulting along the San Andreas fault.

C. Explanation: Quakes in California can be large or small and occur along hundreds of faults. Motion along the San Andreas fault is strike slip, and it's not causing the state to sink. The San Andreas fault sits on a transform boundary, but because movement at depth is plastic, earthquakes usually occur in the upper 15 km.

Identify the structure that makes this pattern of rock layers on the ground surface: parallel stripes, showing bilateral symmetry across a midline (hinge), with rock getting older as you move outward from the hinge. A. anticline B. plunging fold C. syncline D. monocline

C. Explanation: Rocks in an anticline would get younger as you moved outward; plunging folds would exhibit a U-shaped pattern; monoclines would not show bilateral symmetry.

Identify the FALSE statement. Floods can occur Choose one: A. if saturated ground receives additional rainfall. B. after a dam or levee breaks, creating a flash flood. C. in any area, but flash floods are most unexpected in humid regions. D. when a watershed receives more water than it can absorb or evaporate.

C. Flash floods are most unexpected in arid regions, where channels that have not received a drop of rain are suddenly filled by an isolated thunderstorm.

How does subduction trigger melting? A. The downgoing slab melts as it reaches hotter temperatures deep in the Earth. B. The overriding slab insulates the subducting slab, increasing temperature and causing melting. C. Flux melting of the asthenosphere above the subducting slab creates a rising melt. D. The subducting slab is made of felsic minerals, and therefore melts at lower temperatures.

C. Flux melting (the addition of volatiles) occurs as the downgoing slab adds water to the surrounding asthenosphere; this acts as a catalyst for melting.

What is a spelunker NOT likely to encounter? Choose one: A. speleothems B. limestone columns C. geysers D. flowstones

C. Geysers are a surface feature in geothermal areas; the other terms denote structures found in caves, which spelunkers explore.

What is the "grade" of an ore? Choose one: A. the measured quantity of a mineral resource B. a compound containing two or more metals C. the concentration of useful metal in an ore D. the nonmetallic residue formed during smelting

C. Grade refers to the concentration of useful metal in an ore deposit. The higher the grade, the higher the concentration. A compound containing two or more metals is an alloy; the nonmetallic residue formed during smelting refers to slag; and the measured quantity of a mineral resource is a reserve.

Choose the list that accurately shows rock composition decreasing in silica and increasing in iron and magnesium. A. peridotite, basalt, granite B. granite, peridotite, basalt C. granite, basalt, peridotite D. basalt, peridotite, granite

C. Granite is a felsic (rich in silica) rock; basalt is a mafic rock; and peridotite is an ultramafic rock.

Lava is A. always produced during any volcanic activity. B. the most life-threatening volcanic product of any eruption. C. molten rock that cools and hardens on Earth's surface. D. all the same chemical composition, whether it is rhyolitic or basaltic.

C. Lava is molten rock that solidifies at the surface. Many types of lava exist, with different chemical compositions. Often volcanic eruptions don't produce any lava, and when it is present, it usually moves slowly enough that people can get out of its way.

Identify the FALSE statement. Plate movement is influenced by A. ridge push, in which the elevated rocks at the ridge axis push on rocks farther from the ridge. B. slab pull, in which the downgoing oceanic plate exerts a pull on the rest of the plate. C. mantle plumes, which are created when hot rock rises up from the deep mantle and creates melting at the base of the lithosphere. D. mantle convection, which creates shear at the base of plates.

C. Mantle plumes are the possible cause of hot spots, but they do not affect plate movement in a meaningful way.

Choose the listing that shows the rocks in increasing degrees of metamorphism (i.e., from lower to higher grade). A. migmatite, metaconglomerate, gneiss B. gneiss, migmatite, metaconglomerate C. metaconglomerate, gneiss, migmatite D. gneiss, metaconglomerate, migmatite

C. Metaconglomerate is barely metamorphosed; higher temperature changes the rock into a gneiss; and migmatite has been so strongly heated that some rock has melted and become new igneous rock.

Which of the following is NOT a mineral? A. an oyster shell, because it's not crystalline B. a gold nugget, because it's a native metal C. oil, because it's a liquid, not a solid D. pyrite, because it's a chemical compound

C. Minerals by definition must be solid. An oyster shell (CaCO3) is crystalline. The descriptions of a gold nugget being a native metal and pyrite being a chemical compound are correct, but these do not disqualify them from being minerals.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? Choose one: A. Pumping on a well can produce a local slope to the water table, but cannot affect the direction of groundwater flow. B. ​Mining groundwater simply means pumping it out of wells. C. The lowering of water tables is a growing problem in California. D. In coastal areas saltwater can enter an aquifer, float on the freshwater there, and be drawn up in wells.

C. Mining implies pumping out more groundwater than can be naturally replaced; freshwater is less dense than saltwater, so saltwater invading a coastal aquifer moves in under the freshwater; and the direction of groundwater flow can be locally reversed due to overpumping.

An igneous rock has a medium-gray, fine-grained groundmass with large crystals of plagioclase. Which of the following statements about it is FALSE? A. It could logically be porphyritic andesite. B. The plagioclase crystals are called phenocrysts. C. The lava flow that produced it got quenched in ocean water. D. It began to crystallize at depth from intermediate-composition magma, then rose to the surface and became a lava flow.

C. Not only would water quenching create a glassy texture, but this explanation also doesn't touch at all on the origin of the large crystals.

Identify the FALSE statement. Oceanic lithosphere A. gets older and thicker as it gets farther from the ridge axis. B. gets cooler as it gets farther from the ridge axis. C. attains its maximum thickness when it is about 800 million years old. D. effectively does not exist beneath the mid-ocean ridge axis.

C. Oceanic lithosphere attains its maximum thickness when it is about 80 million years old. Even if you did not remember the exact age, you could identify the false statement if you remember that no oceanic lithosphere is more than 200 million years old.

Which of the following is a mineral? A. glass B. sugar (formula C6H12O6) C. salt (NaCl) D. amber (tree sap)

C. Of the choices, only salt (halite) is a mineral; amber and sugar have organic origins, and glass is not crystalline.

Pillow basalts A. contain large crystals that cool slowly. B. are composed of felsic lava. C. are formed in a submarine environment. D. occur in tabular intrusions called dikes.

C. Pillow basalts are bulbous flows of molten basalt, low in silica, that cool and harden as they are expelled into seawater.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? In an area of rolling hills, groundwater moves Choose one: A. from regions under hills to regions under valleys. B. along a curved path. C. sometimes parallel to the slope of the water table and sometimes straight down, but never upward. D. from where the water table is at high elevation to where the water table is at low elevation.

C. Pressure differences, caused by different thicknesses of groundwater, can push water up against gravity's influence.

After an explosive volcanic eruption on an island, the surrounding sea is full of light-gray floating rock. What must it be? A. obsidian B. rhyolite C. pumice D. basalt

C. Pumice is a felsic, vesicular rock that contains abundant vesicles, which makes it less dense than water.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. The near-term future of the world depends heavily on human activities. B. Plate movements will alter the global map significantly over the coming millions of years. C. Shallow seas cannot ever again cover continental interiors because there has been enough sediment deposition to raise the average land surface high enough to prevent this outcome. D. Five billion years from now scientists believe the Sun will begin to collapse, then swell to encompass the Earth.

C. Sea-level changes are cyclical; what's happened in the past will no doubt happen in the future, and interior land will get inundated by seawater.

Which of the following statements about gemstones is FALSE? A. Ruby is a gemstone variety of the common mineral corundum. B. A gemstone is a mineral that has value because of its rarity and beauty. C. In order to be considered precious or semiprecious, a gemstone must be transparent. D. Many gemstones come from pegmatites, which are particularly coarse-grained igneous rocks.

C. Semiprecious gemstones do include opaque and translucent gemstones, such as lapis and opal.

Stalagmites Choose one: A. are a type of flowstone. B. begin as delicate, hollow structures called soda straws. C. are composed of limestone precipitated out of cave water. D. are icicle-shaped cones that hang from cave ceilings.

C. Stalagmites are dripstone, not flowstone, which precipitate as sheets of material across broad surfaces. Soda straws develop into stalactites, which hang from cave ceilings.

Why is tracking the carbon cycle important?

Carbon is part of carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas that is partially responsible for the current global warming trend.

Which of the following changes is NOT a unidirectional change? Choose one: A. The frozen mantle crust changed to continental crust and oceanic crust. B. Life on Earth evolves. C. Small continents merged to become a supercontinent. D. Liquid iron alloy sank into Earth's interior.

C. Supercontinent formation is a cyclic change, meaning the same steps happen over and over again. Scientists believe a supercontinent has existed at least three times in Earth's past.

Which of the following serves as a trap for cosmic rays and shields life on Earth from excessive radiation? A. Kuiper Belt B. Asteroid belt C. Van Allen belts D. Oort Cloud

C. The Van Allen radiation belts trap cosmic rays and shield Earth from excessive radiation.

Identify the FALSE statement about stellar nucleosynthesis. A. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the term for the process by which stars create intermediate-weight elements. B. In stellar nucleosynthesis, reactions are caused by fusion. C. Stellar nucleosynthesis produces heavy elements with atomic numbers greater than iron. D. Stellar nucleosynthesis is a normal process that happens during the life cycle of stars.

C. The conditions of stellar nucleosynthesis are only able to create elements of intermediate weight (atomic mass). Those elements that are heavier than iron need extremely hot conditions such as found in supernovas.

Which of the following statements about the crust is FALSE? A. The crust plus the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere. B. There are two different types of crust- oceanic and continental. C. The crust is the top of the mantle that has cooled and hardened. D. The thickness of crust can vary, from ~1 km to up to 70 km thick.

C. The crust is not simply cooled mantle; rather, it consists of rocks created from elements brought to the surface in magma. Its composition is different from the underlying mantle, and therefore it did not derive directly from cooled mantle material.

Identify the FALSE statement. Magma moves upward toward the Earth's surface A. because it is less dense than the surrounding rock. B. slowly, working its way up through cracks and narrow conduits. C. more quickly as it cools and therefore becomes less viscous. D. because the weight of overlying rock creates pressure that squeezes it up.

C. The hotter the magma, the less viscous it is and the faster it flows.

Which of the following statements about growth rings of trees is FALSE? Choose one: A. Interpreting tree rings is, in a sense, a method of paleoclimatology. B. The thickness of a tree ring can indicate the rate of growth of the tree. C. A thin ring indicates a warm, wet year; a thick ring represents a cold, dry year. D. Each tree ring represents one year of growth.

C. The opposite is true; a thick tree ring indicates a warm, wet year since the tree grows faster during warmer, wetter years.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? Ozone Choose one: A. destruction happens most rapidly on the surfaces of water molecules in the tropics. B. is completely absent in a region of the troposphere called the ozone hole. C. depletion happens in high-latitude regions, particularly the Antarctic. D. is destroyed by human-produced chemicals, particularly sulfuric acid.

C. The ozone hole is in the stratosphere, not the troposphere, and is a region of ozone depletion, not absence; chlorofluorocarbons are the chief destroyers, not sulfuric acid; and rapid destruction happens on surfaces of ice crystals in polar regions, not on water molecules in the tropics.

A seismic-reflection profile Choose one: A. shows the shapes but not the depths of underground sedimentary layers. B. is used even by amateurs looking for oil because it's relatively easy and cheap. C. is created by interpreting reflected seismic waves. D. is essentially the same thing as a geologic map.

C. The profile is created by experts, costs millions of dollars, and shows shapes and depths of rock layers underground. A geologic map shows rock layers and geologic structures on Earth's surface.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Logging of rainforests eventually robs the topsoil of vast amounts of humus. B. Growing and harvesting crops leads to nutrient depletion of soil. C. Soils form at a rate much faster than human activity or erosion can destroy them. D. Soils are an important resource that provide for agriculture and forestry.

C. The rate at which human activity and erosion are destroying soils far exceeds the rate of soil formation; therefore, soil is a natural resource that demands conservation, similar to other natural resources like mineral ores and hydrocarbons.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? If significant global warming happens, the consequences would be Choose one: A. a rise in sea level due to melting ice. B. stronger storms and increased flooding. C. a shift in climate belts, with temperate climates moving to lower latitudes. D. an interruption of ocean currents and the heat transfer they accomplish.

C. The shift would be to higher latitudes.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. A stream is any channelized body of running water. B. The efficiency of downcutting depends on the velocity of flow, the strength of the substrate, and the amount of vegetation cover. C. A stream that swings back and forth in snake-like curves is called a braided stream. D. Meteoric water is any water that has fallen from the sky.

C. The stream is called a meandering stream. A braided stream is one that's divided into numerous strands that weave back and forth between elongate bars of sand and gravel.

Which of the following is NOT one of the three basic groups of rocks that geologists recognize using the genetic classification scheme? A. sedimentary B. igneous C. crystalline D. metamorphic

C. The three basic groups of rocks that geologists recognize are igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. These rocks are grouped by the way they form, or their origin (genesis).

Identify the FALSE statement. A. The Earth has both magnetic poles and geographic poles. B. The Sun's stellar wind distorts Earth's magnetic field into a teardrop shape. C. The region inside the Earth's magnetic shield is called the biosphere. D. Earth's magnetic field is a dipole.

C. The zone inside Earth's magnetic field is called the magnetosphere. The biosphere refers to the region of the Earth and atmosphere inhabited by life.

A large portion of the coal reserves in the world formed during the ________ period.

Carboniferous

Identify the TRUE statement about soil-forming factors. A. The soil that forms on basalt bedrock will be the same as soil formed on granite bedrock because they are both igneous bedrocks. B. Dry soils tend to contain more organic material than wet soils because wet soils drown vegetation. C. Different types of organisms can add or remove nutrients within a soil, thereby changing the type of soil that is formed. D. Thicker soils form on steep slopes than on flat land because of the accumulation of sediment on slopes.

C. Thinner soils (or no soils) form on steep slopes because of mass wasting; soils forming on basalt and granite will be different because of the different compositions in the bedrock; and wet soils contain more organic material than dry soils.

Identify the FALSE statement. Sulfuric acid cave formation Choose one: A. occurs because microbes convert sulfur in the oil into hydrogen sulfide gas, which oxidizes in the limestone to sulfuric acid. B. produces gypsum and CO2 gas as a by-product of the chemical reaction. C. is responsible for roughly 50% of all caves. D. occurs where limestone overlies strata rich in hydrocarbons like oil.

C. This process has produced some immense cave networks, but it's responsible for only about 5% of all caves.

Which is NOT a tectonic setting for igneous activity? A. volcanic arcs bordering ocean trenches B. continental rifts C. continental transform fault zones D. hot spots

C. Transform motion involves plates sliding past each other; the heat from friction is not enough to melt rock; other choices involve molten rock welling up from depth or plates subducting and melting at depth.

Which of the pairs below shows a highly volatile petroleum product as the first item and a very viscous petroleum product as the second item? Choose one: A. tar (40-carbon chain) and butane (4-carbon chain) B. kerosene (12-carbon chain) and gasoline (5-carbon chain) C. propane (3-carbon chain) and kerosene lubricating oil (26-carbon chain) D. kerosene (12-carbon chain) and heating oil (15-carbon chain)

C. Volatility (the ability to evaporate) and viscosity (the ability to flow) depend on the size of the hydrocarbon molecule. The shorter the chain, the more volatile and less viscous is the substance.

Lahars, composed of ash, debris, and water A. occur only in arctic regions because snow supplies the water for mud. B. are extremely rare. C. have often resulted in damage and death to humans and their property. D. are called nuée ardentes.

C. Volcanic mud and debris flows, called lahars, are fairly common, fast-moving, deadly events associated with volcanic eruptions worldwide. Volcanic outgassing alone provides enough moisture to form mud, and melted snow just adds to the danger. Nuée ardentes (pyroclastic flows) are deadly avalanches of hot pyroclastic debris and gas.

Plate tectonics theory took decades to be accepted because A. most of Wegener's ideas turned out to be wrong. B. climate, fossil distributions, and land shape offered conflicting evidence. C. Wegener couldn't explain how continents moved. D. of pure stubbornness by the scientific community.

C. Wegener could not adequately explain how or why the continents moved. Seafloor studies following World War II supplied the needed proof. Wegener's basic ideas were, however, correct. Wegener spoke and published worldwide, and the scientific community was reluctant but not totally opposed to listening. Evidence from climate, fossil distributions, and land shapes supported plate tectonics theory.

How are carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere affected by tectonic uplift and subsequent chemical weathering of rocks?

CO2 is removed from the atmosphere.

What is columnar jointing?

Columnar jointing forms during the final stages of lava cooling, as flows shrink and fracture into polygonal columns.

A crater in Mexico's Yucatan peninsula may be the result of an impact that brought about the extinction of numerous dinosaur species at the end of the ________ Period.

Cretaceous

The crust in the Basin and Range Province of Nevada, Utah, and Arizona is stretching; therefore, fault movement in this region must be A. reverse. B. thrust. C. shear. D. normal.

D Explanation: Normal faults accommodate stretching.

In a nuclear power plant Choose one: A. pitchblende (238U) is the most common fuel. B. fusion is happening. C. there must be enough nuclear fuel to equal a critical mass. D. control rods regulate the rate of the reaction by absorbing excess neutrons.

D Fission is happening; critical mass is the amount that would result in an explosion; and 235U is the most common fuel isotope of uranium.

A typical source rock of oil, which started out as mud in which dead organic matter settled, is Choose one: A. granite. B. conglomerate. C. sandstone. D. shale.

D Granite is not possible because of the intense heat associated with its formation; the other two (conglomerate and sandstone) don't represent the oil-forming environment necessary, which is mud at the bottom of standing water.

A water molecule in the atmosphere reservoir has a residence time of approximately Choose one: A. 4,000 years. B. 10 years. C. 10,000 years or more. D. 10 days.

D Water molecules in the groundwater reservoir can have residence times on the order of 10,000 years or less; in the ocean reservoir for 4,000 years or less; and in lakes and ponds for 10 years or less.

Which of the following has nothing to do with fossils of early life? A. stromatolites B. cyanobacteria C. Ediacaran fauna D. Rodinia

D. Explanation: Rodinia is the name of the first supercontinent known, existing back in the Proterozoic Eon. Stromatolites are mats of cyanobacteria, which are simple prokaryotic cells; Ediacaran fauna are early multicellular invertebrates found in Australia.

Identify the FALSE statement. There is very little rock record for Earth's first 600 million years because A. any rock that formed during that time was likely melted/recycled. B. intense meteorite bombardment may have destroyed most land surface. C. rocks of that age sank back down into the Earth. D. the surface then was one huge ocean basin filled with hot water and nothing else.

D. Explanation: The surface was probably too hot and suffering intense meteorite bombardment during the first few hundred million years, preventing the formation of large oceans. At that time, the surface of Earth was probably a magma ocean with very little permanent rock, if any. Any rock that had formed prior to ~4.0 Ga sank back down into the Earth, melted, and was recycled.

Identify the FALSE statement. Seismometers A. may be electronic, consisting of a heavy cylindrical magnet and a coil of wire which produces a signal that can be recorded digitally. B. may be the mechanical type, consisting of a weight, spring, frame, pen, and revolving cylinder. C. operate because of inertia; one part of the instrument remains motionless while the recording device moves in response to seismic waves. D. are only sensitive enough to record ground movements down to about 1 mm.

D. Explanation: A seismograph can detect ground motion down to a mere millionth of a millimeter.

Identify the FALSE statement. Mountains don't get infinitely high or exist forever because A. they experience orogenic collapse. B. erosion is a constant force acting to wear mountains down. C. their own weight causes them eventually to collapse. D. they are eventually subducted in the plate tectonic cycle.

D. Explanation: Mountains consist of continental crust, which is too buoyant to subduct.

Which of the following describes an igneous → metamorphic → sedimentary path through the rock cycle? A. A schist is buried and heated to form gneiss, then uplifted and eroded to make sand. B. A sandstone is melted then cooled, then uplifted and eroded to make sand. C. A shale is uplifted and eroded to make clay, deposited into a basin, then buried and heated. D. A granite becomes buried and heated to form gneiss, and is then uplifted and eroded to make sand.

D. A granite is an igneous rock. If it then becomes buried and heated to form a gneiss, it has undergone metamorphism. If that rock is then uplifted and eroded to make sand, it has gone through the sedimentary segment of the rock cycle.

Rodinia, Pannotia, and Pangaea are all names of A. orogenies that occurred on the eastern margin of North America. B. extinct marine organisms. C. geologic time periods. D. supercontinents.

D. Explanation: Each of these is a supercontinent that formed in Earth's history.

Stress A. created by plate collision is the same everywhere and reflects the total force produced by the interacting plates. B. is the same as force. C. is the change in shape produced by strain. D. developed during orogeny can be different at various locations.

D. Explanation: Strain (not stress) is the change in shape (deformation) produced by stress (force per unit); force does not account for the area over which a force acts, and is therefore different from stress; and stress is not the same everywhere during orogeny.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. Some magma generated during seafloor spreading erupts from submarine volcanoes. B. Observers in research submersibles have seen submarine volcanoes. C. As the seafloor spreads, the asthenosphere rises, melts to become magma, and fills the space between plates. D. Some magma generated during seafloor spreading spills out to produce a new layer of seafloor called gabbro.

D. Gabbro does form along the sides of magma chambers in the crust below the ridge axis, but the magma that rises to become seafloor cools to form basalt.

The tendency of a mineral to break and produce smooth, curving, shell-shaped surfaces is termed: A. luster. B. streak. C. cleavage. D. conchoidal fracture.

D. Only conchoidal fracture matches the definition given. Luster refers to the way a mineral's surface reflects light, cleavage refers to the way in which minerals break along planes of weak bonding, and streak refers to the color of the mineral when powdered.

This stratovolcano recently erupted in the United States. Although it warned of its impending eruption, it still killed people, partly because it first blew sideways and produced a monstrous landslide. The volcano is A. Mt. Rainier. B. Yellowstone. C. Surtsey. D. Mt. St. Helens.

D. The descriptive information all fits Mt. St. Helens, but none of the others.

Identify the FALSE statement. Hot springs Choose one: A. may occur in geothermal regions where current (or recent) volcanism occurs. B. can dissolve more mineral matter than can cold water springs. C. may precipitate mounds and terraces of travertine (limestone) as waters cool. D. contain water that is at least boiling temperature (100°C or 212°F).

D. The water in hot springs ranges from about 30°C (86°F) to 104°C (221°F).

Geologists believe the impact of an enormous meteorite 66 million years ago A. generated 20-km-high tsunamis. B. ejected debris into the atmosphere that produced acid rain. C. ejected chemicals into the atmosphere that caused thousands of years of global warming. D. generated a hot air blast and blaze that caused worldwide forest fires.

D. Explanation: The bolide impact at the K-T boundary produced a hot air blast and sparked global wild fires. The tsunamis it generated were only 2 km high; ejected debris (not chemicals) caused months of winter-like conditions (not global warming); and debris in the atmosphere does not produce acid rain.

Which of the following is NOT a method to determine numerical age? A. radioactive decay of uranium to lead B. analyzing growth ring patterns in trees C. carbon-14 dating D. cross-cutting relations

D. Explanation: Cross-cutting relations is a method used for relative, not numerical, dating.

Which of the following is NOT one of the smaller continents formed by the breakup of Pannotia? A. Siberia B. Baltica C. Laurentia D. Laramide

D. Explanation: Laramide is the late Mesozoic/early Cenozoic orogeny that resulted in the Rocky Mountains.

Identify the FALSE statement. Radiometric dating A. of sedimentary rock dates the time of crystallization of the sedimentary minerals, not the time of sedimentary rock formation. B. of metamorphic rock tells when the high temperatures of metamorphism cooled below the closure temperatures of the minerals involved. C. can begin only when the isotopes cool enough to lock into the crystal lattice. D. can be used only if there is some uranium present in the rock.

D. Explanation: Many different radioactive isotopes of many different minerals can be used.

An area of slightly dipping sedimentary rock layers has large inclusions and is intruded by an igneous dike. Apply the basic principles for determining relative ages and identify the FALSE statement. A. The sedimentary layers started out lying flat. B. The oldest sedimentary layer is the bottom layer. C. The igneous intrusion "baked" (metamorphosed) the sedimentary rock it touched. D. The dike is older than the sedimentary rock layers it cuts across.

D. Explanation: The dike must be younger than the sedimentary rock layers that it cuts across because the rock layers need to be there before they can be cut by the intrusion.

Which of the following accurately ranks the subdivisions of geologic time in order from largest to smallest? A. epoch, period, eon, era B. period, era, eon, epoch C. era, eon, epoch, period D. eon, era, period, epoch

D. Explanation: The names of geologic time intervals, in order from largest to smallest, are eon, era, period, and epoch.

This common and useful form of limestone consists of microscopic marine algae shells and shrimp feces. Thick Cretaceous-age deposits of limestone are common in southern England. A. iron B. sand C. siliceous silt D. chalk

D. Explanation: The white cliffs of Dover, bordering the south coast of England, are Cretaceous chalk deposits.

Identify the FALSE statement. A. There was intense meteorite bombardment of Earth about 4 Ga that destroyed Earth's earliest crustal rock. B. Geologists generally agree that plate tectonics activity began in the Archean Eon. C. The Moon formed from a collision between Earth and a large protoplanet. D. About 80% of Earth's continental crust existed by the end of the Hadean Eon.

D. Explanation: There wasn't this much continental crust until the end of the Archean Eon.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Mountains A. may exhibit metamorphic and igneous rocks, due to their formation process. B. are a result of uplift and deformation. C. are created during orogenies that may last for millions of years. D. are randomly distributed over Earth's surface.

D. Explanation: Except for hot-spot volcanoes, mountains occur in belts associated with plate boundaries.

Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding the 2010 Haiti earthquake? A. The likelihood of an earthquake was great because stress had been building on the fault for over 200 years. B. Faulting occurred along a transform boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. C. The event was so destructive because of poor construction standards. D. The earthquake generated a tsunami that was responsible for the majority of the lives lost.

D. Explanation: No tsunami was generated by the Haiti earthquake. The high loss of life was due to collapse of buildings that were not built to resist shaking.

Identify the TRUE statement about fossil preservation. A. The slower an organism is buried with sediment after death, the more likely it is to become a fossil. B. Low-energy environments are not suitable for preserving fossils. C. A dead organism will most likely become a fossil if there is abundant oxygen in the depositional environment. D. Organisms with hard parts made of shell or bone are more likely to become fossilized.

D. Explanation: The faster an organism is buried, the more likely it will be fossilized; a dead organism will likely fossilize in an anoxic environment; and low-energy environments are definitely suitable for preserving fossils.

After reclassification in 2005, Pluto is no longer considered a planet because it A. is not large enough. B. is not spherical. C. does not orbit a star. D. has not cleared its orbit of other matter.

D. Pluto's gravity has not cleared its orbit of other matter and therefore it no longer fits the modern definition of a planet.

Which of the following groups of elements make up the most mass of the whole Earth? A. silicon, iron, potassium, and sodium B. nitrogen, oxygen, helium, and carbon dioxide C. magnesium, iron, carbon dioxide, and argon D. iron, oxygen, silicon, and magnesium

D. 93% of the Earth's mass consists of iron, oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. The slope of the water table is called the hydraulic gradient. B. The chief source of groundwater is precipitation. C. The water table of an area goes down as more wells are established there. D. A perched water table is one that sits high on a hill rather than low in a valley.

D. A perched water table can occur anywhere that an impermeable lens of rock stops the downward percolation of groundwater.

What is the protolith of marble? A. quartz sandstone B. phyllite C. gypsum D. limestone

D. A protolith is the parent rock that is metamorphosed into a different rock; metamorphosed limestone is marble.

Earth is round because A. erosion over time has worn down the jagged edges of its planetesimals. B. solar wind has shaped it. C. the gravitational tug of the Moon has worn down the jagged edges. D. its interior rock is warm enough to flow slowly in response to gravity.

D. A sphere is a shape that permits the force of gravity to be the same at all points on its surface.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. Icehouse periods are long periods of time when Earth's atmosphere was significantly cooler than it is now. B. The oxygen-isotope ratios of ancient glacial ice indicate the atmospheric temperature of the snowfall that created the ice. C. The sunspot cycle is associated with a change in solar radiation received by Earth. D. Bubbles of air trapped in old ice show the nitrogen concentration of the ancient atmosphere, and this is an indicator of its temperature.

D. Air bubbles in ancient ice show the carbon dioxide concentration of past atmospheres, which is an indicator of atmospheric temperature.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Anthropogenic (human induced) changes in the Earth system Choose one: A. include global warming, which is greatly enhanced by society's production of greenhouse gases. B. include landscape modifications resulting from construction, mining, and farming. C. have affected the ecosystems of regions by deforestation, overgrazing, agriculture, and urbanization. D. are decreasing as human population grows and urbanization leads to more environmentally friendly practices.

D. Although technology enhances our ability to reduce environmental impacts, Earth's growing population demands an ever greater supply of natural resources to meet an increasing standard of living.

Which of the following explosive eruptions was enhanced by seawater flooding the magma chamber? A. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, 79 CE B. The Big Island, Hawaii, currently erupting C. Mt. St. Helens, Washington, 1980 D. Krakatau, Indonesia, 1883

D. An explosive eruption involving the reaction of water with magma is called a phreatomagmatic eruption. Only Krakatau, Indonesia, 1883, fits this description.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Shields A. are composed of rocks that were metamorphosed during ancient mountain-building events. B. make up large areas of Canada, southern Africa, and South America. C. are composed of some of the oldest rock on Earth (Precambrian). D. are composed of extensive areas of sedimentary layers laid down on lava flows.

D. Any sedimentary layers or lava flows that might have been present have eroded away, exposing the deep, ancient metamorphic rock of the shield.

The genetic scheme for classifying rocks is based on A. the average grain size. B. mineral (and therefore elemental) composition. C. temperature and pressure. D. origin of formation.

D. As suggested by the term genetic, this classification scheme identifies rocks based on the way they form (i.e., their origin).

Asthenosphere A. is the uppermost layer of Earth's core. B. is the lower layer of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. C. subducts when it collides with continental lithosphere. D. is warm enough to flow slowly.

D. Asthenosphere is part of the mantle, not the core. It supports the lithosphere, rather than being part of it or colliding with or subducting under it.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Secondary recovery techniques Choose one: A. include the use of steam to make oil less viscous. B. include creating fractures in the rock through which oil can more readily flow. C. are used to coax more oil out of a drilled hole. D. usually enable drillers to get ~100% of the oil out of the ground.

D. At best, secondary recovery usually extracts about 20% more of the oil left in the ground after simple pumping.

Which of the following groups of silicate minerals exhibits a single strong cleavage in one direction? A. framework silicates B. independent tetrahedra silicates C. single-chain silicates D. sheet silicates

D. Atomic bonding between the sheets is weak, so they separate easily in this direction.

As they pass through the rock cycle, atoms A. stay within the same mineral. B. that were adjacent to each other remain near each other. C. move through the rock cycle in the same manner. D. do not move through the rock cycle at the same rate.

D. Atoms that move through the rock cycle do not move at the same rate, and therefore rocks found at Earth's surface can be of very different ages.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Water combines with carbon dioxide Choose one: A. as a natural process, which produces a corrosive component to groundwater. B. creating slightly acidic groundwater that dissolves limestone and forms caves. C. as it filters through organic-rich soil on its way down to the water table. D. and thus forms carboxylic acid.

D. Carbon dioxide and water combine to make carbonic acid; carboxylic acid is an organic compound.

Which of the following chemical reactions breaks down feldspars into clay minerals? A. dissolution B. oxidation C. hydration D. hydrolysis

D. During hydrolysis, water chemically reacts with minerals to break them down into different minerals. By this process, feldspars and other silicate minerals weather into clays.

Identify the FALSE statement. The rock cycle indicates that A. a granite that was eroded, transported, and then deposited would eventually become a sedimentary rock. B. input of new melt into the crust enters the rock cycle as an igneous rock. C. in order to make a metamorphic rock, burial and/or heating are needed. D. sedimentary rock cannot form from other sedimentary rocks because the pathway is always from one rock type to a different rock type.

D. Each rock type within the rock cycle can become either another rock type or the same rock type through the processes shown in the text.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Shock metamorphism A. can be caused by meteorite impact. B. involves high temperatures and compressional stress. C. causes quartz to recrystallize into coesite. D. results from the process of exhumation.

D. Exhumation is the process by which rocks that were once buried deep in the Earth are brought back up to the surface through uplift and erosion. This does not relate to shock metamorphism, which is produced by high temperature and extreme pressure such as during a meteorite collision.

Punctuated equilibrium states that A. extinction events occur due to large catastrophic events such as floods. B. evolutionary change happens at a constant slow rate. C. we are not able to determine the rate of evolutionary change because of the incompleteness of the fossil record. D. evolution takes place very slowly but has short periods of rapid change.

D. Explanation: Catastrophism describes extinction events, such as floods; gradualism is the slow constant evolutionary change through time; and the fact that fossil record is incomplete is one of the factors that led to the concept of gradualism (but the concept of gradualism does not state this).

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The first life forms A. date back to between 3.5 and 3.8 billion years. B. likely evolved around submarine vents, called black smokers. C. may have been simple cells of bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). D. probably occurred in oxygen-rich, shallow, sunlit ocean waters.

D. Explanation: Oxygen-rich atmosphere (or oceans) didn't exist when the earliest life forms began, and the ability to extract energy from sunlight didn't evolve until much later. First life probably occurred in black smokers along mid-ocean ridges between 3.5 and 3.8 Ga.

Gymnosperms (naked-seed plants like conifers) were widespread in the late Paleozoic, but angiosperms (flowering plants) gained dominance in the A. mid-Cenozoic. B. early Paleozoic. C. latest Proterozoic. D. late Mesozoic.

D. Explanation: Plants are classified as gymnosperms if they release their seeds from cones, and they are more primitive than angiosperms, which retain their seeds within the protective shelter of flower parts. Angiosperms (flowering plants) gained dominance over conifers in the late Mesozoic.

If you see small, angular fragments of shattered rock along a linear boundary between two masses of rock, you must be looking at A. mylonites. B. slickensides. C. fault gouge. D. fault breccia.

D. Explanation: You are looking at fault breccia. Fault gouge is fine powder; slickensides are polished fault surfaces; mylonites are fine-grained foliated rocks found along faults.

Brittle deformation A. produces folds, like anticlines. B. is favored by high-temperature, high-pressure conditions. C. is more likely to occur deep in the crust than at the surface. D. occurs when many atomic bonds are broken quickly and rock pieces separate.

D. Explanation: During brittle deformation, many atomic bonds break and stay broken, leading to the formation of permanent cracks and separated rock pieces.

Identify the FALSE statement. The Richter scale A. measures the amplitude of the largest deflection on a seismogram in response to specifically defined seismic waves at a specifically defined distance and depth. B. is today termed a local magnitude reading (ML). C. works well only for shallow, nearby earthquakes. D. measures the size of a quake in terms of the damage it does (its intensity).

D. Explanation: The Richter scale measures quake size in terms of the ground motion it generates (its magnitude). The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale measures the size of an earthquake in terms of the damage it does (its intensity).

Which statement concerning tsunami events is FALSE? A. Tsunamis can travel as fast as jet planes (several hundred miles per hour). B. Tsunamis may be generated by underwater earthquakes, volcanic explosions, or submarine landslides. C. Tsunami waves can be 100 to 1000 times wider than typical wind-driven waves, when measured perpendicular to the wave. D. The velocity of a tsunami wave increases when the wave enters shallower water.

D. Explanation: The wave slows down due to friction, and this causes the water to pile up higher and produce a taller wave.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Felsic (or silicic) magma A. crystallizes at the lowest temperatures. B. has about 70% silica and little magnesium and iron. C. is likely to form light tan, pink, or maroon rocks. D. is less viscous than mafic magma.

D. Felsic magma is more viscous because the silicon tetrahedra link up in chains, which, at the microscopic level, tangle and impede smooth flow.

Which of the following statements about metamorphic rocks and their characteristic environments is TRUE? A. Gneiss is found in metamorphic aureoles surrounding plutons. B. Mylonites are found along convergent plate boundaries where magma is rising. C. Blueschists are found in the mid-ocean ridge. D. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are found in areas of continental collision.

D. Gneiss, a foliated metamorphic rock, requires shearing stress to form; plutons do not cause shearing and they create nonfoliated rock. Mylonites form due to shearing stress along faults deep in the crust, not the heat of convergent boundaries. Blueschists form where there is extreme pressure and low heat, which does not describe mid-ocean ridge conditions.

Granite A. logically could be found in a lava flow. B. is the coarse-grained equivalent of andesite. C. is an extrusive igneous rock. D. is felsic in composition.

D. Granite is a felsic, intrusive (and therefore coarse-grained) igneous rock. It is often found as plutons, rather than lava flows (which are extrusive). The coarse-grained equivalent of andesite is diorite.

Graphite is: A. the polymorph of galena. B. harder than glass. C. pure silicon. D. the "lead" in the pencil you write with.

D. Graphite is the very soft, pure carbon polymorph of diamond.

Which of the following rocks is classified as nonfoliated? A. schist B. phyllite C. slate D. hornfels

D. Hornfels is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock because it was formed in the absence of differential stress.

Identify the FALSE statement. Human population Choose one: A. has become a significant agent of global change. B. is doubling every 44 years. C. is currently a little over 7 billion. D. reached 1 billion in 1950.

D. Human population reached 1 billion in 1850, not 1950. However, it only took 80 years for the population to double to 2 billion. Since then, we have doubled our population approximately every 44 years.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The water table Choose one: A. may be defined by the surface of a permanent stream, lake, or marsh. B. becomes a downward-pointing cone-shaped surface around the bottom of a well. C. mimics the topography of the land it underlies. D. lies within a few meters of the surface in arid areas.

D. In arid regions, the water table may be hundreds of meters below the ground surface.

Calcite and aragonite minerals that constitute clam shells are examples of which method of mineral formation? A. solid-state diffusion B. solidification of a melt C. precipitation from a solution D. biomineralization

D. In this case, the minerals calcite and aragonite are formed biogenically by the organism. Ice is an example of solidification of a melt, halite is an example of precipitation from a solution, and minerals in metamorphic rocks are examples of solid-state diffusion.

Identify the FALSE statement. Choose one: A. An annual probability of 4% means there's a one-in-25 chance that a flood of some given size will happen in any given year. B. A 200-year flood has a recurrence interval of, on the average, once every 200 years. C. The size of a flood is described in terms of its discharge, measured in cubic feet (or cubic meters) per second. D. The size of a flood and its recurrence interval are inversely related; the larger the flood, the shorter its recurrence interval.

D. It's a direct, not inverse, relationship. The larger the flood, the greater the time between recurrences. In other words, smaller floods happen frequently, but very large floods are rare.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Porosity decreases Choose one: A. with the cementing of sediments by minerals from groundwater. B. with increasing crystallization of sediments into sedimentary rock. C. when grains don't fit together during deposition. D. when rocks develop joints or fractures.

D. Joints and faults provide large openings for water and thus increase porosity.

Identify the TRUE statement. A. The only two planets with moons are Earth and Jupiter. B. The Sun accounts for almost 50% of the Solar System's mass. C. Our Sun is the only star we know of that has planets associated with it. D. The composition of the giant (Jovian) planets is mainly gas and ice.

D. Jovian (gas/giant) planets consist mainly of "ice" (frozen volatiles). The Sun comprises not 50% but 99.8% of all the mass of the Solar System. Most planets, not just Earth and Jupiter, have moons. Scientists have observed dozens of stars with planetary systems.

Macroscopic organic material (leaves, stems, trunks) of swampy areas undergoes heat and pressure in an oxygen-poor environment over a geologically long time. The result is Choose one: A. petroleum. B. tar sands. C. kerogen. D. coal.

D. Kerogen, tar sands, and petroleum are all energy resources that began as microscopic marine organisms.

Identify the FALSE statement. Large igneous provinces (LIPs) A. may have profound impacts on the environment, including land, ocean, and atmospheric processes. B. represent special events in Earth's history that may have been caused by superplume activity. C. are places where huge amounts of mafic magma have been erupted or intruded. D. occur only along continental margins.

D. LIPs may occur on the seafloor or on land, along margins, or in the interiors of oceanic plates or continents.

Which of the following is NOT a form of lava? A. blocky B. a'a' C. pahoehoe D. lapilli

D. Lapilli are marble-sized pyroclastic pieces, explosively ejected; the others are all forms of molten rock that flow from a volcanic opening, that is, lavas.

Identify the FALSE statement. Hot solid rock in the Earth A. may melt if heat is transferred to it from hot mantle rock rising up into the crust. B. may melt if volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are added. C. may be even hotter than surface lava because of the pressure of overlying rock. D. maintains uniform composition as it melts and becomes magma.

D. Magma composition evolves as rock melts due to partial melting and assimilation processes.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Mass extinction Choose one: A. caused by a meteoric impact occurred at the end of the Mesozoic. B. may happen when a volcanic eruption starts a chain of events that blocks sunlight for weeks or even years. C. events may reflect catastrophic changes in Earth's climate. D. events are times in Earth's history when species biodiversity increases.

D. Mass extinction events occur when biodiversity decreases dramatically, not increases.

A petrographic microscope A. is used to identify minerals in a hand specimen. B. identifies minerals in a rock by analyzing proportions of isotopes of elements. C. can map the distribution of elements in a rock sample. D. sends transmitted polarized light through a thin section of rock.

D. Only choice "A" accurately describes the function of a petrographic microscope. A hand lens is used to identify minerals in a hand specimen; a scanning electron microscope can map the distribution of elements in a sample; a mass spectrometer can do isotopic analyses.

An unknown mineral scratches glass, has only average specific gravity, and shows no cleavage but does show conchoidal fracture. Which of the following could it be? A. halite B. talc C. mica D. quartz

D. Only quartz meets these specifications; talc is too soft, and halite and mica have excellent cleavage.

A sample of soil has no o-horizon and has a b-horizon with abundant calcite call calcrete. what type of soil is this A. alfisol. B. laterite. C. oxisol. D. aridisol.

D. Oxisols form in tropical climates and have abundant iron- and aluminum-rich residues; laterites are types of oxisols; and alfisols form in temperate climates and have a typical O, A, E, B, C type of soil profile with no calcrete.

Which of the following is NOT a line of evidence that supports the assertion of global warming, especially over the past 30 years? Choose one: A. Sea ice has decreased substantially, at a rate of ~3% per decade. B. The rate of ice loss on the Greenland ice sheet has increased. C. Large ice shelves, such as the Larsen B in Antarctica, are breaking up. D. The spatial area of permafrost regions in low latitudes has substantially increased.

D. Permafrost regions are decreasing, especially at high latitudes.

Identify the FALSE statement. Differentiation of large planetesimals and protoplanets A. was caused by heat created by the transformation of kinetic energy from collisions into thermal energy. B. is the process by which these bodies develop internal layering. C. began with heating up component materials within these bodies. D. was inhibited by the presence of radioactive elements because their decay absorbs heat from the surroundings.

D. Radioactive decay releases energy, it does not absorb it.

Identify the FALSE statement. Early Earth had numerous heat sources for igneous activity, including A. conversion of the kinetic energy of iron alloy sinking toward Earth's center to heat energy. B. the compression of mass into a smaller volume. C. conversion of the kinetic energy of meteorite impact to heat energy. D. decay of all of its radioactive elements; almost none remain today.

D. Radioactive decay was a heat source for early Earth, but it did not exhaust Earth's supply of radioactive elements. There are many radioactive elements left, and they're still decaying and heating Earth's interior.

Earth's core A. is under such intense pressure that it is made of solid iron. B. is the thinnest layer of Earth's interior. C. is divided into two parts-the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. D. generates Earth's magnetic field.

D. Rapid flow in the outer core generates Earth's magnetic field.

Identify the TRUE statement. A. Igneous rocks form when pre-existing rocks undergo changes in response to heat and pressure. B. Magma is the term for very hot rock that is molten; when it cools and hardens, it's called lava. C. Hot molten rock that cools and hardens produces metamorphic rocks. D. Sedimentary rocks form when pre-existing rock grains are cemented together.

D. Rocks that form when pre-existing rocks undergo changes in response to heat and pressure are metamorphic, not igneous rocks. Hot molten rock that cools and hardens produces igneous, not metamorphic rocks. And both magma and lava are terms that denote molten rock. Lava is molten rock that has flowed out on Earth's surface; magma is molten rock that remains beneath the surface.

Identify the FALSE statement. Streams cause erosion by Choose one: A. scouring. B. breaking and lifting. C. dissolution. D. saltation.

D. Saltation is a process by which streams transport, not erode, sediment. It's a skipping motion in which grains of the bed load are knocked upward, fall forward on a circular trajectory, and then knock other grains upward and forward.

Which is NOT a common process by which metamorphic rocks are formed? A. recrystallization B. pressure solution C. plastic deformation D. schistosity

D. Schistosity is not a process; it is the type of foliation in schists that results from the preferred orientation of large mica flakes.

Scientific cosmology A. refers to all of space and the matter and energy within it. B. explains that the Universe was formed by supernatural heroes who created the planets. C. states that the Earth is at the center of the Universe. D. investigates the overall structure and history of the Universe.

D. Scientific cosmology provides the foundation for exploring the processes that formed our Universe, Solar System, and planet. Scientific cosmology is the guiding principle that allows us to formulate explanations of our observations. Stating that the Earth is at the center of the Universe refers to the geocentric model of the Universe; "all of space and the matter and energy within it" is the definition of the Universe; and the explanation that the Universe was formed by supernatural heroes is a prehistoric way of explaining the Universe, prior to the application of scientific principles.

Which of the following is NOT true of sedimentary rocks? A. They form by cementing grains together. B. They form by precipitation of minerals out of a solution. C. They form at or near the Earth's surface. D. They form under high temperature and high pressure, which holds the grains together.

D. Sedimentary rocks would become metamorphic rocks if they were exposed to high temperature and high pressure.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Crystals: Choose one: A. display symmetry. B. have an orderly internal arrangement of atoms arranged in a lattice pattern. C. grow outward from a seed. D. are formed by the high-temperature, extremely rapid process known as solid-state diffusion.

D. Solid-state diffusion is the very slow migration of atoms through solid material as they rearrange themselves on a crystal lattice. It occurs in metamorphic rocks.

The chain of volcanoes along the west coast of South America (the Andes Mountains) exists because A. an oceanic plate is sliding past the South American Plate and heading toward the northwest. B. basalt is pushing up through the trench that parallels the west coast of South America. C. an oceanic plate is rifting apart from the South American Plate. D. an oceanic plate is subducting under the western edge of the South American Plate.

D. Subduction at this location causes the plate to sink deep and produce melting. Neither transform motion nor rifting is producing the volcano chain, and basalt does not push up through trenches.

The largest river in the world, on the basis of discharge, is the Choose one: A. Congo River. B. Mississippi River. C. Yangtze River. D. Amazon River.

D. The Amazon River of South America is the largest.

The flood of the Big Thompson River in Boulder County, Colorado, in 1976 was caused by Choose one: A. broken pipelines. B. massive amounts of rainwater soaking into the ground as groundwater. C. landslides choking off the headwaters of the Big Thompson River. D. a year's worth of rainfall falling over the course of a few days.

D. The Big Thompson River flood was a flash flood caused by too much rain in a short amount of time. Some of the rainwater infiltrated the ground, but not much—most of it ended up in surface streams. Landslides did not cause disruption in the headwaters of the Big Thompson River, and flooding created broken pipelines, but the broken pipes did not cause the flood.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? The Mississippi River Delta Choose one: A. is the product of several avulsions. B. is a bird's-foot delta. C. consists of several distinct lobes. D. is stable and will not avulse in the future.

D. The Mississippi River Delta has avulsed several times over the past 9,000 years, and could avulse again—a major flood could cause the Mississippi River to divert into the Atchafalaya River.

The Moho is the boundary between Earth's A. mantle and outer core. B. inner and outer core. C. continental crust and oceanic crust. D. crust and mantle.

D. The Moho (named for Andrija Mohorovičić) marks the boundary between the crust and mantle. It is identified by an abrupt increase in the velocity of seismic waves.

Which of the following is NOT a fundamental source of energy in the Earth System? A. the pull of gravity B. energy stored in fossil fuels C. nuclear fission from Earth's radioactive components D. nuclear fission in the Sun that reaches Earth via the solar wind

D. The Sun produces energy by nuclear fusion (fusing small atoms together to create larger ones), not nuclear fission (splitting larger atoms into smaller ones). The Sun's energy reaches Earth via electromagnetic radiation.

Which of the following is FALSE? Individual rock types within the three main groups can be distinguished from one another by physical properties, such as A. layering. B. size of grains or crystals. C. texture. D. age.

D. The age of a rock is not a physical property that can distinguish it as one type or another.

Earth's magnetic field is created by A. convecting iron-rich silicates in Earth's mantle. B. centrifugal force pushing on Earth's crust. C. the rotation of the planet on its axis. D. flow of liquid iron in Earth's molten outer core.

D. The flow of iron alloy in Earth's molten outer core makes it an electromagnet.

The geothermal gradient A. increases as you go deeper into the Earth. B. averages about 5°C per km in the upper crust. C. states that temperatures near the mantle-core boundary may exceed the temperature of the Sun (5,500°C). D. refers to the rate of change in temperature with depth in the Earth.

D. The geothermal gradient is the rate of change of temperature with respect to depth in the Earth; although the temperature may increase with increased depth, the rate of change actually decreases with depth.

Which of the following sequences explains the transition path of a rock that experienced melting then cooling, burial to deep depths during mountain building, and then uplift and weathering? A. sedimentary → igneous → metamorphic B. igneous → igneous → sedimentary C. metamorphic → igneous → metamorphic D. igneous → metamorphic → sedimentary

D. The key words melting, burial, and weathering indicate that this pathway describes igneous, then metamorphic, then sedimentary rock formation.

Which of Earth's layers accounts for most of the volume of Earth? A. the lithosphere B. the inner core C. the crust D. the mantle

D. The mantle accounts for most of the volume of Earth.

Identify the FALSE statement. Drilling mud Choose one: A. is pumped down the center of an oil-drilling pipe. B. is a slurry of water and clay. C. is used to cool the drill bit and to flush rock cuttings up and out of the drill hole. D. decreases the surface tension of the oil in the drill hole and can sometimes cause gushers.

D. The mass of the drill mud acts to weigh down the oil, which counteracts the natural pressure in the borehole and prevents gushers or blowouts.

An ephemeral stream Choose one: A. flows year-round. B. is one whose bed lies below the water table. C. is replenished by both precipitation and groundwater. D. in dry climates may sometimes become a dry wash (also called wadi or arroyo).

D. The other statements are true of permanent streams, not ephemeral streams.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Mafic minerals A. crystallize at a higher temperature than do silicic minerals. B. are rich in iron and magnesium. C. typically crystallize first out of a melt. D. form rhyolite and granite.

D. The rocks formed of mafic minerals would be basalt and gabbro.

Identify the FALSE statement. Water underground Choose one: A. partially fills pores in the unsaturated zone. B. can adhere temporarily to sediment particles and eventually evaporate back into the atmosphere or be absorbed by plant roots (soil moisture). C. can completely fill pores in the saturated zone (groundwater). D. can seep up from the water table due to electrostatic attraction of water molecules to mineral surfaces and form a thin layer called the phreatic zone.

D. The thin layer described is called the capillary fringe.

The total load that a stream can carry is called its Choose one: A. eddy. B. reach. C. competence. D. capacity.

D. The total load that a stream can carry is called its capacity; competence is a measure of the largest particle size a stream can carry at a particular stage. Eddy refers to a type of turbulence, and reach refers to the path of the river.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? A metamorphic rock A. may be composed of different minerals than its protolith. B. may develop a texture of interlocking grains. C. may have preferred mineral orientation caused by differential stress. D. cannot be formed below 1200°C.

D. The upper limit of the metamorphic range is 1200°C. Most metamorphism occurs between 200° and 850°C.

Identify the FALSE statement. According to the mantle plume model, hot-spot plumes A. produce volcanoes that do not always coincide with a plate boundary. B. stream upward slowly because their hot rock is less dense than the overlying rock. C. can occur beneath ocean plates as well as continental plates. D. are thought to originate at the crust-mantle boundary.

D. This model proposes that plumes originate deep in the mantle, just above the core-mantle boundary. Alternative explanations of hot-spot volcanoes propose plumes at shallow depth or no plumes at all.

What causes vesicles in lava. A. rapid cooling of a lava by water B. slow cooling within the magma chamber in the presence of water C. high silica content in the lava D. volatiles that escape from lava during an eruption

D. Vesicles are frozen bubbles within lava that form as gases depressurize and are released during eruption.

What are vesicles? A. horizontal igneous intrusions B. pieces of wall rock broken off by intruding magma C. large crystals floating in a fine-grained groundmass D. air pockets or bubbles frozen in igneous rocks as gas escaped during cooling

D. Vesicles are gas bubbles frozen into the rock. Pieces of broken-off wall rock are xenoliths, large crystals in groundmass are phenocrysts, and horizontal igneous intrusions are sills.

Which of the following does NOT describe a structural feature of a volcano? A. magma chamber B. fissure C. vent D. vesicle

D. Vesicles are gas-bubble holes frozen into lava as it solidifies. A vent is the volcano's opening to Earth's surface; a fissure is a vertical elongated crack that serves as a conduit; and the magma chamber is the underground zone where magma accumulates.

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Volcanic arcs A. can be continental or island-related. B. are long, curving mountain chains adjacent to deep-ocean trenches. C. form where subduction takes place. D. occur at divergent plate boundaries

D. Volcanic arcs form at convergent plate boundaries, as a result of subduction.

The global occurrence of earthquakes reveals that A. their locations are randomly scattered. B. they usually occur at the center of plates. C. they prove that Earth is splitting apart (rifting) at all plate boundaries. D. they usually occur on the boundaries of plates or at hot spots.

D. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes happen along plate boundaries, only rarely in stable plate interiors. Earthquakes at plate boundaries can indicate rifting, convergence, and/or transform movement—they do not always indicate purely rifting (divergence).

Identify the FALSE statement. A. There is an angle of 120° between each crystal face of the hexagonal column of a quartz crystal. B. The faces of a crystal need not be the same size throughout the crystal, but the angle of intersection between comparable faces is the same throughout. C. Crystals can be a variety of geometric shapes, including cubes, trapezoids, pyramids, octahedrons, hexagons, columns, blades, and needles. D. Polymorphs of the same mineral have the same crystal shape because they contain the same basic atoms bonded in the same way.

D. While both graphite and diamond are made of carbon, the atoms are arranged in different ways and bonded differently, so the polymorphs have different crystal shapes and behave differently.

Identify the FALSE statement. Silicates: A. are a major component of continental crust. B. have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their structural unit. C. are classified on the basis of how the tetrahedrons join and share oxygen atoms. D. are a large category of minerals and include the common minerals calcite and dolomite.

D. While silicates are a huge category of minerals, calcite and dolomite are not silicates (they are carbonates).

Which of the following statements is FALSE? Choose one: A. The permeability of a rock depends on the number, size, and straightness of available conduits. B. Water moves upward in the capillary fringe due to electrostatic attraction between its molecules and mineral surfaces. C. Aquifers transmit water easily, aquitards don't transmit water easily, and aquicludes don't transmit water at all. D. Primary porosity refers to the largest 10% of pore spaces; secondary porosity refers to the remaining 90% of smaller pores.

D. Primary porosity refers to porosity developed during both sediment deposition and rock formation; secondary porosity refers to new pore spaces formed in existing rock by jointing, faulting, and dissolution.

Geologists estimate that the age of the Earth is 4.54 billion years old, based on A. age estimates of Moon rocks. B. radiometric age dates on rocks from the Canadian craton. C. relative age dates on clastic zircons from Australia. D. isotopic dating of meteorites thought to be from primitive solids of the early Solar System

D. isotopic dating of meteorites thought to be from primitive solids of the early Solar System.

________ provide hydroelectric power; however, they also form barriers for migrating fish.

Dams

How are pollen species used to interpret ancient environments?

Different plant species live in different climates.

Greenhouse gases heat Earth by absorbing the radiation from ________.

Earth

________ release extra sediment to rivers, while ________ cause(s) a decrease in the sediment supply downriver.

Farms; dams

________ occurs when a neutron strikes a radioactive atom.

Fission

________ is a nonmetal mineral formed by evaporation and used to make drywall.

Gypsum

As more ice in the Arctic Ocean melts, what effect does this have on the water?

Heat absorption increases as the albedo decreases.

________ power uses flowing water to produce energy.

Hydroelectric

________ create(s) an easy route for oil to follow from the rock to a well.

Hydrofracturing

________ energy drives plate motion.

Internal

________ energy is the cause of uplift of mountain ranges.

Internal

What will eventually happen to the Everglades if the people of Miami and Fort Myers do not stop using the water?

It will eventually dry up and disappear.

What is the difference between a lahar and a pyroclastic flow?

Lahars are volcanic mudflows created when water (from rain or melt water from glaciers) and ash mix. While pyroclastic flows are avalanches containing hot volcanic gases, ash and volcanic bombs.

Why do scientists believe there was once liquid water on Mars?

Landforms such as river channels and sandbars are seen on Mars.

Why are artificial levees only useful for some flooding events?

Large floods can create high pressures and undermine the levee.

What are the dark spots of the moon called and what are they.

Maria, flood basalt. The flood basalts on the Moon that formed the maria resulted when huge meteors collided with the Moon, creating large craters that decreased the Moon's mantle pressure and triggered partial melting.

Commercial Jets fly at an altitude at 12-15 km and Mt. Everest is at 8,638 m. Which area would have the HIGHER air pressure.

Mount Everest. Air pressure decreases as altitude increases.

Why do some life activities strengthen the substrate while others weaken it?

Plant roots help anchor soil, while burrowing into or mining out soil weakens it.

How does water get from the atmosphere into the groundwater system?

Precipitation falls on the ground and infiltrates the ground surface to the groundwater system.

Would oil most likely be found in sandstone or shale?

Sandstone Oil formed in shale (a source rock) would migrate upward into sandstone (a reservoir rock). The oil in the sandstone would be trapped by the seal rock

You are testing the groundwater quality of an aquifer and find that it has high amounts of arsenic. What is the likely source?

The arsenic comes from the dissolved minerals in the aquifer rock.

You have a choice to drill your water well into a shallow, unconfined aquifer or a deeper artesian aquifer. Drilling deeper will cost more money; however, you chose to drill into the artesian aquifer. Why?

The artesian aquifer will flow on its own, without a pump.

As the velocity of flow decreases, which of the following is NOT true?

The competence increases.

What is the difference between weather and climate?

Weather is a transient condition, whereas climate is a long-term cycle.

The rate of groundwater flow per unit area through a body of rock or sediment depends ________.

The rate of groundwater flow per unit area through a body of rock or sediment depends ________.

As a sample moves up in the Asthenosphere, lowering the pressure but maintaining the same temperature, hitting the solidus line. What will happen to the sample?

The sample will melt due to decompression. When a sample hits the solidus line it melts due to decompression.

At a river delta, which of the following is FALSE?

The stream channel becomes very straight because of the large sediment load.

Why does an artesian well flow without pumping?

The water in a confined aquifer is pressurized.

What does it mean if the potentiometric surface does NOT reach above the ground surface?

There will never be any artesian wells or springs associated with the aquifer.

Which of these is true about mineral resources?

They are nonrenewable because they are formed at slower rates than we use them.

________ increases the volume of water in and decreases the lag time of a flood.

Urbanization of an area

During a particularly cold winter in Florida, the temperatures remained below freezing for several weeks. To avoid freeze damage to the crops, farmers used well water to continuously spray the crops and maintain a protective coating of ice around the crops. Shortly after this long cold snap, sinkholes began forming throughout the region. Were these events linked?

Yes; the farmers removed too much water from the aquifers and induced subsidence.

The Anthropocene layer on Earth will show which of the following characteristics?

a decrease in biodiversity

What physical property of the underlying rock would lead to the formation of a cliff over which a waterfall may form?

a high resistance to erosion

What circumstance is likely to produce depositional landforms?

a river entering a large body of water

Shale, salt, and fine-grained limestone are all good candidates to serve as ________ within an oil field.

a seal rock

A well that flows without pumping is called a(n) ________ well.

artesian

The amount of solar energy reflected by a surface is known as ________.

albedo

The principal concern with storing nuclear waste is ________.

allowing sufficient time for short-lived radioactive atoms to decay

In order for a well to function properly it must be drilled below the water table and into a(n) ________.

aquifer

A relatively impermeable layer of rock or sediment is termed a(n) ________ in hydrogeologic contexts.

aquitard

Ultimately, the base level of a stream valley can be no lower than the ________.

average elevation of the sea

Why do meandering rivers meander (move) across their floodplain?

because they are curved, which causes erosion on one side of the curve and deposition on the other side of the curve, thus moving the river in the direction of erosion

Why is understanding the hydrologic cycle so important to understanding how landscapes form?

because water is the main erosional and depositional agent on Earth

Hard water results from relatively high concentrations of dissolved ________.

calcium and magnesium

Which of the following is FALSE? A 100-year flood ________.

cannot occur in successive years

The ________ cycle helps us understand how the concentration of greenhouse gases changes in the atmosphere.

carbon

Which greenhouse gases play the most significant role in influencing changes in global atmospheric temperature?

carbon dioxide and methane

The hole in the ozone layer has been brought about by anthropogenic emissions of ________.

chlorofluorocarbons

Which of the following lists contains only fossil fuels?

coal, oil, natural gas

Braided streams ________.

consist of a series of intertwined channels that are overloaded with sediment

Which of the following represents a unidirectional change in the nature of Earth?

differentiation of the layers of Earth

Land subsidence is likely when ________.

discharge lowers the water table

At which geologic setting are you most likely to find anthracite coal forming?

edges of mountain ranges

Solar energy uses sunlight to induce a flow of ________ between two wafers.

electrons

Fission occurs when nuclear bonds of atoms are broken, releasing massive amounts of ________.

energy

Which progression best describes how water goes from the ocean to a river?

evaporation ® precipitation ® runoff

The change in organisms over geologic history is known as the ________.

evolution of life

The climate on Earth has changed frequently, with at least ________ times in which Earth experienced icehouse conditions.

five

The flat-lying area surrounding a river channel is termed the ________.

floodplain

One way to mitigate flooding is to build ________, which are areas that are intended to flood and as such are not zoned for buildings.

floodways

Pirate streams ________.

form when headward erosion causes one stream to intersect another

Most energy for human consumption in the industrial world comes from ________.

fossil fuels

If oil shale is buried deep enough to attain a temperature of 200°C, what is formed?

gas

If erosion is occurring in an area of weak rock, what would you expect the landscape to look like?

gentle hills

If the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is high, Earth could experience ________.

global warming

The slope of a stream surface measured between two points along its course is the ________.

gradient

The evolution of life takes place ________, while the mass extinction of life takes place ________.

gradually; abruptly

Which of the following nonmetallic resources has an igneous origin?

granite

Currents and wind are created by the interaction of ________ and ________ energy.

gravitational; external

As a rule, groundwater always flows from areas of ________.

greater hydraulic head to those of lesser hydraulic head

If the average geothermal gradient in an area is 15°C/km, how deep must oil shale be buried in order for it to transform into oil?

greater than 6 km but no more than 10 km

A small mountain stream will have a ________ competence and a ________ capacity than the Mississippi River.

greater; lower

The water table surface mimics the topography in an area because ________.

groundwater flow rates are so low

Hot groundwater is mineralized because ________.

he hot water dissolves minerals

Blueschits forms at what?

high pressure and low temperature

A(n) ________ spring is an area where hot water naturally seeps from the ground.

hot

Chemically, oil and gas are both ________.

hydrocarbons

The ________ cycle describes how water moves between reservoirs on Earth.

hydrologic

Urbanization causes an increase in the volume of water entering a stream due to the abundance of ________ surfaces in cities and towns.

impermeable

In what types of rocks are ore minerals found?

in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks

The discharge of a river traveling through a temperate region will typically ________ downstream; the discharge of a river traveling through an arid region will typically ________ downstream.

increase; decrease

Pumping vast quantities of water locally ________.

lowers the local water table, forming a cone-shaped depression

When heavy ore minerals sink to the bottom of an igneous body, they are called ___________________.

magmatic deposits

The ability of a metal to be bent, molded, and stretched is termed ________.

malleability

Life on Earth has changed drastically over time, including the occurrence of ________, which paved the way for the evolution of new species to fill old niches.

mass extinctions

Groundwater ________.

may increase or decrease porosity through dissolution or deposition

The elevation of the water table ________.

may rise during rainy periods and sink during droughts

Apparent polar-wander paths are created by

measuring the paleomagnetism in rocks of different ages from the same location—thus, the paleopole at each different age can be reconstructed to create a polar-wander path through time for that location.

If an area experiences uplift it will form a ________; if it experiences subsidence it will form a ________.

mountain; depression

Recharge areas for artesian wells and springs are generally in the ________.

mountains

What would Earth's climate be like if there were no greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?

much colder than now

A mineral that consists of only metal atoms is known as a(n) ________ metal.

native

A resource is considered renewable if ________.

nature can replace it within a short time span relative to human life

If nuclear reactors are NOT regulated by the use of control rods that absorb ________ and thus decrease the amount of atoms undergoing ________, the system may become too hot and melt down.

neutrons; fission

Within a meander, where is sediment most likely to be deposited?

on the inner banks of the meander

A meander that is cut off to become completely isolated from the main channel but which retains water is a(n) ________.

oxbow lake

Dead zones are areas along the coasts where rivers spill excess nutrients into the oceans. Microorganisms feed on these nutrients, which in turn causes them to use up all the ________ in the water and kill larger organisms like fish.

oxygen

Material through which water readily flows is termed ________.

permeable

The stereotypical gold rush prospector panning for gold in a streambed is an example of exploiting ________ deposits.

placer

Uplift and subsidence are both ultimately the result of ________.

plate tectonics

The inner edge of a meander, where sediment is deposited, is called a(n) ________.

point bar

Which of the following would make the best reservoir rock in a conventional hydrocarbon system?

poorly cemented sandstone

U-235, the isotope of uranium commonly utilized in nuclear power plants, is ________.

rare even in uranium-rich deposits and must be enriched to use as fuel

In a region with prominent orthogonal (perpendicular to each other) sets of joints, a ________ drainage network is expected.

rectangular

The ________ is the average number of years between floods.

recurrence interval

The eventual death of Earth will be the result of a(n) ________.

red giant star

The difference in elevation in an area is called ________.

relief

Changes that occur ________ are called ________ changes.

repeatedly; cyclic

A buried body of rock that is induced by heat to exude oil is termed a ________ rock.

source

A black, organic-rich shale could likely serve as either of which two necessary types of rocks within oil fields?

source rock or seal rock

Any place where groundwater naturally flows out of Earth's surface is termed a(n) ________.

spring

All else being equal, water will flow faster in a stream that has a ________, which is typically found near the river's ________.

steep gradient; source

When one stream captures the flow from another stream it is called ________.

stream piracy

Overpumping can lead to ________ of the ground surface.

subsidence

There have been at least three or four times in Earth's history when ________ formed.

supercontinents

What is pressure solution?

that were once spherical dissolve on the sides experiencing pressure where they push against neighboring grains. The dissolved ions migrate away and new minerals precipitate in the regions of low pressure.

The hydrologic cycle includes which of these?

the advance and retreat of glaciers

Which of the following is NOT the result of human interaction?

the existence of radioactive materials

The primary cause of recent global warming is believed to be ________.

the increased burning of fossil fuels

Which of the following best describes the hydrologic cycle?

the movement of Earth's water through a series of reservoirs

Geological evidence suggests that many millions of years ago, the Amazon basin drained toward the west rather than the east. What caused this drainage reversal?

the rise of the Andes Mountains

The hydraulic gradient in Darcy's law is essentially the same as which of the following?

the slope of a line

A(n) ________ aquifer is more likely to be contaminated than a(n) ________ aquifer.

unconfined; confined

The shifting of the plates on Earth's surface is an example of ________ change. bidirectional

unidirectional

Permeable rock or sediment between the water table and the land surface represents a(n) ________.

unsaturated zone

Mountain ranges are the result of ________.

uplift

Which geologic event is NOT suspected as a source of major climate change or mass-extinction events?

very large earthquakes

Geothermal energy is used extensively in Iceland and New Zealand due to the fact that both of these countries host multiple ________.

volcanoes