Final COM Exam

What does "flack" mean and how does it represent the tension between the press and PR professionals?

"Flack" is a derogatory term that reporters and editors developed referring to a PR agent. It symbolizes the protective barrier that PR agents insert between their clients and the press. Journalists have traditionally regarded PR as having emerged as a pseudo-profession creates to distort the facts that reporters work hard to gather. Journalists also dislike PR for blocking press access to key business leaders, political figures, and other newsworthy people. In reality, however, journalists rely heavily on PR agents to get story ideas with the huge amount of information available now.

Distinguish between and provide an example from social media between "given" and "given off"

"GIVEN": What we choose to share in order to make a good impression (EX. Instagram posts of college parties) "GIVEN OFF": What we unintentionally reveal as a byproduct of who we are and how we react to others (EX. people may think you have a really fun, chill life if you're only posting parties)

What does the book mean by the concept "walled garden"?

"Walled Garden" means closed Internet. The book means that our preference in using smartphones to access the internet means that we are accessing the Internet through Apple. Instead of looking things up online, we have tons of apple-approved apps that serve different purposes. The concept of the "Walled Garden" can apply to other things in which we navigate the online world through, too, like Facebook. Accessing the Internet through these measures is clean and easy, but makes us reliant on Apple or Facebook and limits the full use of the Internet. It may seem beautiful inside, like a garden, but it is limited.

What was the 'Progressive Magazine' case? What happened, what was the result, and what precedent was set as it pertains to the 1st Amendment?

'Progressive Magazine' was planning on releasing an article relating to the H-Bomb, when the Energy Department asked them not to publish it for fear that it would damage US efforts to control the worldwide spread of nuclear weapons. However, the magazine said they would publish it anyways so the government sued them and the court agreed that it was too risky to publish articles relating to nuclear warfare and prior restraint can be enforced in this situation. This set the precedent that prior restraint can be invalidated by a national security threat.

Describe the development of the Internet and the Web in detail (DEFINITELY ON TEST)

-1960s: The Internet originated as a military-government project, ARPAnet. The Defense Department's Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) created ARPAnet to enable researchers to share computer processing time. There were only a few huge computers for research in the country. ARPAnet enabled researchers to log into the mainframe computers from other locations and access the data on there. -Email was created to enable those involved in the development of ARPAnet to be able to communicate with one another across separate locations. Email emerged in the Novelty Stage, but it brought the Internet into the Entrepreneurial stage because the creators realized it could serve a consumer need. -Microprocessors were invented in the Entrepreneurial stage. They allowed for all of computers' hardware to be made into thin strands of silicon along which binary codes traveled. This miniaturizing allowed for the first Personal Computers (PCs) to be made. These were smaller, cheaper, and more available than the large computers and allowed many more people to use the Internet. This is how the Internet became a mass medium, along with HTML. -NSFNET: National Science Foundation developed a high-speed communication network to link university research computer centers around the country and encourage private investment. This was the middle step in between ARPAnet and the Internet now -HTML allows for organization and easy use of the Internet -The World Wide Web is developed. Once we have this, we know we are in the mass medium stage. -Web browsers are released (ex. Internet Explorer) -Internet Service Providers (ISPs) such as AOL allowed people to access the Internet through dial-up phone access -Search Engines (ex. Google) created -Social Media (blogs, YouTube, Social Networking Sites like Insta)

Where do music publishers make money from?

-57% comes from performance licensing -20% from sync licensing -17% from mechanical licensing -6% from other licensing (primarily lyric usage)

How have movies adjusted to digital convergence?

-Allowed movies to be viewed on platforms such as iTunes, Netflix, YouTube, etc. -Some companies allow streaming onto mobile devices -Streaming is less expensive than producing DVDs, but the revenue is much lower -Hollywood now can: • lean heavily towards making big-budget film franchises with lots of special effects that people will want to see on the big screen OR • employ inexpensive distribution of low-budget documentaries and independent films, which probably wouldn't get theatrical distribution anyway but could find an audience in those who watch at home

How do the origins of pre-1800s newspapers in the US compare with that of pre-1800s magazines?

-Both made for elites and by elites -Both had entrepreneurial and emergence stages at the same time -Both were started in England and sometimes imported and republished material from England -Only newspapers had subsidized partisan presses and mudslinging content -Magazines chronicled early American life in a non-partisan life (things about farming, general life, etc.) -Newspapers had essays/writings while magazines had more flowery, intellectual content -Magazines were more expensive than newspapers -Magazines had more images -Magazines had longer format and stories than newspapers -Magazines developed more slowly than newspapers in the US -Newspapers were more frequently published than magazines

What was the impact of the Quiz Show Scandals? (3 things)

-Ended sponsors' role in creating content -Undermined Americans' expectation of the democratic promise of television -Magnified the division of high and low culture attitudes toward television, intellectuals began to think of TV as waste

Discuss the origins of advertising in the 1800s. Who were advertisements designed to appeal to? What effect did advertisements have on newspapers?

-National advertising began in the 1850s once railroads linking the East Coast and Mississippi River began carrying newspapers, handbills, and broadsides, as well as national consumer goods, across the country. -Patent medicines and department sales were the main focuses of early advertising and where most revenue came from. -Continuous process machinery allowed for inexpensive consumer good to be made in bulk. -The first ad agency was N.W. Ayer & Son. -Advertising allowed for companies to differentiate themselves by branding (ex. Quaker Oats, Campbell Soup) -Companies demanded newspaper advertising, causing newspapers to devote more space to ads. Because of this, the earliest ad agencies were Space Brokers who bought newspaper space and sold it to merchants. -These ads were designed to appeal to the elite and merchant class, all of whom were men

What role have ethnic, minority, and oppositional newspapers played in the US?

-Promote social movements (Civil rights for black newspapers) -Help immigrants adjust to life in the US while retaining ties to their heritage -Build community solidarity -Educate about news within the ethnic community -In the case of The Underground Press, document repressed voices and question mainstream politics

Linear Model of Mass Communication

-Senders (authors, producers) -Messages (programs, ads) -GATEKEEPERS!!!! -Mass media channel (TV, newspaper) -GATEKEEPERS!!!! -Receiver (viewers, consumers) -Feedback Sending Mass Messages Rarely Gets Feedback (SMMRGF)

What are at least three forms of unprotected speech? (name and define)

-Speech that violates privacy rights (including publication of private facts, presenting someone in a false light, intrusion, and appropriation) -Speech that causes harm (including fighting words, true threats, and national threats that will incite likely and imminent danger) -Defamation (libel or slander)

What are the criteria used to determine newsworthiness? (explain what each means) (test will have an article in which these must be found and identified as well as Gans' subjective values)

-Timeliness (Written soon after the event?) -Proximity (Close by?) -Conflict (At-odds nature of the story? Opposing sides?) -Prominence (Prominent figure or idea? Many people affected) -Human-Interest (Interesting to people? Often crazy things happening to ordinary people) - Consequence (Does what is being reported have a consequence for readers?) -Usefulness (How is this story useful to people? (ex. vaping causes cancer)) -Novelty (Is the story new and uncommon?) -Deviance (Does it go against the norms? Is it bad? (ex. crime))

What are the 6 major sources that film studios make money on movies from?

1.) A portion of box office revenue goes to studios 2.) 3-4 months after theatrical release, the home video market provides revenue from DVDs, Blu-ray, subscription streaming, and videos-on-demand. 3.) Premium cable (ex. HBO or Showtime) becomes available and then network and basic cable showings, and finally the syndicated TV market. 4.) Distribution of films in foreign markets 5.) Distribution of the work of independent producers and filmmakers, who pay studios 30-50% of box office revenue 6.) Merchandise licensing and product placement

What are the four steps of Social Learning Theory?

1.) Attention (attend to the media) 2.) Retention (retain the memory for later retrieval) 3.) Motor Reproduction (physically imitate the behavior) 4.) Motivation (there must be a social reward in exchange for modeling the behavior) ex. BoBo Doll Experiment Social Learning Theory is important because it relates to why people do things they see in the media (specifically violence).

How did newspapers follow the model of the evolution of mass medium (four stages)?

1.) EMERGENCE/NOVELTY STAGE: -Papers in colonies were collections of essays and writings imported from Europe that took a week to get to US -Mudslinging and the Partisan Press emerged, publishing opinion pieces 2.) ENTREPRENEURIAL STAGE: -This change was made through charging for advertising space (Pennsylvania Gazette was the first to do it) 3.) MASS MEDIUM STAGE: -Penny Press makes this change happen -Penny Press makes it possible to print enough papers so that they can be sold for a cent (now affordable/available to all people) -Paper is mechanically pressed in bulk -Dailies become more common than weeklies -Partisan Press wears away as the niche becomes more general to appeal to a larger audience -Yellow Journalism (sensationalization) emerges -Objective Journalism emerges 4.) CONVERGENCE STAGE: -Newspapers moved digital, giving them some advantages but also getting them less revenue from print ads -Reporters have added responsibilities of tweeting breaking articles and posting articles online before in print

What are the four stages of mass media evolution?

1.) Emergence/novelty stage (prototype) 2.) Entrepreneurial stage (how to make money off of the product) 3.) Mass medium stage (accessible to all) 4.) Convergence stage (product merges with a new technology)

What inadequacies does Cultural Studies research see in Media Effects Research (3)?

1.) Media Effects Research reduces large cultural questions to measurable and verifiable categories 2.) Media Effects Research depends on an atmosphere of rigidly enforced neutrality 3.) Media Effects Research refuses to place the phenomena of modern life in a historical and moral context

What are the four stages that explain how media evolves?

1.) The EMERGENCE/NOVELTY stage (innovators try to solve a particular problem) 2.) The ENTREPRENEURIAL stage (investors determine a marketable use for the new device) 3.) The MASS MEDIUM stage (businesses figure out how to market the new device as a consumer product) 4.) The CONVERGENCE stage (in which older media are reconfigured in various forms into newer media) Emma Explains Mass Media Convergence (EEMMC)

What are the two definitions of Media Convergence?

1.) The first definition involves when old legacy media (ex. A book) converges with new technology (ex. An iPad) so that it is available on more platforms (ex. eBooks). This is how technological media convergence influences legacy media. 2.) The second is called CROSS PLATFORM: describes a business model that involves consolidating various media holdings under one corporate umbrella.

What are the four ways that Madger claims Reality TV (RTV) changed TV production? (ON TEST!!!!!!)

1.) The growing enthusiasm for prepackaged formulas as a basis for program production 2.) The emergence of product placement as a source of revenue to program producers 3.) The increasing tendency to use TV programs as the springboard for a multimedia exploitation of the creative property 4.) Emphasized global economy with format and introduced the importance of global markets, specifically the European market since we took format shows from the UK

How did the visual design in advertising evolve from the 1950s to the 1990s? (must be able to describe some chief characteristics of advertising in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s)

1950s: -women all look similar and are smiling -all products will make life better -straightforward with no deeper meaning -consumerism is targeted at women 1960s: -more variety and diversity -women advertise men's products -ads are slightly harder to know the meaning of immediately -Photos instead of drawings -Young people with a more natural, sexual look -Quick taglines on all ads -Car ads are a hallmark -Volkswagen revolutionized minimalistic ads by utilizing negative space 1970s: -Equal space for words and images (less copy) -Highly saturated backgrounds -Lots of skin showing -Ads are now harder to read and there are many mixed messages 1980s: -MTV becomes influencer for many ads -The product is in the ad -Video ads -There are very few words, the image is the focus -Many colors and bright images -More natural look 1990s: -Internet became a mass medium and ads mimicked websites -People are aware of what ad campaigns are and are fans of them (ex. absolut vodka campaign) -Themes remain throughout ad campaigns -Consumers become more savvy -Cartoons sell cigarettes 2000s+: -Minimalistic ads -Logos become brands (product is associated with the symbol) -Campaigns have familiar characters (ex. Geico gecko)

ARPAnet

1960s: The predecessor to the Internet. ARPAnet was a military-government project. The Defense Department's Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) created ARPAnet to enable researchers to share computer processing time. There were only a few huge computers for research in the country. ARPAnet enabled researchers to log into the mainframe computers from other locations and access the data on there.

What is a Newspaper Chain? Why are they so important?

A company that owns several papers throughout the country. These are so important because the newspaper industry is continually dying. Being part of a Newspaper Chain gives dying newspapers more access to the resources and money they need.

What are pundits and "talking heads"? Why is it problematic for cable news to rely them?

24/7 programming must rely on pundits or "talking heads" in order to fill the time at an inexpensive rate. A pundit is a person who offers to mass media his or her opinion or commentary on a particular subject area on which he or she appears to be an expert in. The main problem with this is that pundits may act like reporters, but they are not. All they are doing is talking and giving an opinion. However, viewers may mistake pundits' opinions for facts.

Oligopoly

A few firms dominate an industry (ex. Music: Sony, Universal, and Warner)

Why is format so important? What is format?

A format is a template providing detailed production and marketing guidelines that can be tailored to each locale. A format that works in one country (ex. Big Brother) would be stripped of all cultural aspects and exported to a new country. Then, over time, cultural aspects of the new country would be added to it (ex. Big Brother Africa). Producers of formats hope to generate a modest profit in many linguistic and cultural markets, as opposed to the super profits that emerge from a finished program that might become an international hit. Formats forgo the trial-and-error stage and, therefore, are more affordable. They also fulfill the number of domestic/national content that broadcasters in other countries are required by law to fill. They typically qualify as domestic due to the local production crew and cast.

Kinescope and I Love Lucy

A Kinescope is a large machine that records what is on the TV and makes a film from that. This was an inefficient technique because it was inefficient and expensive. I Love Lucy was the first show to record on film, revolutionizing TV.

Option Time (DEFINITELY ON EXAM)

A business tactic, now illegal, that Paley and Bernays created whereby CBS radio paid an affiliate stations a set fee per hour for an option to control programming and advertising on that station. This made CBS money because they didn't have to make their own content and, in contrast to Sarnoff, they paid for content instead of receiving payment for it.

Radio Corporation of America (RCA)

A company developed during World War I that was designed, with government approval, to pool radio patents; the formation of RCA gave the United States almost total control over the emerging mass medium of broadcasting.

NSFNET

A high-speed communication network developed by the National Science Foundation to link university research computer centers around the country and encourage private investment. This was the middle step in between ARPAnet and the Internet now.

Gag Orders

A judge's order that lawyers, witnesses, or members of law enforcement not discuss the trial with outsiders. These are a prior restraint violation so they are no longer allowed.

Affiliate

A local station that pays for content to distribute to the public. They can then transmit this to the public surrounding the station.

Libertarian Model

A model for journalism and speech that encourages vigorous government criticism and supports the highest degree of freedom for individual speech and news operations. There are no restrictions on the mass media or individual speech. Porn can be published and anarchy advocated. Many alternative newspapers and magazines follow this model in North America.

Authoritarian Model of Expression

A model for journalism and speech that tolerates little public dissent or criticism of government; it holds that the general public (largely illiterate in 16th century England when this was created) needs guidance from an elite and educated ruling class. Censorship was frequent and the government primarily issued printing licenses to publishers who were sympathetic to government and ruling-class agendas. Essentially, the news is controlled by private enterprise. Today, many authoritarian systems operate in developing countries.

Objective Journalism

A modern style of journalism that distinguishes factual reports from opinion columns; reporters strive to remain neutral toward the issue or event they cover, searching out competing points of view among the sources for a story.

What is the importance of narrative in film?

A narrative is a story. Narrative is so important in film because it is what ushered movies into the Mass Medium stage. Audiences were becoming bored of films with no plot and narrative world had to be created to entice audiences again. Movies with a narrative made film a mass medium because they could be shown in theaters and charged for multiple times.

How do ratings work, and why are they so important to a show's success?

A rating is a statistical estimate expressed as the percentage of households that are tuned into a program in the market being sampled (they don't have to be using the TV). Ratings are extremely important to the survival of a TV show. Audience measurement tells advertisers how many people are watching and what kinds of people are watching the TV show. Advertisers want 18-49 year old affluent viewers to watch because they account for most customer spending. If shows do not have good enough rankings or don't reach the right viewers, advertisers will not buy time. Without the money from ad sales, TV shows will be cancelled.

How is a TV share calculated? A rating?

A rating is calculated by taking the % of those tuned into the show out of those who are being sampled x 100 (to get %). A share is calculated by taking % of those tuned into the show out of those who have their TV sets on x 100 (to get %).

Longitudinal Studies

A research method that studies the same participants multiple times over a period of time.

The Public Sphere

A space for critical public debate. Without an open communication system, there can be no democracy. Therefore, a mass media system is essential.

Rating

A statistical estimate expressed as the percentage of households that are tuned to a program in the market being sampled. (% of those tuned into the show out of those who are being sampled (regardless of if their TV sets are on))

Share

A statistical estimate of the percentage of homes that are tuned to a specific program compared with those using their sets at the time of the sample. (% of those tuned into the show out of those who have their TV sets on)

Convergence

A term that media critics and analysts use when describing all of the changes that have occurred over the past decade, and are still occurring, in media content and within media companies. (CONVERGING of different platforms to change the field)

Interpretive Journalism

A type of journalism that involves analyzing and explaining key issues or events and placing them in a broader historical or social context. (more than just stating the facts)

Public Journalism

A type of journalism, driven by citizen forums, community conversations, and even talk shows, that goes beyond telling the news to embrace a broader mission of improving the quality of public life. Some criticisms of this are that it has made newspapers only publish what the readers want (not what the editor wants), it makes reporters participants rather than observers, and it makes newspapers publish less balances (both-sides-of-a-story) and diverse articles. (JOURNALISM driven by the PUBLIC)

Yellow Journalism

A type of sensationalized, biased, and often false reporting for the sake of attracting readers. This was most prominent in the 1800s. Papers carried exciting human-interest stories, crime news, large headlines, and more readable copy. Emphases were on sensational and overdramatic stories and early in-depth "detective reports."

Libel

A written or broadcasted defamation of a person's character. Examples of this include falsely accusing someone of professional dishonesty or incompetence, of a crime, of having mental illness, etc.

Snob-Appeal Approach

An advertising strategy that attempts to convince consumers that using a product will enable them to maintain or elevate their social status.

Bandwagon Effect

An advertising strategy that incorporates exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product, so you should, too (ex. "America's favorite").

What are the two specific categories that magazines are typically grouped into? (know specific examples)

ADVERTISER TYPE (products that fall into certain places): -Consumer Magazines (general consumer product ads) -Business or Trade Magazines (ads for products or services for various occupational groups) -Farm Magazines (ads for agricultural products and farming lifestyle) TARGET DEMOGRAPHICS (content appeals to that audience): -Gender, age, or ethnic group -Audience interest area (sports, fashion, etc.)

Limited Competition

AKA monopolistic competition, media market with few producers and sellers but many products within a particular category (most common in commercial broadcast radio.

Hidden-Fear Appeal

An advertising strategy that plays on a sense of insecurity, trying to persuade consumers that only a specific product can relieve embarrassment and restore a person to social acceptability. The products advertised are usually personal hygiene related, such as deodorant or mouthwash.

Irritation Advertising

An advertising strategy that tries to create product-name recognition by being annoying or obnoxious.

Explain the intersection of parasocial relationships, social media, and advertsing, according to Lucek

According to Lucek, parasocial interactions should be utilized by advertisers in advertising. Parasocial interactions are happening more than ever due to social media. Fans feel close to celebrities when they can directly respond to them and see aspects of their personal lives. Advertising on social media is effective because there is high engagement with likes, comments, etc. Celebrities with many followers and fans have the most influence on social media because they reach the greatest number of people. Celebrities are aware of parasocial relationships and use this in their posting and endorsements. For example, Kim K usually posts endorsements embedded in personal stories since she knows people are interested in her life. She also sometimes links them to her show, since her followers can all relate to that. When a celebrity posts with a product, the illusion of intimacy can motivate consumers to comment information about the product, which can be highly valuable for the marketing of a product. Also, the sharing of positive product experiences by fans on social media creates not only a focus group, but also a product community that will motivate other consumers to purchase the products. Finally, customers will also buy products in order to try to be like the celebrity (promoting a lifestyle). In general, an emotional attachment to a celebrity though Parasocial Interaction can translate to an emotional connection with a product or brand, that ultimately leads to positive purchasing behavior.

Radio Act of 1912

Addressed the problem of amateur radio operators increasingly cramming the airwaves by requiring radio operators to obtain a license (the Commerce Department can deny licenses). This was when the SOS signal was adopted as a result of the Titanic. Stations were also now identified by call letters.

Right to Privacy

Addresses a person's right to be left alone, without his or her name, image, or daily activities becoming public property.

Plain-Folks Pitch

An advertising strategy that associates a product with simplicity and stresses how new technologies fit into the lives of ordinary people.

Famous-Person Testimonial

An advertising strategy that associates a product with the endorsement of a well-known person

Can journalism and journalists ever be truly neutral?

Although the goal of journalism is objectivity, it is accepted now that this is impossible. Journalists try their best to strive towards objectivity while diminishing personal subjectivity. Sociologists Herbert Gans listed the subjective values that skew the neutral process and shape US reporters and editors as: Ethnocentrism, Responsible Capitalism, Small-Town Pastoralism, Individualism

Amazon

Amazon sold books then anything at all, but in 2007 it began to use content to sell devices. Amazon made the Kindle and selling ebooks through Amazon. It challenged the iPad with the Kindle Fire. Amazon also has a Cloud Player for storage. The company has also began to make films, competing with Netflix and TV and cable networks.

Cultural Imperialism

American culture dominates the global market.

Prime Time Access Rule (PTAR)

An FCC (Federal Communications Commission) regulation in the late 1960s that was an effort to reduce the power of the Big Three cable networks (ABC, NBC, CBS), who had a monopolistic control of the industry. PTAR reduced networks' control of prime time programming from 4 to 3 hours. The goal was to encourage more local news and public affairs programs, often between 6 and 7 pm.

Mary Pickford

An actress who, in the 1920s, was known as America's Sweetheart. She was the key figure in elevating the financial status and professional role of film actors. She later created her own company, United Artists.

Semantic Web

An aspect of Web 3.0, The idea of what the Internet "of the future" will look like. A lot of this is our Internet today, though. The Semantic Web a more meaningful and organized way of accessing the web. It would be able to group all of the information on the web into meaningful categories (ex. family, calendars, etc.) and make our lives easier. An example of this is Siri. Siri draws from numerous search engines and databases. Now, Alexa is becoming prominent.

Buffalo Bill Cody

An early "press agent" who publicized his show using a variety of media channels (newspaper stories, magazine articles and ads, dime novels, theatre marquees, poster art, and early films).

Partisan Press

An early dominant style of American journalism distinguished by opinion newspapers, which generally argued one political point of view or pushed the plan of the particular party that subsidized the paper.

Studio System

An early film production system that constituted a sort of assembly-line process for moviemaking; major film studios controlled not only actors but also directors, editors, writers, and other employees, all of whom worked under exclusive contracts. This ownership is called VERTICAL INTEGRATION. There are three tiers that studios owned: • PRODUCTION: (Actors would only work with one studio and make dozens of movies a year, Employees could not move to another studio) • DISTRIBUTION: (Studios own certain channels of distribution) • EXHIBITION: (Studios owned theaters where their movies play)

Wire Service

An electronic delivery of news gathered by the news service's correspondents and sent to all member news media organizations. Originally, wire services began as commercial organizations that relayed new stories and services around the US using telegraph lines and, later, radio waves and digital transmissions.

World Wide Web (WWW)

An enormous system of interlinked hypertext documents that can be accessed with a web browser. HTML organizes the system.

Conflict of Interest (journalism)

Any situation in which journalists may stand to benefit personally from stories they produce (ex. from gifts, free travel, etc.)...this is an ethical dilemma that journalists face commonly and can skew how they report

Apple

Apple was founded by Steve Jobs. It became the number one music retailer with the release of the iPod and iTunes and then transformed the mobile phone industry with the iPhone and the mobile computing world with the iPad. The company expanded to provide content (music, games, newspapers, etc.) and iCloud. iCloud also ensures customers buy all their media content through the app store.

Time Shifting vs Appointment Viewing

Appointment viewing is setting aside time to watch a TV program live because that's when it airs. However, starting with the VCR, shows can be recorded and watched later (Time Shifting). This has become even more prominent with Netflix and similar services. However, Time Shifting does threaten the industry's advertiser-driven business model because of fast forward and subscription services with no ads.

Google

At the end of the 1990s, Google made an easy-to-use search engine that was massively successful and now controls 70% of the search market, generating tons of revenue with pay-per-click advertisements accompanying key-word searches. Google challenges Microsoft with Google Apps, challenges iTunes with Google Play, and challenges Facebook with Google+. It also has made various other Internet offerings, like Google Maps and Gmail. Google has bought Andriod too. Their biggest challenge is the "closed Internet."

Media Literacy (ON TEST, MUST KNOW CRITICAL PROCESS!!)

Attaining an understanding of mass media and how they construct meaning. This is a critical process including: -Description (taking notes on the subject) -Analysis (focusing on patterns of description) -Interpretation (asking "what does that mean? so what?") -Evaluation (arriving at judgement) -Engagement (will you take action?). Being Media Literate is necessary because it is important to know that there is more to what you're seeing than is on the surface.

How has the shift to digital platforms benefitted newspapers? How has it hurt them?

BENEFITS: -Unlimited space allows for longer articles -Articles can include linked videos and audio -Articles can have hyperlinks to other resources -News can be updates constantly and quickly -No printing cost -Statements can be corrected/redacted -News can be distributed more widely -Articles can be shared online DETRIMENTS: -Online ads make much less revenue than printed ads -Newspapers who didn't originally establish an online paywall struggle to now charge for online content -Fast publishing can lead to misinformation -People are laid off in newsrooms -Competition from wide variety of online news sources

Active Audience Theory

BY STUART HALL!! This is a theory explaining the effects of media through audience members' interpretive activity. Encoding is the meaning that the creator puts into making something and decoding is what others interpret when they see it. We are not passive when we engage with TV, we take things in, adapt them to us, they touch our emotions. The fact that we decode means that we are an active audience. There's 3 ways we may read these texts: • DOMINANT (we take something for what it is (EX. we see a commercial and woman has a cat and we think aw it's a cat)) • NEGOTIATED (we are skeptical of whats being shown to us and are coming to terms with how we feel about it, where most of us land) • OPPOSITIONAL (reject what is shown, EX. why it a woman in the commercial? Why does the media show only women like cats?)

Modern Period (and values)

Beginning with the Industrial Revolution and ending in the mid-20th century, this time had the main cultural values of Efficacy, Individualism, Rationalism, and Progress. This included the Progressive Era.

Muckrakers

Big in 1902, journalists who attempted to find corruption or wrongdoing in government and big businesses and expose it to the public. They were willing to crawl through society's much to uncover a story.

Give at least one example of how one music genre transformed into another

Blues to Rhythm and Blues (R&B) -R&B is blues-based urban black music Rockabilly: -Combination of country/hillbilly music, southern gospel, and Mississippi delta blues Folk to Folk-Rock: -Inspired by Bob Dylan, folk but with the use of electric rock bands and amplifiers Rock to Punk Rock (best example): -Rose to challenge to commercialism of the record business and what classic rock had become. This returned to the basics with simple chord structures, catchy melodies, and politically or socially challenging lyrics.

The Digital Era

Cable television, email, the Internet, and social media

Analog Recording

Captures the fluctuations of sound waves and stores those signals in a record's grooves or a tape's continuous stream of magnetized particles.

How do celebrities use parasocial relationships to profit from their social media accounts?

Celebrities (really starting with Kim K) recognized the parasocial relationships their fans had with them and used them to their benefit. Celebrities capitalize on the following that they know they have and cater what they post to them in order to make money. For example, Kim K usually posts endorsements embedded in personal stories since she knows people are interested in her life. She also knows her fans want to be like her, so they will buy the products she swears by. It feels like she is giving them advice on how to be like her, instead of just advertising.

Feature Syndicates

Commercial outlets that contract with newspapers to provide work from well-known political writers, editorial cartoonists, comic-strip artists, and self-help columnists. Feature syndicates have great power in determining which writers and cartoonists will gain great national prominence. Once a newspaper acquires the rights to a columnist or cartoonist, they are the only paper allowed to publish their works.

Media Conglomerate

Companies that own numerous companies across several types of media outlets (TV, radio publishing radio, theme parks, the Internet, or motion pictures). Disney is the best example of this.

What is context collapse? Provide an example

Context collapse is when people are forced to grapple simultaneously with otherwise unrelated social contexts that are rooted in different norms and seemingly demand different social responses. For example, seeing a teacher at a nightclub. On social media, sometimes people will post something for a specific audience, but more people see it who may misinterpret it because it was not meant for them. This can let to misinterpretations.

Correlation vs. Cause and Effect

Correlation is associations between two variables, whereas cause and effect is where one thing directly affects the other. If these are seen as the same thing, surveys and experiments will be thrown off.

Audience Studies

Cultural studies research that focuses on how people use and interpret cultural context. (Analyzes AUDIENCE uses and responses)

Culture as a Skyscraper vs. Culture as a Map

Culture as a Skyscraper: -Culture is a hierarchy, some is just better than others -High culture is on top and Low is on bottom -This is debatable because some shows like The Bachelor really do say something poignant about dating and relationships Culture as a Map: -All culture, whether traditionally high or low, overlaps -Takes our differences into consideration

What is Deficit Funding? Why is it so important?

Deficit funding is when a production company leases the TV show to a network or cable channel for a license fee that is actually lower than the cost of production. The company hopes to recoup this loss later in lucrative rerun syndication. This process makes studios take most of the risk and gives networks and cable channels less risk in running a new show. (DEFICIT=amount of money is too small) Deficit funding is so important because this practice defines the economics of TV since this is how shows are made.

What is the speech pyramid?

Describes the hierarchy of speech, which is (from top to bottom): POLITICAL SPEECH (ideology, political messages, speech criticizing the government, etc.) NON-POLITICAL PROTECTED SPEECH (arts and literature, etc. (speech is valued but not political)) SEMI-PROTECTED SPEECH (advertising, symbolic speech, etc. (some 1st Amendment protection but with many regulations) UNPROTECTED SPEECH (defamation, obscenity, true threats, copyright violations, perjury, blackmail, child pornography, privacy violations, etc.)

What is an example of Media Convergence (business-wise)?

Disney

What was the Pentagon Papers case? What happened, what was the result, and what precedent was set as it pertains to the 1st Amendment?

During the Vietnam War, a former Defense Department employee, Ellsberg, stole a copy of the report 'History of US Decision-Making Progress on Vietnam Policy,' a thorough study of US involvement in Vietnam since WWI. Ellsberg leaked the report, which he called "the Pentagon Papers," to the New York Times and The Washington Post. The New York Times began to publish articles based on the report and the Nixon administration tried to halt further publication, claiming a threat to public security (prior restraint). However, the Supreme Court sided with the newspaper, attacking the government for trying to suppress publication. This set the precedent the public has the right to know important information and newspapers can publish things without censorship or prior restraint.

Demographic Editions

Editions of magazines targeted at a particular group of consumers/DEMOGRAPHIC.

What are the arguments for and against American Imperialism?

FOR: -International expansion allows for secondary markets in which to earn profits. -Globalism permits companies that lose money on products at home to profit abroad. -Ideas of innovation have been internationally embraced. AGAINST: -American media culture may be shaping and somewhat erasing the cultures and identities of other nations.

Facebook

Facebook is a social networking site that, like Google, collects all information about users and sells it to advertisers. Facebook has a huge company value, largely due to investors hopes for the company's future. Facebook has been working to move mostly onto the phone interface instead of computers. It bought Instagram and continues to make more investments in different companies.

How have media mergers changed the economics of mass media?

Fewer companies exist and these make more money due to consolidation and the economies of scale.

What does format have to do with globalization?

Formats are designed to be taken and adapted for viewing in countries outside of the United States. This creates economic and cultural links between countries. It also often spreads American culture worldwide.

How is deficit funding different from the way reality TV shows are funded?

Reality TV shows are cheaper to produce and less risky (they are usually successful due to formats). The cast doesn't demand high checks since they aren't actors. Presold sponsors are sold ads and brand placement, funding the show. Sponsors put branded content and product placemnt in the shows.

What are the five freedoms protected under the 1st Amendment?

Freedom of Speech Freedom of the Press Freedom of Assembly Freedom of Religion Freedom to Protest the Government

Postmodern Period (and values)

From the mid-20th century to today. The main cultural values of this time are Populism, Diversity, Nostalgia, and Paradox (feeling nostalgic for the past while embracing new tech).

Symbolic Annihilation

GERBNER AND GROSS!!! The systematic underrepresentation of a particular group or groups (ex. women, LQBTQ, etc.) and/or media representations that favor stereotypes and omit realistic portrayals. This term is usually applied to media criticism to describe the ways in which the media promotes stereotypes and denies specific identities. This quote was first said by George Gerbner, who said "Representation in the fictional world signifies social existence; absence means symbolic annihilation"

Voyage to the Moon (Le Voyage Dans La Lune) - George Méliés

George Méliés was a French magician and inventor who was the first to recognize that movies did not have to reflect reality. He made short fantasy films. Voyage to the Moon (1902) was the first movie to use camera special effects. Méliés did this by editing heavily and using camera tricks, such as slow motion and animation.

Cultural Model of Mass Communication

Recognizes that individuals bring diverse meanings to messages given factors such as gender, age, occupation, etc.

What are the three types of magazine editions that publishers have come up with to attract advisors?

Regional Editions, Split-Run Editions, and Demographic Editions

Prior Restraint

Government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast. This is not allowed on the principle that a law has not been broken until an illegal act has been committed. However, the news media can be ordered to halt publication in exceptional cases such as threats to national security. The Brandenberg Test now tests whether prior restraint can be enforced by asking "is there a likelihood that this event will happen and be significant? Is it imminent? In the 1970s, the 'Pentagon Papers Case' and the ''Progressive Magazine' Case' tested prior restraint.

First-run syndication

In TV, the process whereby new programs are specifically produced for sale in syndication markets rather than for network television. This usually includes quiz shows, daytime talk shows, advice shows, etc. (SYNDICATION for the FIRST TIME)

William Paley

He was the general manager of the CBS Radio and Television Networks and ran them for more than half a century, he was Sarnoff's only competition. Created the Option Time concept. The first advertiser because he charged for advertising over radio throughout the US.

The Cultivation Effect

Heavy viewing of television leads individuals to perceive the world in ways that are consistent with television portrayals. (TV CULTIVATES our view of the world) EX. watching SVU, one would think more people get raped and killed than they actually do

Artist Manager

Helps to craft the career direction of a recording artist or songwriter. They are typically compensated as a percentage of the revenue that their artist earns.

High Culture vs. Low Culture

High Culture includes opera, orchestra, famous art, etc. whereas Low Culture includes reality TV, trashy bands, etc. This is determined by critics, as well as the high class and people in power.

Textual Analysis

Highlights the close reading and interpretation of cultural messages, including those found in books, movies and TV programs. (Closely ANALYZE the text)

Why did Hollywood become the film capital of the world?

Hollywood was far from New Jersey, where the Trust's headquarters were. Independent producers in Hollywood could escape to Mexico if they were caught by the Edison Trust for patent violations. Hollywood also provides diverse scenery, mild climate year-round, and cheap labor.

Political Economy Studies

How power relations influence how the media behaves. This specifically examine interconnections among economic interests, political power, and how that power is used. (Intersection of POLITICS and the ECONOMY)

The Association Principle

In advertising, a persuasive technique that associates a product with some cultural value or image that has a positive connotation but may have little connection to the actual product (ex. car commercials of cars driving through nature).

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

ISPs are the companies that we pay in order to access the Internet. Some places you go on other peoples' wifi, but to get wifi in the home or other places you must pay an ISP such as Xfinity. In the past, in order to access the Internet, people had to hook up a dial-up phone to the computer and call the ISP to get internet access (ex. AOL).

Direct Payment

In media economics, the payment of money, primarily by consumers, for a direct good. This could be for a book, a music CD, a movie, an online computer service, or a cable TV subscription.

What is the digital divide? What are the three perspectives?

The Digital Divide is worldwide gap giving advantage to those with access to technology. There are three Perspectives/reasons for this: • Global (geographic reasons) • Social (socioeconomic status, ethnic divisions, technological access) • Personal (choice to be off the grid or not)

Digital Communication

Images, texts, and sounds are converted into electronic signals that are then reassembled as a precise reproduction of a TV picture, a magazine article, a song, or a telephone voice.

Impression Management (Front Stage vs. Back Stage)

Impression Management is a person's efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. We have many different versions of ourselves: FRONT STAGE SELF: • The self that we want the public to see • Depends on the audience and supposed to make oneself look good BACK STAGE SELF: • The parts of ourselves that we hide from the public • Your true authentic selves

Financial Interest and Syndication (Fin-Syn)

In 1970, the FCC created the Financial Interest and Syndication (Fin-Syn) rules to further limit Big Three Cable Channels' (ABC, NBC, CBS) dominance. Before this, there was no syndication. Channels only reran their own shows and reaped the profits from this. These rules prohibited the major networks from running their own syndication companies or from charging production companies additional fees after shows had completed their prime-time runs. The Big Three were no longer able to get money from their own reruns and other channels were given a chance. This was repealed in 1993. However, it has stayed alive and continued because of its success. Now, though, all parties get a part of the syndication profit.

Genre (Hollywood, movies and TV)

In Hollywood, a category that narratives fall into in which similar characters, themes, scenes, and structures occur in combination. Grouping by genre allows Hollywood to fulfill the goals of: -PRODUCT STANDARDIZATION • Norms of a specific category • It is easier to promote a film that falls into a recognizable genre -PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION • We know the genre of a film will be different if it does not follow the normal tropes • EX. If the silly slapstick sound effects are replaced with ominous music we know something will be different

Why is net neutrality so important recently?

In June of 2018, net neutrality was repealed by the Trump Administration. Republicans generally support deregulation (the government not placing strict restrictions on us) and see Net Neutrality as regulation. Net Neutrality has been a huge topic of political debate recently and has received lots of attention. Now that we use the Internet more than ever, it is scary to make a massive change such as this and face unpredictable consequences.

Below-the-line costs

In TV, costs that include the "hardware" side of production. These are the expenses allotted to the crew, secondary cast, the shooting and assembly phases, insurance, and publicity. (BELOW what the eye can see)

Above-the-line costs

In TV, costs that include the "software" creative talent. Costs include paying the literary property, scriptwriter, director, and major cast. Salary demands from actors can drive up these prices. (What we can see)

Cultural Studies Research

In media research, the approaches that try to understand how the media and culture are tied to the actual patterns of communication used in daily life; these studies focus on how people make meanings, apprehend reality, and order experience through the use of stories and symbols. This was developed to challenge the mainstream Media Effects Research. Essentially, this asks "what does the media say about our culture?" (Ex. Why do we have a show like This is Us?)

How is going to movies in 2018 different from the 1920s? How is it similar?

In the 1920s, the majority of revenue for movies was earned from movies shown in first-run theaters (showed new films in downtown areas). To earn revenue, studios had to attract the upper and middle class to the movies. They did this by building Movie Palaces (looked like fancy theaters). The Palaces may include space for a live band to provide the movie's music and sound effects. A major innovation was the development of Mid-City Movie Theaters, built in convenient locations near urban mass-transit stations to attract the urban and suburban middle class. This idea continues today with Multiplexes located off of highways. Another similarity between movie-going in the 1920s and 2018 is that both Movie Palaces and contemporary movie theaters have the sole purpose of showing movies. Now, however, a minority of revenue (40%) comes from box office ticket sales and movies can be viewed in many more ways than at the theaters. Also, they are obviously far less formal and movies are in color with sound.

Progressive Era

In the Modern Period, a period of social reform from the 1890s-1920s.

The Print Revolution (what was it and why was it so important?)

In the middle of the 15th century, modern printing emerged. With machines allowing for duplication, rapid printing speeds, and lower production costs, mass marketing was finally a possibility. Books became the first mass marketed products in history. This Revolution was so important because it began the mass marketing process, which is still prevalent today. Also, printed literature encouraged compulsory education, thus promoting literature.

Joint Operating Agreement (JOA)

In the newspaper industry, an economic arrangement, sanctioned by the government, that permits competing newspapers to operate separate editorial divisions while merging business and production operations for a period of years. (OPERATIONS are JOINT)

How has the Internet driven convergence?

In the past, telephones could only call and televisions could only be used to watch TV. The first thing to merge (converge) different functions on one device was the PC (personal computer). Computers connected to the Internet allowed people to have access to TV shows, movies, music, newspapers, magazines, etc. all from one device. Later, more technology such as the iPod and TV enabled convergence of multiple media content forms. Media convergence developed even further with the development of the smartphone that could do everything on a small screen.

Obscenity

Indecent or offensive speech or expression. To qualify as obscene, a material must meet three criteria: 1.) The average person would find that the material as a whole appeals to prurient interests 2.) The material depicts or describes sexual conduct in a particularly offensive way 3.) The material, as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value

Space Brokers

Individuals who purchased space in newspapers and sold it to various merchants in the 1800s (essentially early advertisers).

Give at least 3 examples of a geographic location being a specific location for a type of music

Jazz: New Orleans Soul: Detroit Punk Rock: CGCB in NYC (SHOULD GET MORE)

Edward Bernays

Known sometimes as the "father of PR," Bernays, Freud's nephew, used psychology to make PR into a formal practice. Bernay strongly believed that PR can control and shape public opinion, calling it the "engineering of consent." Bernays called himself a "public relations counselor" as opposed to a publicity agent.

Ivy Ledbetter Lee

Known sometimes as the "grandfather of modern PR," Lee was the first to understand that public perception of companies is incredibly important; people must like the companies, not just know about them. He advised that businesses (which had a bad reputation at the time) use honesty and directness instead of deception in order to gain public trust. A favorable public image, he thought, would result from an open relationship between businesses and the press. Lee is known well for his role in the PR for Rockefeller after the Ludlow Massacre.

Shield Laws

Laws that protect reporters from being forced to reveal their sources for controversial information used in news stories.

Syndication

Leasing TV stations or cable networks the exclusive right to air TV shows.

What is syndication? Why is it desirable?

Leasing TV stations or cable networks the exclusive right to air TV shows. Syndication can be off-network (reruns) or first-run (made for syndication (ex. daytime talk shows). Syndication is important because production companies rely on it to recoup money lost from Deficit Funding. For off-network syndication, original costs were already paid so syndication is only profitable.

Copyright

Legally protects the rights of authors and producers to their published or unpublished writing, music, lyrics, TV programs, movies, or graphic art designs. Originally copyright lasted for 14 years before it was released to the PUBLIC DOMAIN, but now copyright lasts the creator's lifetime plus twenty more years.

Slander vs. Libel

Libel is written defamation, slander is verbal defamation

When it comes to commercial magazines, ownership resembles that of the cable television business. Explain why that is and name the major magazine chains.

Like ownership of the cable television business, there is an immense amount of magazines to choose from, but only a small amount regularly circulates. Of these 200 or so, most are published by the same companies, including Hearst, Meredith, Time, Conde Nast, and Rodale. Magazines, like cable TV, rely on advertisements and subscriptions to pay for their product.

What are the two models of mass communication?

Linear Model of Mass Communication, Cultural Model of Mass Communication

Why are logos so significant today?

Logos become brands because the product is associated with the symbol. Logos are good because they can make a brand recognizable worldwide without language barriers. They are also easily identifiable and give quick impressions even when fast forwarding through ads on TV.

Media Effects Research

Media Effects research asks "Who said what to whom with what effect?" It is the mainstream tradition in mass communication research, it attempts to understand, explain, and predict the impact or effects of the mass media on individuals and society. Essentially, this studies changes in human behavior as a result of the media. (Ex. Why does This is Us resonate with so many people?)

Radio is defined by constant technological evolution. Discuss one innovation and how it changed the medium.

One example is the emergence of Transistors, small electrical devices that could receive and amplify radio signals. Transistors began to be what small, portable radios were called. Radios could now go where TV could not, outside the home. By the 1960s, most radio listening took place outside the home.

P.T. Barnum

One of the earliest "press agents." Created publicity for his show using gross exaggeration, fraudulent stories, and staged events to secure newspaper coverage.

Microprocessors (and their importance)

Miniature circuits that process and store electronic signals. Microprocessors allowed for all of computers' hardware to be made into thin strands of silicon along which binary codes traveled. This miniaturizing allowed for the first Personal Computers (PCs) to be made. These were smaller, cheaper, and more available than the large computers and allowed many more people to use the Internet.

NBC Red and NBC Blue

NBC Red (developed from the original telephone groups) and NBC Blue (developed from the original radio group) were two networks that Sarnoff split NBC into. These were the only two listening options at the time and the two had different types of content. NBC Red and Blue made the birth of Affiliates by connecting all cities.

Describe the differences between NBC' affiliate model and CBS' affiliate model?

NBC's affiliates, though independently owned, signed contracts to be part of the network and paid NBC to carry their programs. In exchange NBC reserved time slots, which it sold to national advertisers. CBS changed the game by paying affiliates, instead of demanding a payment. Their strategy 'Option Time' paid affiliate stations to broadcast their content. The incentive of being paid brought NBC affiliates over to CBS, making the company grow exponentially. With more affiliates and a greater listening base, more advertising money went to CBS and celebrities wanted to appear on CBS instead of NBC, further increasing CBS' popularity.

David Sarnoff

One of the first people to envision wireless technology as a mass medium. He played a major part in developing RCA and was the general manager of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) as a subsidiary of RCA. He also started the NBC TV station.

Regional Editions

National magazines whose content is tailored to the interests of different geographic areas. (REGIONAL)

What is Net Neutrality? Why is it such an important issue?

Net Neutrality is the principle that all Internet users have the right to the same Internet network speed and access regardless of their Internet Service Provider. This is a very debated issue. Some major telephone and cable companies want to offer faster connections and priority to those who are willing to pay more. These companies would also charge customers more for products that are not their own (ex. Netflix). They argue the profits from this would allow them to build new, more expensive networks that benefit everyone. However, many people disagree and support net neutrality. They argue that cable and telephone companies will likely rig their services and cause net congestion in order to force customers to pay more for higher speed connections. Small businesses, nonprofits, and such, which may be unable to pay for the same speed as large corporations, would be stuck in the "slow lane" and harmed. Large Internet corporations support net neutrality because they rely on access for all people.

Human-Interest Stories

News accounts that focus on the trials and tribulations of the human condition, often featuring ordinary individuals facing extraordinary challenges.

Literary Journalism

News reports that adapt fictional storytelling techniques (like descriptive details and settings and extensive character dialogue) to nonfictional material and in-depth reporting; sometimes called "new journalism."

Investigative Journalism

News reports that hunt out and expose corruption, particularly in business and government.

Penny Press

Newspapers that, because of technological innovations in printing, were able to drop their price to one cent, therefore making papers affordable to working and middle classes and enabled newspapers to become a MASS MEDIUM.

The Idea of Communication as Culture

Now, communication is seen widely as cultural and beautiful but, in the past, it was simply seen as a necessity. Media historian James Carey was the first to say that communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained. repaired, and transformed. He led researchers to consider communication's symbolic process as culture itself, thereby linking cultural studies tightly with communication studies.

Responsible Capitalism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Journalists sometimes naively assume that companies compete with one another not primarily to maximize profits but "to create increased prosperity for all" and they report from this point of view. (Idea that CAPITALISM is good (US idea))

Individualism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Reporters focus on individuals who overcome personal adversity and neglect addressing how large institutions or organizations work or fail. The subject is often someone who beats all odds and is now a success story. (INDIVIDUAL focus)

Ethnocentrism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Reporters judge other countries or cultures based on how they live up to or imitate American practices and values, belief that US is best too. (CENTERED on US ETHNicity)

Small-Town Pastoralism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: The idea that the city is where everything bad happens and rural life is ideal (ex. headline of "horrorcore rap killings shock sleepy Va. town").

Herd Journalism

Occurs when reporters stake out a house, chase celebrities in packs, or follow a story in such herds that the entire profession comes under attack for invading people's privacy, exploiting their personal problems, or just plain getting the story wrong. (HERD of JOURNALISTS)

What are the two types of syndication?

Off-network syndication and First-run syndication

Why does on-screen representation matter?

On-screen representation is so important because, as Symbolic Annihilation says, representation in the fictional world signifies social existence. It is important to portray realistic representations of many different groups of people on TV and in movies because the media has a huge effect on people in the 21st century. Media exposure for all different groups would lessen stereotypes and allow people to grow to understand and accept one another. Currently, a lot of shows have only one Asian character or only one woman, giving them the "burden of representation" for their entire group. It is also important to represent more people on the screen because it can change outcomes and inspire how people see themselves and those around them. For example, more powerful female characters represented inspires more girls watching TV that they can also be empowered. The current way females are portrayed on TV puts girls down and prompts eating disorders. People should be able to look to the TV and see people who look like them.

Monopoly

One company dominates production and industry (ex. AT&T, Microsoft)

What are the four eras of communication? Which are we in now?

Oral, Written (Print Revolution), Electronic, Digital (now)

Record Labels

Own the copyright to master recordings.

Music Publishers

Own the copyright to the underlaying composition (lyrics and music) of master recordings.

What brought the Internet into the mass medium stage?

PCs and HTML because they allowed for more people to be able to access an organized Internet.

Parasocial Relationships (give example)

Parasocial Relationships are one-sided relationships that we feel with media figures or celebrities (can even be a character). We (fans) put in a lot of effort to get to know the mediated figure, but they put in no effort to know us. We feel we know them when they actually have no idea who we are. An example might be me calling Ariana Grande by her first name only in conversation if I were a big fan and knew a ton about her.

What was the payola scandal and how did it affect the music industry?

Payola is the practice of a record promoters' paying DJs or radio programmers to play particular songs. This is a form of bribery, but it wasn't considered illegal until the congressional hearings on radio payola in 1959. The payola scandals threatened, ended, or damaged the careers of many rock and roll DJs and undermined rock and roll's credibility for many years.

Compare P.T. Barnum's work as a "press agent" with what the PR profession looks like today. How has it evolved?

Press agents like PT Barnum try to get something covered by the media, as a modern-day publicist does. However, modern PR agents have a wide-scale communication strategy that involved much more than just getting covered by the press.

Why are reality TV shows more attractive to television networks from a business point of view?

Reality TV shows are cheaper to produce and less risky (they are usually successful due to formats). The cast doesn't demand high checks since they aren't actors. Presold sponsors are sold ads and brand placement, funding the show.

Cross-Promotion

Promoting one form of media over another form of media. Unlike synergy, these two are not necessarily under the same conglomerate, although they can be when they are synergy.

The Uses and Gratification Model

Proposed to contest the notion of a passive media audience (as in the minimal-effects theory). This model asks WHY (why do we use the media?). This allows media researchers to develop inventories cataloguing how many people employed the media to fulfill their needs. However, this model does not address important questions related to the impacts of media on society and, therefore, it is not commonly used anymore. (What are the USES of media? How is media GRATIFYING?)

Off-network syndication

RERUNS; In TV, the process whereby older programs that no longer run during prime time are made available for reruns to local stations, cable operators, online services, and foreign markets.

Performing Rights Organizations (PROs)

Radio stations pay a public performance license to Performing Rights Organizations (like ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, GMR). These PROs collect the licensing fees and distribute them to songwriters and music publishers.

Why does diversity matter behind the scenes?

Representation is just as important behind the scene in writing, directing, advertising campaign brainstorming, etc. The reason females, people of color, etc. are not represented in an accurate, multi-dimensional matter on TV and in movies is because there aren't enough people of these groups behind the scenes making decisions. The old, white men making decisions cannot understand these groups' experiences and, therefore, cannot write or portray them accurately. They also often unintentionally offend groups because they don't understand their experiences. This is why there needs to be more diversity among decision makers in the entertainment industry.

Quiz Show Scandals (1950s)

Several quiz shows were rigged so that key contestants were rehearsed and given the answers. The most famous example was the rigging of "Twenty-One", a quiz show owned by Geritol. Essentially, Charles Van Doren was given all the answers for many months because he had the right look.

How did digital music change the way that artists and musicians make money?

Since the digital music change forced musicians to sell music for cheaper over streaming services or iTunes, artists began to rely more heavily on live performances, tours, and merchandise sales for revenue.

What are the three major music companies?

Sony Music, Universal Music Group, and Warner Music Group.

Narrative

Storytelling that is crucial to all media. News stories have a narrative as well as the backstories to reality characters.

What two sources does news media draw revenue from?

Subscriptions and Ads (mostly ads)

Evergreen Subscriptions

Subscriptions that automatically renew on a credit card account unless subscribers request that the automatic renewal be stopped.

What are some critical issues around advertising?

THE EFFECT OF ADS ON KIDS/TEENS -Sugary cereals and junk promoted for kids with characters -Shows like My Little Pony are made just to advertise toys -Cradle to Grave Advertising: Advertising to kids to keep them brand-loyal forever (ex. Happy Meals) ADS IN SCHOOLS -Channel One (mostly in the 90s) showed kids McDonalds ads every day - indoctrinating them at school -Coca Cold vending machines ADS AND HEALTH: -Show an unattainable standard of beauty -Encourages obesity -Makes things like alcohol and tobacco look cool

What is the "imagined audience" and how does it relate to context collapse?

The Imagined Audience is those we believe we are speaking to when using social media. We usually think these are our friends or followers. However, this can be complicated because people may not enable privacy settings or their photos could be reposted and made public. Also, many of the people we are following may not be following us back or actually looking at our posts. Others could be viewing what was said and not commenting. Most everything said online is recorded and can resurface and be reinterpreted at a later point. Therefore, it's necessary to be aware of what you say/post and who could be viewing these.

What is the PESO model? Be able to define it and why it is important

The PESO (Paid, Earned, Shared, Owned) is a modern PR model that shows that PR is no longer comprised of simply earned media. Now it is more like advertising due to social media and paid posting. In modern society, PR should be in the intersection of: -PAID MEDIA (social media advertising, sponsored content, and email marketing) -EARNED MEDIA (publicity, unsponsored mentions on news or in press) -SHARED MEDIA (publicity through social media) -OWNED MEDIA (content, substance, campaign, etc. that is created for the brand) In the PESO Model, these sectors overlap, allowing for influencer engagement, partnerships, and incentive programs that extend beyond the company's internal walls.

What was the moment that propelled newspapers from the Entrepreneurial Stage to the Mass Medium Stage?

The Penny Press Era. The Industrial Revolution made possible the replacement of expensive handmade paper with cheaper machine-made paper and mass printing. The one cent price made papers accessible to all and spurred growth of literacy.

What impact did the Postal Act of 1879 have on the distribution of magazines?

The Postal Act of 1879 assigned magazines lower postal rates and put them on an equal footing with newspapers delivered by mail, reducing distribution costs. Ad revenue went up as there was a wider distribution and more people saw the ads.

How did magazines become a mass medium?

The Postal Act of 1879 is what made magazines a mass medium because magazines were able to be delivered at a lower production cost. This along with the industrial advances at the time such as mass-production printing, conveyor systems, and assembly lines reduced production costs and allowed for prices to be slashed. Magazines became accessible to the working class.

What are the two foundational concepts of cultural studies?

The Public Sphere and The Idea of Communication as Culture

Communist/State Model of Expression

The press is controlled by the government because state leaders believe the press should serve government goals. Ideas that challenge the basic premises of state authority are not tolerated (communist states still use this).

News

The process of gathering information and making narrative reports - edited by individuals in a news organization - that create selected frames of reference and help the public make sense of prominent people, important events, and unusual happenings in everyday life.

Deficit Funding

The production company of a TV show leases the show to a network or cable channel for a license fee that is lower than the cost of production for the show. The production company hopes to make this money back in lucrative rerun syndication.

Digital video

The production format that is replacing celluloid film and revolutionizing filmmaking because the cameras are more portable and production costs are much less expensive.

Synergy

The promotion and sale of different versions of a media product across the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate. For example, ABC, a Disney owned company, could have a segment promoting a Disney movie. Some real-life examples (KNOW SOME) are Apple/Beats deal (Apple owns Beats) and how when you purchase AT&T, you get a HBO Cable Subscription, both of which are owned by Time Warner Cable.

Explain this statement: "Mass communicators are the guardians of free speech." What does it mean and why is it relevant to you as you move on in your studies at Newhouse?

The public expects the people in the media industry to be vigilant regarding intrusions into the freedom of expression and to protect these freedoms for all people. They must understand the rules of defamation, privacy, indecency, access, copyright protection, and prior restraint and inform the public about the law.

Product Placement

The purchase of spaces for particular goods to appear in a TV show, movie, or music video.

CBS

The radio station that competed with NBC and, eventually, won. Headed by Paley.

Radio Act of 1927

The second radio legislation passed by Congress; in an attempt to restore order to the airwaves (too many overlapping frequencies), the act stated that licensees did not own their channels but could license them if they operated to serve the "public interest, convenience, or necessity." This created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), which oversaw licenses and negotiated channel problems.

Newshole

The space left over in a newspaper for news content after all the ads are placed. This accounts for 35-40% of the content for daily newspapers. (HOLE left for NEWS)

Public Domain

The state of belonging or being available to the public as a whole, and therefore not subject to copyright. This can be not copyrighted work or work that becomes available 20 years after the creator's death.

Inverted-Pyramid Model (FOR SURE ON TEST)

The story form for the packaging and presenting of newspaper articles that starts with the most dramatic and newsworthy information (who, what, where, when questions) at the top of the story and then narrows down to presumably less significant details.

Culture

The symbols of expression that individuals, groups and societies use to make sense of daily life and to articulate their values.

Selective Exposure

The tendency of people to seek messages and produce meanings that correspond to their own cultural beliefs, values, and interests.

Stuart Hall Representation

The way in which meaning is given to the things depicted through images, music, TV shows, etc.

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

The written code that creates Web pages and links; a language all computers can read. Computers with different operating systems, therefore, can communicate easily. This allowed for information to be organized in an easy-to-use manner.

Why does it matter that the 1st Amendment is first?

These are the most important freedoms and the cornerstones of democracy.

The Electronic Era

This era began with the development of the telegram in the 1840s, which made messages instantaneous and transformed information into a commodity.

Minimal-Effects Model

This model said that the media alone cannot cause people to change their attitudes and behaviors. People generally engage in Selective Exposure (expose themselves to familiar messages) or Selective Attention (only retain messages that confirm preexisting attitudes) with regard to the media. (The media has MINIMAL EFFECTS)

Hypodermic-Needle Model

This model suggests that the media shoot their potent effects directly onto unsuspecting victims. Although, by now, this model has been disproved, many still attribute direct effects to the mass media. (Like a NEEDLE, this model shoots effects into you without permission)

The Spiral of Silence

This theory links mass media, social psychology, and and the formation of public opinion. It proposes that those who believe their views on controversial issues are in the minority will keep their views to themselves (become silent) for fear of social isolation, which diminishes or silences alternative perspectives. Often mass media can help create a false overrated majority. (There is a never ending cycle creating SILENCE from the minority because they don't hear their view spoken about) EX. conformity as in Solomon Asch's line test

The Third-Person Effect

This theory suggests that people believe others are more affected by media messages than they are themselves. We believe that we can escape the worst effects of media while we worry about those who are younger, more impressionable, or otherwise less capable of guarding against media influence. (Only think of THIRD-PERSON)

Wire Service

This type of company employs reporters throughout the world to collect news stories and photos everyday. These are submitted to newspapers for distribution across the country. Newspapers pay monthly fees for this, even though they only use a fraction of what is available. (SERVICES provided to newspapers)

Edison's Trust

Thomas Edison's company, the Motion Picture Patents Company, became known as the Trust. It was the first to try to dominate the movie industry. The company was made of a cartel of major US and French film producers who pooled patents in an effort to control film's major technology, acquired most major film distributorships, and signed an exclusive deal with George Eastman, who agreed to supply movie films only to Trust-approved companies.

Social Responsibility Model of Expression

US MODEL, A model for journalism and speech, influenced by the libertarian model, that encourages the free flow of information to citizens so they can make wise decisions about political and often more social issues. A socially responsible press is often privately owned. In this model, the press functions as a FOURTH ESTATE.

Paramount Decision

The 1948 Supreme Court decision that ended vertical integration in the film industry by forcing the studios to divest themselves of their theaters

How have the 1st Amendment and the 6th Amendment come into conflict? What laws are in place to ensure that they don't?

The 6th Amendment guarantees a speedy trial by an impartial trial. However, the 1st Amendment protections of speech and the press may play a role in publicity of the case biasing jury members. The Supreme Court has introduced safeguards that judges can employ to ensure fair trials in heavily publicized cases. These include sequestering juries, limiting the number of reporters, moving cases to other jurisdictions, and placing GAG ORDERS on lawyers and witnesses.

What is the Ludlow Land Mine Incident and why is it significant to PR?

The Rockefeller-owned Colorado Fuel and Iron Company workers had to work in dangerous conditions with minimal pay, which could barely support their families. These miners became angry in 1913 and went on strike, demanding more money and safer working conditions. They were kicked out of their company-owned houses after being on strike for several months. So the miners decided to live in tents, which the company's guards shot down and lit on fire, killing 19 people. This was known as the Ludlow Massacre and it fostered a lot of hate for Rockefeller. This was a very important event in PR because it was one of the first crisis management examples. Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who advocated that public perception was the most important thing for a company, helped Rockefeller and organized a well-publicized visit to Ludlow for Rockefeller. The boss ate dinner with the miners and their families while wearing overalls and a miner's helmet for photo ops with the families. This greatly helped his image.

Hegemony

The acceptance of the dominant values in a culture by those who are subordinate to those who hold economic and political power. People without power don't rise up because those in power convince them that the current social situation is the norm. Buying uncritically into concepts presented as common sense maintains such concepts as natural, shutting down discussion about the ways in which economic divisions or political hierarchies are not natural and given.

Why was it problematic for white artists to cover black artists' music in the 50s and 60s? What event changed the tides?

The covering of black songs by white artists were almost always an attempt to capitalize on popular songs from the R&B "race" charts by transforming them into hits on white pop charts. Often, white producers would give white performers co-writing credits for songs they only covered. Producers also bought the rights to potential hits from black songwriters, who rarely received any money in royalties or received songwriting credit. The turning point for this was when Ray Charles covered "I Can't Stop Loving You" in 1958, marking the first time that a black artist, covering a white artist's song, got a No. 1 pop hit.

What brought the Internet into the entrepreneurial stage?

The creation of Email pushed the Internet into the mass medium stage because developers recognized it could fulfill a consumer demand.

Press Agent

The earliest type of public relations practitioner, those who sought to advance a client's image through media exposure, primarily via stunts staged for newspapers (early PR).

Split-Run Editions

The editorial content remains the same, but the magazine includes a few pages of ads purchased by local or regional companies.

N.W. Ayer & Son

The first full-time ad agency

Nickelodeon

The first movie theaters, charging only one nickel for admission. They were usually small converted, storefronts with a piano player, a white sheet, and a projector. The films were silent and transcended language barriers, so immigrants often ran Nickelodeons and they were popular among immigrants especially. (Cost a NICKEL)

Prime Time

The hours between 8 and 11PM, when networks traditionally draw their most large audience and charge their highest advertising rates.

Agenda-Setting

The idea that when the mass media focus their attention on particular events or issues, they determine (set the agenda for) major topics of discussion for individuals and society. (What the media shows SETS the AGENDA for what we talk about)

Concert Promoter (with ex.)

The individuals or companies responsible for organizing a live concert tour or special event performance. They take in revenue via a percentage of tickets sold but also, concessions, parking, and a portion of merchandise and sponsorship. The largest worldwide concert promoter is Live Nation and AEG is the second largest.

Newsworthiness

The information most worthy of transformation into news stories. Newsworthiness is determined by these criteria: Timeliness, Proximity, Conflict, Prominence, Human-Interest, Consequence, Usefulness, Novelty, Deviance (story must fit some, not necessarily all)

What is the Second Screen Experience?

The interaction with television programming while using social media in addition to viewing. The social media action must be related to the content (EX. doing fantasy football while watching sports happen, EX. voting online for a contestant while watching a reality TV show). We can understand engagement by looking at related content on social media and gauge how to improve engagement. *Not to be confused with third or fourth screens as a physical new way to view content*

Gatekeepers

The linear model can have gatekeepers on both sides of mass media channels or in other places. They choose what goes out and what stays in. We can be our own gatekeepers by choosing what we do and do not consume. This is important because it determines how much information we are subject to and what that information is.

Patent Medicine

The main user of advertising in the 1800s. Medicines were usually mostly made of water and made outrageous claims about what they could do that caused consumers to be cynical (ex. Dr. Lin's Chinese Blood Pills). They could be dangerous (ex. Coke had cocaine).

General-Interest Magazines

The most prominent publications after WWII and through the 1950s. They offered occasional investigative articles, but also covered a wide variety of topics aimed at a broad national audience.

Fourth Estate

The notion that the press operates as an unofficial branch of government, monitoring the legislative, judicial, and executive branches for abuses of power. Part of the Social Responsibility Model of Expression.

Microsoft

The oldest of the dominant digital firms, established by Bill Gates. At the end of the 1990s, Microsoft (a computer software company) integrated its Windows software with its Internet Explorer web browser, drawing users to its MSN.com site and other Microsoft applications. As its software business declined, XBox helped it continue and find a new path. It developed the search engine Bing, which was moderately successful. The Windows Phone 8 mobile operating system and Surface tablet were successful. Microsoft also made Office software available on iPad, iPhones, and Android phones.

Sound Bite

The part of a broadcast news report in which an expert, a celebrity, a victim, or a person-in-the-street responds to some aspect of an event or issue.

What is an example of a new digital media conglomerate? How are they different than traditional media conglomerates?

Traditional media conglomerates would buy existing things (websites, companies, etc.) but new digital media conglomerates create heir own empire. For example, Amazon created the need to go online and buy things and created Amazon Prime and things of the like to expand its business.

Digital Recording

Translates sound waves into binary on-off pulses and stores that information as numerical code.

What is "format radio" and why is it important? Provide at least two examples of format radio.

Under the system of Format Radio, management rather than DJs control programming each hour. Management coordinates each hour, dictating what the DJ will do at various intervals throughout each hour of the day. Management creates a program log that DJs must follow. DJs must talk over the beginning and end of the songs to avoid dead air. Even ads, news, and weather must maintain the station's feel so that listeners can tell what they're listening to. Managers further section off programming into day parts consisting of time blocks programmed through ratings research according to who was listening (Top 40 plays songs primarily in the morning and night when audiences are in cars). Some examples of Format Radio are the Top 40 Format (40 most popular hits a week), The News/Talk Information Format (appeals to middle and working class adults), and more music formats such as the Country Format. Formats give a plethora of options and popularize new music. They are important because they established radio as separate from TV. Format popularized radio and made production and listening more hands off.

In what ways has the smartphone changed how we access the Internet?

Using smartphones to access the internet means that we are accessing the Internet through Apple (as the book calls it, a "Walled Garden"). Instead of looking things up online, we have tons of apple-approved apps that serve different purposes. We are also able to be online constantly, fostering addiction.

Why does viewership fluctuate annually?

Viewership fluctuates depending on the current events happening at the time. During the 2016 election, for example, viewership was especially high. In 2017-2018, breaking news has increased, also increasing viewership. News can also be watched on more devices now than in the past.

What is a visual storyteller?

Visual storytelling is communicating a story through images and words. Social media has revealed that we are all visual storytellers, even those who view themselves as writers. Writing is visual storytelling, too, because in order to read a text we must be able to use our eyes to string together individual letters and create meaning. Visual storytelling allows us to show people a fresh angle or point of view. Visual storytellers should work to capture something deeper through their work.

Web 1.0 vs. Web 2.0 vs. Web 3.0

WEB 1.0 (push) • One-way communication (we see pages, cannot interact) • Brochure-like webpages • Static Web (Web page is up there but cannot be interacted with) WEB 2.0 (Share) • Two-way communication (can interact with online pages, networking) • Interactive web • Social Networking and sharing WEB 3.0 (live) • SEMANTIC WEB (meaningful web that makes our lives easier) • EX. Alexa • We are currently in this stage

What are Gans' subjective values? (4) (test will have an article in which these must be found and identified as well as elements of newsworthiness)

What prevents US journalists from being objective: -Ethnocentrism -Responsible Capitalism -Small-Town Pastoralism -Individualism

When did radio become a mass medium?

When Sarnoff charged for advertising on radio throughout the nation.

What are the "big six" film studios today?

Warner Brothers, Paramount, 21st Century Fox, Universal, Colombia Pictures, and Disney.

Indirect Payment

We are indirectly paying for the ads we watch. The advertisers pays for a commercial and they are indirectly being paid back by us when we buy the products. What the advertiser is really paying for is our exposure to their product.

Social Networking Sites

Web sites that allow individuals to connect—or network—with friends, peers, and business associates (ex. Facebook, Instagram, etc.)

Economies of Scale

You can spend a lot of money if it will make a larger profit in the long-term. Bigger is better. Spending a lot of money on a movie, making a national ad campaign, and showing it in every state will make a profit. Making more things makes more profit.

Compare the evolution of TV to the evolution of radio

• EVERYTHING THAT IS ON TV HAS ROOTS IN RADIO • Radio started as a communication device and TV didn't • NBC Red and Blue evolved into TV stations from radio stations • Both make money through affiliates • Had very similar content at the start

How is the evolution of film as a mass medium similar or different from TV? From radio?

• They all evolved to the point where they can be used for viewer consumption • Film was different from the other two because the other two were a machine but film doesn't need a machine to work, you go somewhere instead • During the emergent stages there were inventors all over the world trying to make the best thing • All had a period of a lot of regulation because people were scared of creating an oligopoly (ex. Paramount Decision vs. Radio Acts vs. Ratings) • After innovations, entertainment was the big focus • All went through downfalls after mass medium (radio: war of the worlds, movies: paramount decision, tv: quiz show scandals) • All had genres