Final Exam

International style

14th and 15th century painting style fused the French and Sienese. It appealed to the aristocracy because of its brilliant color, lavish costumes and themes of knights and ladies. In Martini's work we find the last great development of Gothic art, the so-called International Style that swept Europe in the 14th and 15th 11.18 Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi, Annunciation altarpiece, 1333. Siena Cathedral, Italy. Tempera and gold leaf on wood, center panel 121" × 96" (305 × 254 cm). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. The courtly elegance and delicacy of Martini's figures were a hallmark of the International Style. Speaking to the Virgin, the Angel Gabriel proclaims, "Ave gratia plena dominus tecum" (Hail thou that are full of grace, the Lord is with you). It is the moment when Mary becomes aware that she will bear the Christ child. centuries. The elegant courts of France and the French king- doms of Italy had developed a taste for magnificent colors, fashionable costumes, and richly embellished fabrics. Martini painted his Annunciation altarpiece (Fig. 11.18) with his pupil and assistant Lippo Memmi. The Annunciation is the angel Gabriel's announcement to Mary that she will bear the Christ child. The figures in the piece have an insubstantial grace and sophistication that contrast strongly with Giotto's solid and earthy realism (see Fig. 11.9). The resplendent robe and man- tle of the angel Gabriel and the deep-blue dress of the Virgin, edged in gold, produce an impression of great splendor, while their willowy figures approach the ideal of courtly elegance. featured brilliant color, lavish costumes, and intricate decoration, and it generally depicted religious or courtly themes. In many respects, it represents a direct inheritor of the Byzantine style, with the same emphasis on abstraction and visual splendor.

Castiglione, The Courtier

451, 454

humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements. it celebrated humanity's beauty and potential in art and literature. Humanism linked progress to education and rationality, and it thereby encouraged study and learning, particularly as connected to Classical culture and philosophy. As humanist principles spread across Europe, a corresponding revival (or a renaissance, meaning "rebirth") of Classical civilization took place, as the surviving artworks and manuscripts were admired, studied, and imitated. The process was immeasurably aided by Gutenberg's invention of printing with moveable type, leading to the widespread availability and affordability of books. human beings have both the freedom and the power to create whatever they will of themselves. The sky is the limit. The humanists attempted to develop every aspect of intellectual and artistic life to its fullest extent as they sought to "be reborn into the higher forms, which are divine," in Pico's words. You will notice here the reference to "forms," which should recall our earlier discussion of Plato's concept of the ideal. The Florentine humanists revered all classical philosophy, but Plato in particular received their greatest admiration. The Florentine Academy established Neoplatonism as the supreme philosophical truth, thus reinstituting the search for the ideal as the prime directive in all human endeavors. The true "Renaissance person" is a "many-sided" person, seeking for perfection in everything he or she does.

Talmud

A collection of Jewish law and tradition created ca. fifth century ce.

polyphony

A form of musical expression characterized by many voices.

frottola

A humorous or amorous poem set to music for a singer and two or three instrumentalists.

Scholasticism

A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century.

contrapposto

A position in which a figure is obliquely balanced around a central vertical axis; also known as the weight- shift principle.

canto

A principal division of a long poem.

madrigal

A song for two or three voices unaccompanied by instrumental music.

canzoniere

A songbook.

triptych

A three-paneled painting or altarpiece.

Palazzo Rucellai (11.34)

Alberti and Rossellino, Florentine Renaissance A palazzo is a palace, or palatial residence, for a prominent Italian family. This one was designed by Alberti for Giovanni Rucellai, the son-in-law of the powerful Florentine Pala Strozzi, who commissioned Gentile da Fabriano's Adoration of the Magi. The Rucellai family fortune came from the wool trade and banking. an atrium-style pala- tial residence built around an interior courtyard. The build- ing has three stories, separated by horizontal entablatures and crowned by a heavy cornice. Within each story, pilasters with capitals of different orders frame the fenestration; they pro- vide a vertical counterpoint to the strong horizontals, as does the vertical alignment of the windows. As the elevation rises Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. 12.33 Filippo Brunelleschi, Pazzi Chapel, begun 1433. Santa Croce, Florence, Italy. Brunelleschi spent countless hours sketching and measuring ancient structures in Rome, particularly in the Forum. The façade of the Pazzi Chapel is an adaptation of a Roman triumphal arch. The Pazzi family is infamous for the conspiracy that led to the murder of Giuliano de' Medici and wounding of his brother, Lorenzo. In spite of their heinous deed, the Pazzi were allowed to bury their dead family members in the chapel. from ground level toward the roof, the pattern of the masonry becomes more delicate—smaller-cut stones, placed closer together. The palazzo's design, with its clear articulation of parts, rhythmic repetition, and overall balance and harmony of shape and line, illustrates the degree to which Alberti internal- ized Classical design and adapted it successfully to the con- temporary nobleman's needs.

polyptych

An arrangement of four or more painted or carved panels that are hinged together.

courtly love

An idealized and often illicit form of love celebrated in the literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in which a knight or courtier devotes himself to a noblewoman who is usually married and feigns indifference to preserve her reputation.

The Birth of Venus (11.28)

Botticelli, Florentine Renaissance Botticelli's most famous painting, perhaps, is The Birth of Venus (Fig. 12.28), a work that may have been inspired by a poem by the humanist Angelo Poliziano on the same subject: You could swear that the goddess had emerged from the waves, pressing her hair with her right hand, covering with the other her sweet mound of flesh; and where the strand was imprinted by her sacred and divine step, it had clothed itself in flowers and grass; then with happy, more than mortal features, she was received in the bosom of the three nymphs and cloaked in a starry garment. —From "La Giostra," Angelo Poliziano, 1475-1478 Poliziano was a scholar and member of the Neo- Platonist circle around Lorenzo the Magnificent, and The Birth of Venus was painted for the Medici. Venus, born of the foam of the sea, drifts along on a large scallop shell to the shore of her sacred island of Cyprus, aided by the sweet breaths of entwined zephyrs. The nymph Pomona, wear- ing a billowing, flowered dress, awaits her with a luxuri- ous patterned mantle. Venus was derived from an antique sculpture of the type Venus Pudica (the modest Venus), similar to the Aphrodite of Knidos (see Fig. 3.18); her face may have been based on a portrait of Simonetta Vespucci, a cousin of Amerigo Vespucci, the navigator and explorer after whom the continents of North and South America are named. The graceful rhythms in the composition are evoked through a plethora of lines, from the V-shaped rip- ples in the sea and the radiating pattern of the seashell to the subtle curves and vigorous arabesques that caress the figures; shading is confined to areas within the sculptural contours of the figures. Neo-Platonic references to spiritual fulfillment made possible by the contemplation of ideal beauty were evident in Botticelli's painting, just as they were in Lorenzo de' Medici's poetry (see page 376). As a kindred spirit, Botticelli remained closely allied with the Medici for decades, although he did have other wealthy patrons.

Primavera (11.27),

Botticelli, Florentine Renaissance The prevailing trend in 15th- century art was the realistic representation of the natural world, buttressed by order, geometry, and references to clas- sical style. Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), however, bucked this trend. Seminal to the tradition of Giotto and Masaccio in painting was the illusion of roundness in figures modeled by subtle gradations of value, that is tonal contrasts of light and shade. Botticelli's principle element of art, by contrast, was line—line that delimits and therefore flattens form, line that plays across figures and surfaces and seems to have a life of its own. His art relied primarily on drawing. As distinct as Botticelli's style was from those of other artists of his day, he shared with them a strong feeling for humanism and, with that, a penchant for Classical art and subjects. Botticelli painted Primavera (Springtime) (Fig. 12.27) for a cousin of Lorenzo the Magnificent named Lorenzo di Pierfran- cesco de' Medici on the occasion of his wedding. One of the most popular paintings in Western art, Primavera is an elabo- rate allegory of love, presided over by the figure of Venus in the center of the composition standing beneath her son, Cupid. To the right, the god of the wind, Zephyrus, abducts the nymph Chloris—who, after the two are wed, is transformed into Flora, the graceful figure who tosses petals from the bunched up folds of her floral-patterned dress. To the right, three maidens—the Three Graces—dance while nearby, the god Mercury lifts his staff toward the floating strata of a gloomy cloud. Cupid hov- ers and aims his love arrow in the direction of the Graces. The painting has been interpreted as a symbolic representation of the joining of physical love (desire) and spiritual love (the love of God) in the sacred bond of matrimony.

Adoration of the Magi (11.29)

Botticelli, Florentine Renaissance was commissioned by the Florentine banker Gaspare di Zanobi del Lama for a private chapel in Santa Maria Novella (now destroyed) and includes a portrait of the donor (in the right- hand group in a blue cape, looking out toward the viewer) in the midst of the city's most cultured and powerful. Botticelli, as if upstaging him, stands even closer to us in the right foreground. The painting reads as a veritable who's who of Florence's rich and famous. Many scholars believe that the young blond man in an ochre cloak in the extreme right foreground is Botticelli himself.

"Madonna Enthroned" (10.8)

Cimabue, Late Medieval As a transitional artist in the late 13th century, Cimabue relied on Byzantine models yet reached for more naturalism in his depiction of three-dimensionality—both in his figures and in his suggestion of space. His Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets (Fig. 11.8), while it retains the otherworldly gold background of Byzantine predecessors, departs from them significantly in several important ways. Compare the drapery of Cimabue's Madonna with that of Saint Francis in Berlin- ghieri's altarpiece (see Fig. 10.20). The Madonna's veil and cloak fall over her head, shoulders, and arm in realistic folds that correspond to the shape of her body beneath. Her knees are spread slightly to balance the baby Jesus on her lap, and between them the drapery falls in a subtle pattern of U-shaped folds. She sits squarely on a substantial throne, the sides of which converge and recede toward the background, creating a sense of space in the composition. Adoring angels to either 11.8 Cimabue, Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets, from Santa Trinità, ca. 1280-1290. Tempera and gold leaf on wood on panel, 151" × 88" (325 × 203 cm). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. As a transitional artist in the late 13th century, Cimabue relied on Byzantine models yet reached for more naturalism in his depiction of three-dimensionality—both in his figures and in his suggestion of space. side of the throne overlap, further enhancing depth, although the stacking of their heads one on top of the other has some- what of a flattening effect. irst, that Cimabue's position in the Florentine art world of the 13th century was significant, and second, that individual artists were creating names for themselves and garnering fame for their work.

George (11.14)

Donatello, Florentine Renaissance Donatello's Saint George (Fig. 12.14) was created origi- nally for a niche on the exterior of the Or San Michele church in Florence, the site of the headquarters of the city's guilds. Each of the guilds had been assigned a niche in which to place a sculpture representing their patron saint; Saint George was the patron saint of armorers and sword makers. Donatello's figure exudes intelligence and courage in his piercing gaze and confident pose, but there is an element of tension—even worry—in Saint George's facial expression. This bit of agita- tion is, overall, balanced by serenity and control, and thus harkens to the Classical ideal. Donatello's sculpture was carved at the same time that Florence was under attack by the troops of King Ladislas of Naples. Just as the Sacrifice of Isaac had meaning to the Florentines when the Duke of Milan besieged their city, so too did the saintly knight George have meaning at a time when the city again was defending itself against threats to its independence. And once again, victory against the Florentines was thwarted by fortuitous circumstances: Ladislas died abruptly in 1414. Donatello's Saint George, begun in 1410, was completed in 1415.

David (11.15)

Donatello, Florentine Renaissance Donatello's most Classically inspired work is his David (see Fig. 12.15), commissioned for the garden of the Medici palace; it is the first life-size, freestand- ing statue of a nude figure since antiquity. The sinu- ous contrapposto stance and body proportions are reminiscent of Greek prototypes that were mimicked by Roman artists. What is different—and new—here is that Donatello used the Classical style, one that focused on the beauty of the male form, to portray a Christian biblical subject. David, destined to become the second king of Israel, slew the Philistine giant Goliath—felling him with his slingshot and then decapitating him. For this, Donatello did not choose a godlike figure or heroic nude as a model, but rather what appears to be preadolescent peasant boy, whose long, soft curls still fall down to his shoulders and whose arms are still thin and muscles undeveloped. David rests his sword on the ground after cutting off Goli- ath's head, as if it is too heavy for him to hold. He glances downward at the head—and his own body—as if incredu- lous at what he has accomplished. Herein lies the human- ity and thus the power of Donatello's sculpture. He has achieved the perfect reconciliation of idealism and realism.

"Virgin and Child Enthroned" (10.12)

Duccio,Late Medieval The Maestà altarpiece was commissioned for the high altar of the Siena Cathedral. When it was completed in 1311, a grand celebration was held throughout the city as the altarpiece was carried in an elaborate candlelit procession, led by the bishop, from Duccio's studio to its place of honor. he completed it within three years. The principal panel of the altarpiece (Fig. 11.12), which faced the congre- gants, follows the formula for a maestà: it features the Virgin Mary and Christ Child enthroned and surrounded by angels and saints. Duccio's composition begs comparison with the maestàs we have examined by Cimabue and Giotto (Figs. 11.8 and 11.9). The face of Duccio's Madonna retains a Byzantine quality, as does Cimabue's, but her physical presence more resembles that of Giotto's Madonna. She sits squarely on her throne, the arms of which splay out toward the viewer as if to present her or to welcome the viewer into her presence. The drapery of Duccio's Madonna is realistically handled, devoid (as with Giotto's) of the gold striations that appear more dec- orative than natural. The figures in the foreground to either side of the throne have distinct facial features and their ges- tures are animated, adding to the naturalism of the painting. They are situated in depth, in distinct rows arranged in such a way that each face is clearly visible—almost like a yearbook photograph.

Florence cathedral dome (11.30),

Filippo Brunelleschi, Florentine Renaissance These artist's reconstructions depict the church of Santa Maria del Fiore: (A) as it stood without its eastern end—before Brunelleschi began construction of the dome—and (B) showing the progress on the transept, apse, and crossing square as of 1418. The tambour (drum) is complete and the domed vault is under construction. His solution, briefly, was to combine the buttressing methods of the Gothic cathedral with Classical vaulting techniques that he had mastered from his careful study of the Roman Pantheon and other buildings from antiquity.

Sacrifice of Isaac panel for Florence baptistery (11.11),

Filippo Brunelleschi, Florentine Renaissance The nervous energy and scattering of figures in Brunelleschi's panel recalls Giovanni Pisano's relief for the pulpit at Sant'Andrea; both were influenced by the expressionism of the Late Gothic Style. gilded bronze

loggia of the Hospital of the Innocents (11.32) and

Filippo Brunelleschi, Florentine Renaissance The technical brilliance of Brunelleschi's dome cannot be overpraised, but his real architectural achievement lies in building designs that break entirely from vestiges of the Medieval tradition. His loggia for the Ospedale degli Inno- centi (Hospital of the Innocents) in Florence (Fig. 12.32), considered by some to be the first structure in a pure Renaissance style, is a light and airy sheltered gallery with an arcade that runs the length of the building. The Ospedale was a home for abandoned children supported by the guild of silk manufacturers and goldsmiths; the commission for the project was given to Brunelleschi, who was one of its members. The loggia is defined by hemispherical arches sup- ported by Corinthian columns on street level; above, rectan- gular windows crowned with small triangular pediments are placed directly over the center of each arch. The horizontal progression of arches is reiterated in the gray stone moldings that separate the two levels of the façade. Despite its simple appearance, the building's intricate proportions and rela- tionships were calculated with mathematical precision: the height of the columns is equal to the space between them and to the distance between them and the wall of the loggia.

Pazzi chapel (11.33)

Filippo Brunelleschi, Florentine Renaissance This same concern with mathematical proportion, order, and harmony can be seen in Brunelleschi's finest work—a chapel for the Pazzi family (Fig. 12.33) next to the Franciscan church of Santa Croce in Florence. The arched and columned portico and classicizing motifs are reminiscent, overall, of the Roman triumphal arches Brunelleschi sketched in and around the Forum (see Fig. 4.8). The chapel's unimposing façade leads to a central- plan interior in which a hemispherical dome, resting on massive piers and arches, is the central focus. Brunelles- chi's decoration is spare, but dramatic; the combination of white stucco with gray stone accents, seen also in the Ospedale degli Innocenti, was his signature design element. The façade of the Pazzi Chapel is an adaptation of a Roman triumphal arch. The Pazzi family is infamous for the conspiracy that led to the murder of Giuliano de' Medici and wounding of his brother, Lorenzo. In spite of their heinous deed, the Pazzi were allowed to bury their dead family members in the chapel.

the Hundred Years' War

Finally, the fourteenth century saw a series of battles between the French and the English, a protracted struggle called the Hundred Years' War. You will recall that in 1066 the French Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, invaded England and became king. From that moment on, the English kings had direct cultural and family ties to France, including significant land holdings. This led English kings to seek to extend their power in France, invading on several occasions and even laying claim to the French crown. The struggle between the two dynasties only ended in the following century after the military campaign of Joan of Arc and the eventual defeat of the English.

Ars Nova

Fourteenth-century music has been labeled Ars Nova, after a musical treatise written during the period that described a new system for musical notation. Significantly, this new system allowed for greater rhythmic complexity through smaller and more varied divisions in the musical notes that were used. Ars Nova took full advantage of the potential for more complex rhythms, featuring increasingly sophisticated polyphonic works that also exhibited greater richness of sound and harmony. A distinctive feature of much fourteenth-century music was the isorhythm, a repeated musical and rhythmic pattern given to one of the voices and set against the principal melody to create interesting musical textures. The ability to compose music of this sophistication became a more recognized skill, and composers' social status began to change from servants of the church to independent creative figures. Certain Ars Nova composers such as Guillaume de Machaut enjoyed international careers and gained significant recognition and fame. Ars Nova also marks an increased development of secular music: ballades and madrigals targeted a secular audience, eager for a wide variety of music that could be performed at court or even at home.

guilds

Generally, an association of people with common interests; in medieval times, typically a group of merchants or artisans who sought to maintain their standards and protect their interests.

Adoration of the Magi (11.19)

Gentile da Fabriano, International Style This sumptuous painting straddles the Gothic style, with its sinuous lines and lushly decorated surfaces, and that of the Early Renaissance, with its attention to realistic detail based on an observation of the natural world and human behavior. Complete mastery of the Interna- tional Style in the 15th century is most evident in the work of Gentile da Fabriano (ca. 1370-1427). His altarpiece Adoration of the Magi (Fig. 12.19) is brimming with exquisite detail that gleams golden, from lavish costumes to bejeweled crowns and richly embossed halos. The figures have the courtly bearing and graciousness of nobility. The splendor of the painting—its bril- liant color and elaborate gold frame—seems fit for a king—in this case, Palla Strozzi, a banker and one of the wealthiest men in Florence. Although elements of the Gothic style domi- nate the Adoration of the Magi, the observation of the natural world that is central to the new aes- thetic can also be seen in some of the detail—the individualized, expressive faces of the crowd, the hunched-over man at the feet of the red-stockinged king who removes his spurs, the twisting, turning positions of the animals, and the squirming legs of the baby Jesus. Gentile achieved balance between the ornamental and the naturalistic in a painting that dazzles.

"Betrayal" panel (10.11 and 10.17)

Giotto, Late Medieval

"Lamentation" panel

Giotto, Late Medieval Giotto arranged elements and principles of art—line, shape, color, focal point, and emphasis—to create a composition that would lead a viewer's eyes around the painting and heighten the dramatic narrative. The patchy quality of the blue background shows us that the Lamentation was painted in sections over the course of many days.

Arena Chapel (10.10)

Giotto, Late Medieval Giotto's most famous work is a fresco cycle for the Arena Chapel in Padua (Fig. 11.10), commis- sioned by Enrico Scrovegni. The walls of the small, barrel- vaulted chapel are divided into four registers: the three upper ones illustrate scenes from the life of Christ and the life of the Virgin Mary, and the lowest register depicts virtues and vices painted in a palette of gray tones to imitate relief sculp- ture. Specific events are painted in rectangular segments sep- arated by ornate borders. The chronologies progress from left to right, with visual elements (such as shape and line) leading our eyes from one rectangle to the next. The Arena Chapel frescoes illustrate Giotto's extraor- dinary ability to portray three-dimensional figures in three- dimensional space—figures that have weight and occupy space. An almost inexhaustible range of emotions and dra- matic situations further enhances the sense of realism. One of the most vivid examples is the Lamentation (Fig. 11.11), a scene of almost cosmic drama that describes the mourning over the dead Christ before he is laid to rest in the tomb. Angels reel overhead, wailing in grief, while below, Mary supports her dead son's head in her arms and stares desper- ately into his face. Around her are the other mourners, each a fully characterized individual. If the disciple John—who thrusts his body forward and his arms back—is the most passionate in the expression of his sorrow, no less mov- ing are the silent hunched figures in the foreground and the hopeless Mary Magdalene who caresses Jesus's feet.

"Madonna Enthroned" (10.9)

Giotto,Late Medieval Giotto based his approach to painting on the observation of the natural world and its successful translation to a two- dimensional surface. His Madonna has weight and occupies space; her drapery falls in natural folds, and light and shadow are used to great effect in the modeling of her face. Compared to the Madonna in Cimabue's painting, Giotto's Madonna Enthroned (Fig. 11.9) has a majestic solidity. Cimabue's delicate drapery folds embellished with gold, which appeared so much more realistic than the drapery on Byzan- tine figures, now seem to be overly emphasized in comparison to the simple, unfussy drapery on Giotto's Madonna. Giotto also recreates textures in his contrast between the more deli- cate white fabric of the Madonna's dress and the heavier blue cloth of her mantle. The throne, which bears some vestiges of the Gothic style in its pointed arches, convincingly occupies space. The groups of angels, who now stand on roughly the same ground line and overlap one another, enhance the depth of the throne. The halos of some of the angels obscure parts of those behind them; this is exactly how a crowd of people would look to us if we were standing in front of the throne.

Benvenuto Cellini, Autobiography excerpt

I had cast the Medusa [whose severed head is held high by the victorious Perseus]—and it came out very well—and then very hopefully I brought the Perseus towards completion. I had already covered it in wax, and I promised myself that it would succeed in bronze as well as the Medusa had. The wax Perseus made a very impressive sight, and the Duke thought it extremely beautiful. It may be that someone had given him to believe that it could not come out so well in bronze, or perhaps that was his own opinion, but anyhow he came along to my house more frequently than he used to, and on one of his visits he said: "Benvenuto, this figure can't succeed in bronze, because the rules of art don't permit it." I strongly resented what his Excellency said. "My lord," I replied, "I'm aware that your Most Illustrious Excellency has little faith in me, and I imagine this comes of your putting too much trust in those who say so much evil of me, or perhaps it's because you don't understand the matter." He hardly let me finish before exclaiming: "I claim to understand and I do understand, only too well." "Yes," I answered, "like a patron, but not like an artist. If your Excellency understood the matter as you believe you do, you'd trust in me on the evidence of the fine bronze bust I made of you: that large bust of your Excellency that has been sent to Elba. And you'd trust me because of my having restored the beautiful Ganymede in marble; a thing I did with extreme difficulty and which called for much more exertion than if I had made it myself from scratch: and because of my having cast the Medusa, which is here now in your Excellency's presence; and casting that was extraordinarily difficult, seeing that I have done what no other master of this devilish art has ever done before. Look, my lord, I have rebuilt the furnace and made it very different from any other. Besides the many variations and clever refinements that it has, I've constructed two outlets for the bronze: that was the only possible way of ensuring the success of this difficult, twisted figure. It only succeeded so well because of my inventiveness and shrewdness, and no other artist ever thought it possible. "Be certain of this, my lord, that the only reason for my succeeding so well with all the important and difficult work I did in France for that marvelous King Francis was because of the great encouragement I drew from his generous allowances and from the way that he met my request for workmen—there were times when I made use of more than forty, all of my own choice. That was why I made so much in so short a time. Now, my lord, believe what I say, and let me have the assistance I need, since I have every hope of finishing a work that will please you. But if your Excellency discourages me and refuses the assistance I need, I can't produce good results, and neither could anyone else no matter who." The Duke had to force himself to stay and listen to my arguments; he was turning now one way and now another, and, as for me, I was sunk in despair, and I was suffering agonies as I began to recall the fine circumstances I had been in [when] in France. All at once the Duke said: "Now tell me, Benvenuto, how can you possibly succeed with this beautiful head of Medusa, way up there in the hand of the Perseus?" Straight away I replied: "Now see, my lord: if your Excellency understood this art as you claim to then you wouldn't be worried about that head not succeeding; but you'd be right to be anxious about the right foot, which is so far down." At this, half in anger, the Duke suddenly turned to some noblemen who were with him and said: "I believe the man does it from self-conceit, contradicting everything." .. . Seeing that the work was so successful I immediately went to Pisa to find my Duke. He welcomed me as graciously as you can imagine, and the Duchess did the same. Although their majordomo had sent them news about everything, it seemed to their Excellencies far more of a stupendous and marvelous experience to hear me tell of it in person. When I came to the foot of the Perseus which had not come out—just as I had predicted to his Excellency—he was filled with astonishment and he described to the Duchess how I had told him this beforehand. Seeing how pleasantly my patrons were treating me I begged the Duke's permission to go to Rome.

Laura Cereta, Leter to Lucilia Vernacula, On the Death of her Husband, and Letter to Bibulus Sempronius [note, for Laura Cereta, know author only, not titles of letters]

I thought their tongues should have been fine-sliced and their hearts hacked to pieces—those men whose perverted minds and inconceivable hostility [fueled by] vulgar envy so flamed that they deny, stupidly ranting, that women are able to attain eloquence in Latin. [But] I might have forgiven those pathetic men, doomed to rascality, whose patent insanity I lash with unleashed tongue. But I cannot bear the babbling and chattering women, glowing with drunkenness and wine, whose impudent words harm not only our sex but even more themselves. Empty-headed, they put their heads together and draw lots from a stockpot to elect each other [number one]; but any women who excel they seek out and destroy with the venom of their envy. A wanton and bold plea indeed for ill-fortune and unkindness! Breathing viciousness, while she strives to besmirch her better, she befouls herself; for she who does not yearn to be sinless desires [in effect] license to sin. Thus these women, lazy with sloth and insouciance, abandon themselves to an unnatural vigilance; like scarecrows hung in gardens to ward off birds, they tackle all those who come into range with a poisonous tongue. Why should it behoove me to find this barking, snorting pack of provocateurs worthy of my forbearance, when important and distinguished gentlewomen always esteem and honor me? I shall not allow the base sallies of arrogance to pass, absolved by silence, lest my silence be taken for approval or lest women leading this shameful life attract to their licentiousness crowds of fellow-sinners. Nor should anyone fault me for impatience, since even dogs are permitted to claw at pesty flies. on the death of her husband We have soiled our grieving faces enough. Enough has the sickness of a grieving heart afflicted this mournful life. And although no one can escape the ineluctable law of death; although she, the avenger, strikes down even the Gods; and although all things grow old and die, nonetheless it is not wrong to mourn the things we love, nor does the reason for mourning easily leave the heart. I know: he had lived on the brink of dying, for death— the end of nature—unmakes all things. We are all dust and shadow, but the days of men are unlike one another; unlike are their misfortunes, and unlike their ends. While I have lived, my prayers have come to naught. This life will ever be the nurse of my misery, I believe. But let the injury, forgotten for a short while, be restored to its place in history—the injury which, because of one man's death, has cruelly and unjustly pried up, lacerated, and dismembered my life, once quiet as though selected in safety. Surely my husband's spirit now lies among the shades; and now unspeakable marble kisses his limbs. Now that ashy dust sighs in my ears, now one cave awaits me who lives among the living. For the dead, this life is a dream, whose course hangs over all humans like a brief watch in the night. And so, if I thought that it was completely unclear how the events of my life would proceed and in what order, and if you cared about these t From Letter to Bibulus Sempronius: A Defense of the Liberal Education of Women My ears are wearied by your carping. You brashly and publicly not merely wonder but indeed lament that I am said to possess as fine a mind as nature ever bestowed upon the most learned man. You seem to think that so learned a woman has scarcely before been seen in the world. You are wrong on both counts, Sempronius, and have clearly strayed from the path of truth and disseminate falsehood. I agree that you should be grieved, indeed, you should be ashamed, for you have ceased to be a living man, but have become an animated stone; having rejected the studies which make men wise, you rot in torpid leisure. Not nature but your own soul has betrayed you, deserting virtue for the easy path of sin. ... Only the question of the rarity of outstanding women remains to be addressed. The explanation is clear: women have been able by nature to be exceptional, but have chosen lesser goals. For some women are concerned with parting their hair correctly, adorning themselves with lovely dresses, or decorating their fingers with pearls and other gems. Others delight in mouthing carefully composed phrases, indulging in dancing, or managing spoiled puppies. Still others wish to gaze at lavish banquet tables, to rest in sleep, or, standing at mirrors, to smear their lovely faces. But those in whom a deeper integrity yearns for virtue, restrain from the start their youthful souls, reflect on higher things, harden the body with sobriety and trials, and curb their tongues, open their ears, compose their thoughts in wakeful hours, their minds in contemplation, to letters bonded to righteousness. For knowledge is not given as a gift, but [is gained] with diligence. The free mind, not shirking effort, always soars zealously toward the good, and the desire to know grows ever more wide and deep. It is because of no special holiness, therefore, that we [women] are rewarded by God the Giver with the gift of exceptional talent. Nature has generously lavished its gifts upon all people, opening to all the doors of choice through which reason sends envoys to the will, from which they learn and convey its desires. The will must choose to exercise the gift of reason.

glaze

In painting, a semitransparent coating on a painted surface that provides a glassy or glossy finish. Titian used this

patronage

In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptor

Christine de Pisan, The Book of the City of Ladies

It's good for women to be educated. Pg 353

Gloucester cathedral, England (10.23)

Late Medieval The cathedral was constructed in the Perpendicular style, so called for its emphasis on verticality and proliferation of ribs in the vaulting.

Doge's Palace, Venice (10.22)

Late Medieval The palace was the most resplendent Italian public building of its day. The creamy white and rose-colored marbles, patterned surfaces, and ornate arches contribute to this unique and elegant interpretation of French Gothic architecture. Although the republic of Venice did not shy from its own military campaigns, it called itself the Serenisima Repub- lica Veneta the Most Serene Republic of Venice. The Doges' (Dukes') Palace (Fig. 11.22) is the city hall of Venice; it is prob- ably the most beautiful of all government centers in Italy, if not all of Europe. It was constructed ca. 1340-1345 and expanded and remodeled from 1424 to 1438. In the bright sunlight that reflects from the sea, the overall effect of the building is ethe- real. An arcade with pointed arches marches along the lowest level of the building, providing an open and airy foundation for a more delicate arcade with twice the number of columns and arches. The upper half of the building is solid, with only a few windows puncturing the plane of the façade. From a distance the Doges' Palace may seem top-heavy, but the delicately pat- terned brickwork—visible from a closer perspective—has the effect of dematerializing the surfaces, almost like bits of daubed color in an Impressionist painting (

Petrarch, The Canzoniere

Laura died of the Black Plague in 1348, and Petrarch documented the inner turmoil caused by his love for Laura and his grief at her death in 366 poems in Italian, which he gathered into a volume known as the Rime Sparse ("scattered rhymes") or the Canzoniere (the songbook). It would prove to be his most successful and influential work. As when some poor old man, grown pale and gray, Sets out from where he lived his whole life-tide, And from his little household terrified, Foreseeing their dear father's quick decay, Whilst his last time elapses, day by day, He still drags on from home his ancient side As best he can, with strong will fortified, Broken by years and weary of the way, And following to Rome his guiding love Sees there the holy countenance of One, Whom he hopes yet to see in heaven above. So I, outworn, hunt round at ties to view, Lady, elsewhere, so far as can be dome, The very features, that I love in you. Ashamed at times, that your fair qualities, Lady, are still unsaid by me in rhyme, I think of when I saw you first, yon time, Such that from thenceforth none beside can please, But find the weight too heavy for my knees, The work for my poor brushes too sublime; Therefore the mind, that knows its power to climb, In trying at the task, begins to freeze. Of times ere now, I oped my lips to say, But then my breath stopped short without effect, Indeed, what voice could rise to such a height! Of times I have begun to write some lay, But then the pen, the hand, the intellect Stopped, conquered at the entrance on the fight.

Madonna of the Rocks (12.4 A&B),

Leonardo da Vinci, High Renaissance Although Leonardo does not allow excessive emotion in his Last Supper, the reactions of the apostles seem genuinely human. This spirit is also captured in Madonna of the Rocks (Fig. 13.4a). Mary is no longer portrayed as the queen of heaven, as she had been during the Middle Ages and the early years of the Renaissance. Leonardo shows her as a mother. She is human; she is "real." One of the hallmarks of Renaissance paintings is the use of implied lines to create or echo the structure of the com- position. Geometric shapes such as triangles and circles are suggested through the use of linear patterns created by the position and physical gestures of the participants and, often, glances between them. These shapes often serve as the cen- tral focus and the main organizational device of the composi- tions. In the Madonna of the Rocks, Leonardo da Vinci places the head of the Virgin Mary at the apex of a rather broad, sta- ble pyramid formed not by actual lines but by the extension of her arms and the direction of her glance. The base of the pyra- mid is suggested by an implied line that joins the "endpoints" of the baby Jesus and the infant John the Baptist. Figure 13.4B highlights the pyramidal structure of the composition. The soft, hazy atmosphere and dreamy landscape of the Madonna of the Rocks, and the chiaroscuro that so realis- tically defines the form of the subtly smiling Virgin Mary, years of the Renaissance. Leonardo shows her as a mother. She is human; she is "real." One of the hallmarks of Renaissance paintings is the use of implied lines to create or echo the structure of the com- position. Geometric shapes such as triangles and circles are suggested through the use of linear patterns created by the position and physical gestures of the participants and, often, glances between them. These shapes often serve as the cen- tral focus and the main organizational device of the composi- tions. In the Madonna of the Rocks, Leonardo da Vinci places the head of the Virgin Mary at the apex of a rather broad, sta- ble pyramid formed not by actual lines but by the extension of her arms and the direction of her glance. The base of the pyra- mid is suggested by an implied line that joins the "endpoints" of the baby Jesus and the infant John the Baptist. Figure 13.4B highlights the pyramidal structure of the composition. The soft, hazy atmosphere and dreamy landscape of the Madonna of the Rocks, and the chiaroscuro that so realis- tically defines the form of the subtly smiling Virgin Mary, were still in Leonardo's pictorial repertory when he created what is arguably the most famous portrait in the history of art—the Mona Lisa

Mona Lisa (12.5),

Leonardo da Vinci, High Renaissance . An air of mystery pervades the work—from her entrancing smile and intense gaze to her real identity and the location of the landscape behind her. With the Mona Lisa, Leonardo altered the nature of portrait paint- ing for centuries, replacing the standard profile view of a sit- ter with one in which a visual dialogue could be established between the subject and the observer.

anatomical drawing (12.6)

Leonardo da Vinci, High Renaissance If we had been bequeathed nothing but Leonardo's Note- books, we would still say that he had one of humanity's most Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. fertile minds. By means of his sketches, one could say that he "invented" flying machines, submarines, turbines, eleva- tors, ideal cities, and machines of almost every description. His knowledge of anatomy was unsurpassed (he came close to discovering the circulatory path of blood), and his interest in the natural worlds of geology and botany was keen. The Notebooks, in short, reflect a restlessly searching mind that sought to understand the world and its constituent parts. Its chosen fields of inquiry are dominated by many of the characteristics common to the period: a concern with math- ematics, a deep respect for the natural world, and a love for beauty. A page from Leonardo's Notebooks (Fig. 13.6) shows one of the first drawings of a human fetus within the uterus.

The Last Supper (12.3),

Leonardo da Vinci, High Renaissance There had been many paintings on the subject of the Last Supper, but the people in Leonardo's composition are individuals who display real emotions. They converse with one another animatedly, yet most heads are turned toward Jesus, focusing the viewer's attention of the center of the composition. a fresco painting executed for the dining hall of a Milan monastery, stands as one of his greatest works. The condition of the work is poor, because of Leonardo's experi- mental fresco technique—although the steaming of pasta for centuries on the other side of the wall may also have played a role. Nonetheless, we can still observe the Renaissance ideals of Classicism, humanism, and technical perfection now coming to full fruition. The composition is organized through the use of one-point linear perspective. Solid vol- umes are constructed from a masterful contrast of light and shadow. A hairline balance is struck between emotion and restraint. The viewer is first attracted to the central triangu- lar form of Jesus sitting among his apostles by orthogonals that converge at his head. His figure is silhouetted against a triple window that symbolizes the Holy Trinity and pierces the otherwise dark back wall. The viewer's attention is held at this center point by Christ's isolation, which results from the leaning away of the apostles. Leonardo has chosen to depict the moment when Jesus says, "One of you will betray me." The apostles fall back reflexively at this accusation; they gesture expressively, deny personal responsibility, and ask, "Who can this be?" The guilty one, of course, is Judas, who is shown clutching a bag of silver pieces at Jesus' left, with his elbow on the table. The two groups of apostles, who sweep dramatically away from Jesus along a horizontal line, are subdivided into four smaller groups of three that tend to moderate the rush of the eye out from the center. The viewer's eye is wafted out- ward and then coaxed back inward through the "parenthetic" poses of the apostles at either end. Leonardo's use of strict rules of perspective and his graceful balance of motion and restraint underscore the artistic philosophy and style of the Renaissance.

linear perspective (including vanishing point, horizon line, transversal lines and orthagonal lines)

Linear perspective is a way of structur- ing pictorial space so that the figures and objects therein mimic the real-world perception of three- dimensional space from a single, fixed vantage point vanishing point: From that fixed point, one looks into the distance (for example, the back- ground of the painting) to a horizon line on which is placed a single point (the vanishing point). horizon line: transverse lines: orthagonal lines: PG 403!!

Florentine Baptistery doors ("Gates of Paradise; 11. 13)

Lorenzo Ghiberti, Florentine Renaissance Brunelleschi's innovations for creating the illusion of three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface using systematic mathematical laws of perspective were employed by Ghiberti to create the illusion of deep space in the square panels of his east doors of the Florence Baptistery. Michelangelo called them the Gates of Paradise. The east doors (Fig. 12.13) differ dramatically in style and composition from the north-door panels. Rectangu- lar frames replace the Gothic-style quatrefoils, and each is treated as a defined pictorial space not unlike a paint- ing. By the time Ghiberti was at work on this project, his rival Brunelleschi had developed linear perspective—a scientific method used for creating the illusion of three- dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface; Ghiberti used it in the Gates of Paradise. Linear perspective was the most important development in the history of Western painting and its inventor, the man who lost the Baptistery competi- tion, went on to be the most important architect of the Early Renaissance.

Sacrifice of Isaac panel for Florence baptistery (11.12),

Lorenzo Ghiberti, Florentine RenaissanceGhiberti's Isaac, inspired by sculpture from Greece and Rome, may be the first example of a fully nude, Classically modeled since antiquity. Gilded bronze he won the competition

Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales

Lots of rhyming

"Annunciation," (10.18)

Martini,Late Medieval The courtly elegance and delicacy of Martini's figures were a hallmark of the International Style. Speaking to the Virgin, the Angel Gabriel proclaims, "Ave gratia plena dominus tecum" (Hail thou that are full of grace, the Lord is with you). It is the moment when Mary becomes aware that she will bear the Christ child. In Martini's work we find the last great development of Gothic art, the so-called International Style that swept Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. The elegant courts of France and the French king- doms of Italy had developed a taste for magnificent colors, fashionable costumes, and richly embellished fabrics. Martini painted his Annunciation altarpiece (Fig. 11.18) with his pupil and assistant Lippo Memmi. The Annunciation is the angel Gabriel's announcement to Mary that she will bear the Christ child.

The Holy Trinity (11.20),

Masaccio, Florentine Renaissance Altarpieces and other monumental paintings for church interiors were frequently funded by wealthy donors, whose generosity was acknowledged and recorded for posterity by the inclusion of their portraits in the work. Here, Masaccio shows Lorenzo Lenzi and his wife kneeling in prayer outside the chapel; Peter Inglebrecht and his wife, Margarete Scrynmakers, kneel in a garden outside the home in which the Annunciation takes place in This mathematical system the Mérode altarpiece. The figures, as in The Holy Trinity, are weighty and corporeal beneath their drapery, and the expressions on their faces show their reactions to the circumstance: Jesus is serene and resigned but Peter is peeved and confused. The individualized facial features of all of the characters contribute to the overall sense of authenticity.

Tribute Money (11.22)

Masaccio, Florentine Renaissance Masaccio suggests the passage of time by showing, simultaneously, three moments in the story of Jesus and the Roman tax collector found in Matthew 17:24-27. The space in the painting is defined by the figures them- selves, who cluster in a half-circle around Jesus as he speaks; the architecture, the lines of which converge at Jesus's head; the diminishing scale of the barren trees as they march toward the background; and the misty, atmospheric perspective used to suggest the distant hills and sky.

Expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden (11.23)

Masaccio, Florentine Renaissance illustrates Masaccio's exceptional command of the human form and his profound sense of human emotion— here the utter despair of the first couple as they are driven from the Garden of Paradise into a barren and unforgiving landscape. Eve covers her nakedness, her head thrown back in anguish; Adam brings his hands to his head and weeps, dis- traught. The shame associated with original sin is embodied in Eve, who, unlike Adam, hides her breasts and pubic area. In this representation of Adam and Eve, as in most, Eve bears the guilt for the Fall that would lead to the sacrifice of Jesus for the salvation of their descendants. The revolutionary character of Masaccio's work was recognized in his own time, and his influence on Florentine painters who worked later in the century is clear. Two gener- ations after Masaccio's death, the young Michelangelo often crossed the river Arno to sketch the frescoes in the Bran- cacci Chapel.

organum

Medieval polyphony that consists of Gregorian chant and one or more additional melodic lines

Plan for St. Peter's (dome) (12.17, 12.18)

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance After Bramante's death, other architects—including Raphael and Sangallo—worked on the massive project. Both of these architects added a nave and aisles. In 1547 Michelangelo was appointed architect, because the plans previously drawn up seemed unworkable. Michel- angelo returned to Bramante's plan for a central-domed church in the shape of a Greek cross and envisioned a ribbed, arched dome somewhat after the manner of the cathedral in Florence, but on a far larger scale. The present Saint Peter's, seen from the front, gives us no clear sense of what Michelangelo had in mind when he drew up his plans. From the back, we can appreciate the undulating façade and immense pilasters (Fig. 13.18). Michel- angelo's church had a long nave and a façade added by Carlo Maderna in the early 17th century. The colonnaded piazza was completed under the direction of Gian Lorenzo Bernini in 1656-1667, almost a century after Michelangelo's death. Michelangelo lived to see the completion of the drum that was to support his dome, which was itself raised some 25 years after his death by Giacomo della Porta.

The Last Judgment (12.14),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance The full force of that Michelangelesque style can be seen in the artist's second contribution to the Sistine Cha- pel: The Last Judgment, which he painted on the wall behind the main altar between the years 1534 and 1541 (Fig. 13.14). A huge fresco marking the end of the world when Christ returns as judge, The Last Judgment shows Christ standing in the upper center of the scene, with the world being divided into the Dantean damned at the bottom and those who are called to glory above. Into that great scene Michelangelo poured both his own intense religious vision and a reflec- tion of the troubled days during which he lived. It was, after all, a Rome that had already been sacked in 1527 and a church that had been riven by the Protestant Reformation in the north. Under the patronage of popes Leo X and Clement VII— both from the Medici family—Michelangelo worked on another project, the Medici Chapel in the Florentine Church of San Lorenzo. This chapel is particularly interesting because Michelangelo designed and executed both the sculptures and the chapel in which they were to be placed. Although Michel- angelo first conceived the project in 1519, he worked on it only in fits and starts from 1521 to 1534. He never completely finished the chapel. In 1545 some of Michelangelo's students set the statues in place.

David (12.10),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance If Leonardo's Mona Lisa is one of the best-known paint- ings in Western art, Michelangelo's David (Fig. 13.10) is certainly one of the best-known sculptures—if not the best- known. It was commissioned upon Michelangelo's return to Florence in 1501, and the artist worked from a massive piece of Carrara marble that had lain behind the cathedral in Flor- ence since the middle of the preceding century—marble from an abandoned project. Michelangelo saw his figures' shapes as residing within the marble and himself as liberating them from their stone embrace; after much study, he freed David, whose victory against all logic, all odds, came to represent Florence's unlikely withstanding of attacks from a stronger Milan. At the time Michelangelo crafted his David, earlier Davids had generally shown the youthful hero with the head of the slain giant, as do the Davids by Donatello (ca. 1440-1460; see Fig. 12.15) and Verrocchio (ca. 1470; see Fig. 12.16). Donatello and Verrocchio's figures are slimmer and perhaps more youthful than Michelangelo's; it seems clear that a miracle, as recounted in the Hebrew Bible, has occurred. Michelan- gelo's David may seem sturdy enough to fulfill his destiny, yet the artist does not show him victorious, but rather intense and contemplative—apparently strategizing his assault on Goliath. The sling rests over his shoulder. Tension is com- municated in the muscles in David's arms, in the veins on the backs of his hands, in his furrowed brow. Most of his weight is on his back leg—his shoulders and hips are at oppos- ing angles, imparting an S curve to the torso. Michelangelo catches him in the moment between choice and action, just before he springs forth. The statue was placed outside the Palazzo Vecchio as a symbol of the civic power of the city, where it remained until weathering and damage required its removal to a museum in 1873. It has been said that Botticelli's paintings, the Davids of Donatello and Michelangelo, and the general skepticism of a mind like Leonardo's are all symptoms of the general pagan tone of Florence during the High Renaissance—that Ath- ens and Rome, in short, seemed far more important to Flor- ence than did Jerusalem. There is no doubt that the Classical revival was central to Florentine culture. David's weight is shifted to his right leg, causing a realignment of his body and lending to the realism of the sculpture. True, he stands there, but he is certainly not inert. He is contemplating his attack on the giant Goliath, and we imagine him pulling the sling from his shoulder and unleashing its missile.

Sistine Chapel Ceiling (12.12 A&B, 12.13),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance Michelangelo had hardly begun work on the pope's tomb when Julius commanded him to fresco the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel to com- plete the work done in the previous century under Sixtus IV. But Michelangelo resisted the project (he actually fled Rome and had to be ordered back by papal edict). He considered himself a sculptor, and there were technical problems presented by the shape of the ceiling. Nevertheless, he relented and in three years (1508-1511) finished the ceiling (Fig. 13.12a). He signed it "Michelangelo, Sculp- tor" to remind Julius of his reluctance and his own true vocation. That famed ceiling is the vault of the cha- pel of Pope Sixtus IV, known as the Sistine Cha- pel. The ceiling is some 5,800 square feet and is almost 70 feet above the floor. After much anguish and early attempts to populate the vault with a variety of reli- gious figures (eventually more than 300 in all), Michelan- gelo settled on a division of the ceiling into geometrical "frames" housing biblical prophets, mythological sooth- sayers, and biblical scenes from Genesis to the Flood. The overall organization consists of four large triangles at the corners; a series of eight triangular spaces on the outer border; an intermediate series of figures; and nine central panels (four larger than the other five), all bound together with architectural motifs and nude male figures (Fig. 13.12B). The corner triangles depict heroic action in the Hebrew Bible (Judith beheading Holofernes, David slaying Goliath, Haman being punished for his crimes, and the rod of Moses changing into a serpent), whereas the other eight triangles depict the biblical ancestors of Jesus Christ. The 10 major intermediate figures are alternating portraits of pagan sibyls (female prophets) and Hebrew prophets. The central panels are scenes from the Book of Genesis. The one closest to the altar shows God dividing darkness from light, and the one at the other end shows the drunkenness of Noah (Genesis 9:20-27). The most famous of these scenes is The Creation of Adam (Fig. 13.13). As Leonardo does in The Last Supper, Michelangelo chooses to communicate the event's most dramatic moment. Adam lies on the earth, listless for lack of a soul, while God the Father rushes toward him amidst a host of angels, who wrap him in a billowing cloak. The con- trasting figures lean toward the left, separated by an illumi- nated diagonal that provides a backdrop for the Creation. Amidst an atmosphere of sheer electricity, the hand of God reaches out to spark spiritual life into Adam—but does not touch him! In some of the most dramatic negative space in the history of art, Michelangelo has left it to the spectator to complete the act. In terms of style, Michelangelo inte- grates chiaroscuro with Botticelli's extensive use of line. His figures are harshly drawn and muscular with almost marble-like flesh. In translating his sculptural techniques to a two-dimensional surface, the artist has conceived his figures in the round and has used the tightest, most expeditious line and modeling possible to render them in paint. The fresco, demonstrating Michelangelo's ability to combine physical bulk with linear grace and a powerful dis- play of emotion, well exemplifies the adjective Michelange- lesque, applied to many later artists who were influenced by his style.

Pietà (12.9),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance Michelangelo spent his early days in the sculpture garden of Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence but fled when the Medici regime fell, moving first to Bologna and then to Rome. He sculpted the pietà (Fig. 13.9), which many observers consider to be his first masterpiece, in 1498 for a French cardinal living in Rome. The subject, Mary holding the dead son in her lap, was a common theme in French and German art. Yet Michel- angelo's rendering of the subject shows a deep sensitivity. The composition is pyramidal. The imitation of flesh and drapery in marble is masterly. An exacting observer might wonder how Mary can cradle a fully grown man in her lap as she might hold a sleeping child. The answer is that the lower part of Mary's body, which is implied to exist beneath the drapery, is larger than would be possible in the flesh. Yet the lines of the figures carry our gaze along the body of Jesus and along the torso and arms of Mary. Michelangelo's Pietà, like those that preceded it, shows the Virgin Mary holding her dead son, Jesus, in her lap. Although it is an intensely religious work, it stirred controversy because Mary is portrayed as beautiful and not mature enough to have an adult son. Michelangelo countered that her beauty represented her purity. Julius II endorsed the sculpture by commissioning Michelangelo to create several other works after viewing the Pietà.

Moses (12.11),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance One of the finished pieces is the Moses, begun after the death of Julius in 1513. We easily sense both the bulky physi- cality of Moses and the carefully modeled particulars of mus- culature, drapery, and hair. The fiercely inspired look on the seen God on Mount Sinai. His face radiates divine light but also divine fury toward the idolaters he spies when he comes down from the mountain. It is often said of Michelangelo that his work can overwhelm the viewer with a sense of awesome- ness; Italians speak of his terribilità. If any single statue has this awesomeness, it is the Moses. A viewer may have the feeling that it will rise and judge the unrighteous ( Moses has brought the commandments from Mount Sinai and now he sits—momentarily—with his face twisting into a terrible wrath as he views idolaters. The "horns" on his head represent rays of light; the use of horns instead of rays is based on a mistranslation in the Latin Vulgate Bible.

Medici Chapel (12.15),

Michelangelo Buonarrotti, High Renaissance The interior of the Medici Chapel (Fig. 13.15) echoes Brunelleschi's Pazzi Chapel with its dome, its use of a light grayish stone called pietra serena (serene stone), its Classical decoration, and its chaste and severe style. The plan envi- sioned an altar at one end of the chapel and at the other end, statues of the Madonna and child with Saints Cosmas and Damian. The saints were the patrons of physicians, an allu- sion to the name Medici, which means "the doctor's family." At the base of these statues are buried in utter simplicity the bodies of Lorenzo the Magnificent and his brother Giuliano. On opposite walls are niches with idealized seated figures of relatives of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the dukes Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici in Roman armor. Beneath each are two symbolic figures resting on a sarcophagus: Night and Day, and Dawn and Dusk. (Fig. 13.16) This great complex, unfinished like many of Michelan- gelo's projects, is a brooding meditation on the shortness of life, the inevitability of death, and the Christian hope for resurrection. Both the stark decoration of the chapel and the positioning of the statues (Duke Lorenzo seems always turned to the dark with his head in shadow, whereas Duke Giuliano seems more readily to accept the light) form a mute testament to the rather pessimistic and brooding nature of their creator. When Michelangelo had finished the figure of Night, a Florentine poet named Strozzi wrote a poem in honor of the statue, with a pun on the name Michelangelo:

Leonardo da Vinci, Letter of Application to Ludovico Sforza

Most Illustrious Lord, Having now sufficiently considered the specimens of all those who proclaim themselves skilled contrivers of instruments of war, and that the invention and operation of the said instruments are nothing different from those in common use: I shall endeavor, without prejudice to any one else, to explain myself to your Excellency, showing your Lordship my secrets, and then offering them to your best pleasure and approbation to work with effect at opportune moments on all those things which, in part, shall be briefly noted below. 1. I have a sort of extremely light and strong bridge, adapted to be most easily carried, and with it you may pursue, and at any time flee from the enemy; and others, secure and indestructible by fire and battle, easy and convenient to lift and place. Also methods of burning and destroying those of the enemy. 2. I know how, when a place is besieged, to take the water out of the trenches, and make endless variety of bridges, and covered ways and ladders, and other machines pertaining to such expeditions. 3. If, by reason of the height of the banks, or the strength of the place and its position, it is impossible, when besieging a place, to avail oneself of the plan of bombardment, I have methods for destroying every rock or other fortress, even if it were founded on a rock, etc. 4. Again, I have kinds of mortars; most convenient and easy to carry; and with these I can fling small stones almost resembling a storm; and with the smoke of these cause great terror to the enemy, to his great detriment and confusion. 5. And if the fight should be at sea I have kinds of many machines most efficient for offense and defense; and in France just before his death) to designing prototypes for airplanes and submarines to creating some of the most mem- orable Renaissance paintings. In about 1481, Leonardo looked for work with Ludovico Sforza, the son of the ruler of Milan. Just as we sometimes tailor our résumés to coincide with the job we are seeking, so too did Leonardo write his letter of introduction stressing those qualities that he felt might be of greatest interest to Sforza, mentioning his artistic abili- ties only briefly. He assumed that Sforza was more concerned with making war—or defending against it. Leonardo's application was accepted. Leonardo left us about 30 paintings. The Last Supper (Fig. 13.3), a fresco painting executed for the dining hall of a Milan monastery, stands as one of his greatest works. The condition of the work is poor, because of Leonardo's experi- mental fresco technique—although the steaming of pasta for centuries on the other side of the wall may also have played Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. vessels which will resist the attack of the largest guns and powder and fumes. I have means by secret and tortuous mines and ways, made without noise, to reach a designated spot, even if it were needed to pass under a trench or a river. I will make covered chariots, safe and unattackable, which, entering among the enemy with their artillery, there is no body of men so great but they would break them. And behind these, infantry could follow quite unhurt and without any hindrance. In case of need I will make big guns, mortars, and light ordnance of fine and useful forms, out of the common type. Where the operation of bombardment might fail, I would contrive catapults, mangonels, trabocchi, and other machines of marvelous efficacy and not in common use. And in short, according to the variety of cases, I can contrive various and endless means of offense and defense. In times of peace I believe I can give perfect satisfaction and to the equal of any other in architecture and the composition of buildings public and private; and in guiding water from one place to another. I can carry out sculpture in marble, bronze, or clay, and also I can do in painting whatever may be done, as well as any other, be he who he may. Again, the bronze horse may be taken in hand, which is to be to the immortal glory and eternal honor of the prince your father of happy memory, and of the illustrious house of Sforza. And if any of the above-named things seem to anyone to be impossible or not feasible, I am most ready to make the experiment in your park, or in whatever place may please your Excellency—to whom I commend myself with the utmost humility, etc.

motet

Motets were now written for special occasions like coronations or noble marriages and the conclusions of peace treaties. Composers who could supply such motets on short notice found wel- come in the courts of Renaissance Italian city-states. four voices—a form not held to traditional usage in the way masses were—that he showed his true genius for cre- ative musical composition. Josquin has been most praised for homogeneous musical structure, a sense of balance and order, and a feel for the quality of the lyrics.

Erasmus of Rotterdam, In Praise of Folly

Perhaps it would be better to pass silently over the theologians. Dealing with them, since they are hot-tempered, is like . . . eating poisonous beans. They may attack me with six hundred arguments and force me to retract what I hold; for if I refuse, they will immediately declare me a heretic. . . . These theologians are happy in their self-love, and as if they were presently inhabiting a third heaven, they look down on all men as though they were animals that crawled along the ground, coming near to pity them. They are protected by a wall of scholastic definitions, arguments, corollaries, and implicit and explicit propositions. . . . They come forth with newly invented terms and monstrous sounding words. Furthermore, they explain the most mysterious matters to suit themselves, for instance, the method by which the world was set in order and began, through what channels original sin has come down to us through generations, by what means, in what measure, and how long the Omnipotent Christ was in the Virgin's womb, and how accidents subsist in the Eucharist without their substance. . . . And furthermore, they draw exact pictures of every part of hell, as though they had spent many years in that region. They also fabricate new heavenly regions as imagination dictates, adding the biggest of all and the finest, for there must be a suitable place for the blessed souls to take their walks, to entertain at dinner, or even to play a game of ball.

Perpendicular Style

Perpendicular style in architecture is also known as English Gothic because of its extended development in England. English Gothic structures built in this time period often exhibit a heavy emphasis on vertical lines, highly complex vault ribbing (such as fan vaulting), the elimination of the semicircular apse in favor of a flat high wall of stained glass, and an extended nave.

Madonna of the Meadow (12.7),

Raphael Sanzio, High Renaissance During his stay in Florence, Raphael painted many Madonnas in a style that has become almost synonymous with his name. The Madonna of the Meadow (Fig. 13.7) is typical. In this painting Raphael arranged his figures in a pyramidal configuration similar to the one we find in Leon- ardo's Madonna of the Rocks. This configuration was conge- nial to the Renaissance preoccupation with rationally ordered composition. But with Raphael, we also find a beautiful mod- eling of the human forms, especially in the figures of the two children and the genuine sweetness and warmth conveyed by the faces. The head of the Madonna is peaceful and lumi- nous, while the infant Christ and John the Baptist convey a somewhat more playful mood. The human quality of the divine figure is Raphael's trademark. Note, too, that the back- ground is rural and naturalistic, made of light, uplifting hues and values. Leonardo's Madonna and the other characters are shown surrounded by rock in darkness, with barely enough light shining through to illuminate the people. Because of the contest between light and dark, the Leonardo shows high contrasts. The Raphael is more concerned with subtle shad- ings, harmony, grace, and sweetness.

The School of Athens (12.8 A&B)

Raphael Sanzio, High Renaissance One of Raphael's most outstanding works—and cer- tainly one of the most important for defining the meaning the 16th-century Renaissance in Rome—is a large fresco executed in 1509-1511 on the wall of the Stanza della Segna- tura, an office in the Vatican Palace where documents requir- ing the pope's signature were prepared. Now called Philosophy (The School of Athens) (Fig. 13.8a), the fresco is a highly symbolic homage to philosophy that complements Raphael's similar frescoes in the same room symbolizing poetry, law, and theology. Philosophy (The School of Athens) portrays the great phi- losophers of antiquity in an immense illusionistic architec- tural framework that must have been at least partially inspired by the impressive ruins of Roman baths and basilicas, and perhaps by the new Saint Peter's then under construction. Raphael's fresco depicts Roman barrel vaulting, coffered ceilings, and broad expanses not unlike those in the still- existing baths of ancient Rome. The figures symbolize phi- losophy, one of the four subjects deemed most valuable for a pope's education. The members of the gathering are divided into two camps, representing opposing philosophies, and are led on the right by Aristotle and on the left by his men- tor, Plato. Corresponding to these leaders are the Platonists, whose concerns are the more lofty realm of ideas (notice Plato pointing upward), and the Aristotelians, who are more in touch with matters of the earth, such as natural science. Some of the figures have been identified: Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher, sprawls out on the steps, while Pythagoras cal- culates on a slate and Ptolemy holds a globe. At the right, the idealized figure of Euclid with his compass is actually a por- trait of Raphael's Roman protector, the architect Bramante. Heraclitus, a founder of Greek metaphysics, sits pensively just left of center. Of more interest is the fact that Raphael included a portrait of himself, staring out toward the viewer, in the far right foreground. He is shown in a group surround- ing the geometrician Euclid. Raphael clearly saw himself as important enough to be commemorated in a Vatican mural as an ally of the Aristotelian camp. Raphael's Philosophy (The School of Athens) reflects a high degree of sensitivity to ordered space, a complete ease with Classical thought, obvious inspiration from the Roman archi- tectural past, a brilliant sense of color and form, and a love for intellectual clarity—characteristics that could sum up the Renaissance ideal. Figure 13.8B shows how perspective works in the painting. As evidence of the ability of Renais- sance artists to portray depth, all orthogonal lines lead to a single point, called a vanishing point, which sits squarely between the two central philosophers. Ever smaller and less textured vaults continue behind them. The horizon line— the line which represents the vantage point of the viewer— cuts through their bodies left and right. Converging on this point are orthogonals that can be traced from the patterns of the marble flooring below the horizon line and the horizontal entablatures sitting atop the piers that recede dramatically toward the rear of the arcade.

Boccaccio, The Decameron

Talks about the black plague.

Avignon papacy

The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now in France) rather than in Rome.

Florence cathedral (the Duomo) (10.24)

The Duomo was designed in the Late Medieval period by Arnolfo di Cambio and completed in the Early Renaissance when Filippo Brunelleschi constructed the great dome (although the façade was still being worked on in the 19th century). Giotto, the most famous Florentine painter of the 14th century, designed the freestanding campanile, or bell tower. The baptistery, located in a square across from the entrance of the cathedral, was built between 1059 and 1128; it is famous for relief sculpture on its bronze doors, one set of which was created by Giovanni Pisano. weightier than the perpendicular style.

illumination

The artistic decoration of books and manuscripts

loggia

The loggia is defined by hemispherical arches sup- ported by Corinthian columns on street level; above, rectan- gular windows crowned with small triangular pediments are placed directly over the center of each arch. The horizontal progression of arches is reiterated in the gray stone moldings that separate the two levels of the façade. Despite its simple appearance, the building's intricate proportions and rela- tionships were calculated with mathematical precision: the height of the columns is equal to the space between them and to the distance between them and the wall of the loggia.

chiaroscuro

The treatment of light and shade in a work of art, especially to give an illusion of depth. An artistic technique in which subtle gradations of value create the illusion of rounded three- dimensional forms in space; also termed modeling (from Italian for "light-dark").

uomo universale ("Renaissance Man")

They're good at everything.

cantus firmus mass

a cyclic Mass in which the five movements of the Ordinary are unified by means of a single cantus firmus. Considered the traditional line The first approach was to base all five parts of the Mass on a Gregorian chant. This was called a cantus firmus mass ("cantus firmus" is another name for a Gregorian chant).

centering (also called scaffolding)

a type of falsework: the temporary structure upon which the stones of an arch or vault are laid during construction. Until the keystone is inserted an arch has no strength and needs the centring to keep the voussoirs in their correct relative positions.

dialectic

any formal system of reasoning that arrives at the truth by the exchange of logical arguments

moveable type

blocks of metal or wood, each bearing a single character, that can be arranged to make up a page for printing

relief

carving into the surface of a block and removing the negative space so the image is raised.

chanson mass

chanson is a french word that means song and is a song that is free in form and expressive in nature; (pg. 415) Guillaume Dufay, teacher and composer, secularized the motet and popularized chanson masses in the 1430s; using a popular song as the musical basis for the five parts of the Mass (combining sacred and secular) he second approach, and one that Dufay pioneered, was to use a popular song (in French, a chanson) as the musical basis for the five parts of the Mass, with the resultant work called a chanson mass. Dufay's most famous chanson mass was based on the folk tune "L'Homme armé," although on occasion he used a chanson that he himself had composed, as in the case of his piece "Se la face ay pale," a love song, and the later mass that he wrote based on that song's melody and rhythm.

vellum

fine parchment made originally from the skin of a calf.

Great Schism

he Catholic Church also experienced serious conflicts during the fourteenth century. The political role played by the pope brought the church into contention with growing national monarchies, and the election of a new pope became a source for political strife. In 1307, a pope sympathetic to the French king moved the papacy to Avignon in southern France. Several succeeding popes also were viewed as supporting French political goals instead of maintaining a spiritual neutrality. This eventually led to a split, known as the Great Schism, with different groups of cardinals electing rival popes. It was a situation that was unresolved until 1417.

lost wax bronze casting

is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture (often silver, gold, brass or bronze) is cast from an original sculpture.

word painting

making the music directly reflect the meaning of the words

fresco

painting on wet plaster. Difficult due to the quick nature that it dries and solidifies

sprezzaturra

studied carelessness, especially as a characteristic quality or style of art or literature. acting like it's not hard with grace.

Black Death

the Black Death was the most serious and had the greatest impact. Estimates are that the particularly virulent strain of the bubonic plague arrived in Southern Europe at the end of 1347 and then spread throughout the continent in 1348, killing around one-third of the entire population. Urban areas were more particularly affected: in Italy, Florence lost around half of its citizens and Siena lost seventy percent. The effect of such a rapid and deadly epidemic is difficult to imagine: for a population that had only the most rudimentary ideas about how diseases spread and no way to treat a bacterial infection of this kind, the plague seemed apocalyptic, a sign that the world was ending.

sfumato

the technique of allowing tones and colors to shade gradually into one another, producing softened outlines or hazy forms.

modeling

using light and gradations of shade to create an illusion of round- ness)