FINAL_PSYC 2440_Aug_07

8 Briefly describe the forward-chaining method

"The forward chaining method teaches the initial step of the sequence first, then teaches and links the first and second steps, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired"

7 Briefly describe the backward-chaining method.

"With the backward-chaining method, the last step is taught first, then the next-to-last step is taught and linked to the last step, then the third-from last step is taught and liked to the last two steps, and so on, progressing backward towards the beginning of the chain. Backward chaining gradually constructs the chain in reverse order from that in which the chain is performed"

6 Briefly describe the total-task presentation chaining method.

"With the total-task presentation chaining method, an individual attempts all of the steps from the beginning to the end of the chain on each trial and continues with total task trials until that person learns the chain. Prompting is provided at each step as needed, and a reinforcer follows the correct completion of the last step"

10 What are two procedural differences between escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning?

(a) In avoidance conditioning, the aversive stimulus is not present prior to the occurrence of the response, while in escape conditioning it is. (b) In avoidance conditioning the response prevents (or postpones) the aversive stimulus rather than removing it as in escape conditioning. Also, avoidance conditioning usually involves a warning signal, whereas escape conditioning does not.

14 What are three reasons that could explain the effectiveness of a delayed punisher in decreasing a behavior?

(a) instructions about the behavior leading to the punisher (b) self-statements (thoughts) that intervene between the behavior and the delayed punisher (c) immediate conditioned punishers that intervene between the behavior and the delayed back-up punisher.

1 Define behavioural assessment.

- Behavioural assessment involves the collection an analysis of information and data in order to: a) identify and describe target behaviours b) identify possible causes of behaviour c) guide the selection of an appropriate behavioural treatment d) evaluate treatment outcome.

18 Briefly describe B.F. Skinner's early influence on behaviour modification?

-He distinguished between operant and pavlovian conditioning. -Offered his interpretation of how basic learning principles could influence behavior of people in all kinds of situations (operant conditioning principles could be used to help people) -These applications of the principles were called "behaviour modification"

25 What is key to ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists?

-perform a thorough behavioral assessment before applying the intervention. The intervention should include ongoing monitoring of target behaviors as well as possible side effects, and an appropriate follow-up evaluation after the treatment is concluded. It is the monitoring of data by concerned parties and clients that is the cornerstone for ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied behavior analysts/behavior therapists.

25 Cite 6 potential harmful side effects of the application of punishment.

1) Aggressive behaviour 2) Emotional behaviour 3) Escape + Avoidance behaviour 4) No new behaviour 5) Modeling of punishment 6) Overuse of punishment

18 What are two common measures of the amount of behavior?

1) Frequency: - The number of instances of the behavior that occur in a given period of time - Rate is often used interchangeably with this - common measure of the amount of behavior - Ex: if interested in improving the practice performance of young skaters, you might examine the frequency with which they performed various jumps and spins during practices - Frequency graph: each data represents the total number of elements completed during a session - Cumulative Graph 2) Duration: - Important in measuring amount - The sum of a behavior's duration/total time - Relative duration: of behavior is the length of time that it occurs within some period - Ex: keeping track of temper tantrumming because you are more concerned with it's duration than it's frequency

2 Describe three differences between operant behavior and respondent behavior.

1.) Operant are controlled by consequences; respondent are automatic to prior stimuli 2.) Operant responses affects the environment to produce consequences 3.) Operant is emitted by an individual; respondent is elicited by prior stimuli

13 Define 4 major categories of teacher-behavior prompts. Give an example of each

1.Physical prompts/guidance - touching the learner to help guide him appropriately 2.Gestural prompts - Pointing, making motions without touching, etc. 3.Modeling prompts - Having a student watch you do the dance step you ask her to perform 4.Verbal prompts - Telling a student how to do a dance step

39 Give six reasons for collecting accurate data during an assessment or baseline phase and throughout a program.

1.Provides a description of the problem that will help the behavior modifier to decide whether he or she is the appropriate one to design the treatment program 2.Sometimes accurate baseline data will indicate what someone thought to be a problem is actually not a problem 3.The initial assessment process often helps the behavior modifier to identify the best treatment strategy - Using information from a baseline to analyze the causes of behavior is referred to as a functional assessment 4. Accurate baseline and program data provide a means for clearly determining whether the program has produced, or is producing, the desired change in behavior 5.Publicly posted results- preferable in form of a graph or chart- can prompt and reinforce behavior modifiers for carrying out the program 6. The displayed data may lead to improvements by the learner apart from any further treatment program - Example of reactivity

10 Distinguish between an exclusionary and nonexclusionary timeout.

Exclusionary time: consists of removing an individual briefly from a reinforcing situation immediately following a behaviour. (putting child into a "timeout room") Non-exclusionary timeout: consists of introducing into the situation, immediately following a behaviour, a stimulus associated with less reinforcement. (Not being able to participate in classroom activities)

12 State the procedures for extinction, response cost, and exclusionary timeout

Extinction: In an extinction procedure, a reinforcer is withheld following a previously reinforced response. Response cost: In a response cost, a reinforcer is taken away following an undesirable response. Exclusionary timeout: In an exclusionary timeout, it consists of removing an individual briefly from a reinforcing situation immediately following a behavior.

7 Briefly, in a sentence each, describe five variables that influence the development of a conditioned reflex.

First, the greater the number of pairing of a CS with a US, the greater is the ability of the CS to elicit the CR, until a maximum strength of the CR has been reached. Second, stronger conditioning occur if the CS precedes the US by about half a second, rather than a longer time r rather than following the US. Third, a CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with the US than if it is only occasionally paired with the US. Fourth, when several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS. Fifth, respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or US or both are intense rather than weak.

25 Give an example of how ignorance of operant stimulus discrimination training may lead parents or other caregivers to develop an undesirable behavior in a child or adult in their care.

For example, if a young child cries when they are not being held by their mom which causes the mom to pick up the child. The crying occurs because it is being reinforced by the mom's attention.

13 Briefly describe an example of how people unknowingly strengthen others' undesirable behavior by allowing such behavior to lead to escape or avoidance of aversive stimuli.

For example, one study indicates that parents of children labelled as antisocial frequently strengthened aggressive behavior by "giving in" when the aggressive behavior occurred.

8 Give in some detail an example, which is not in this chapter, of how DRL would be useful in treating a behavior problem. Indicate which type of DRL is to be used.

For example, suppose that a young couple with a two-year-old child is entertaining guests. Suppose further that the child runs into the room where the adults are talking every few minutes with a different toy, saying, "See my new toy!" With cooperation from the guests, it might be appropriate for the parents to place the child on a 15-minute spaced-responding DRL in order to retain some interaction between the child and the guests, but to reduce them to a more reasonable frequency. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

27 When would one likely select an interval recording system over continuous recording?

If successive responses are of variable duration, such as time spent watching TV or on Facebook, or exhibiting off-task behaviour in a classroom, interval recording is commonly used rather than continuous recording where every instance of a behaviour during a designated observation period is recorded.

20 In general, what is a contingency? Give an example that is not in this chapter.

In general, a contingency is an if-then type of arrangement. For example, if you press the button on a water fountain, then water will appear. We say that the appearance of water is contingent upon the button-pressing response. From chapter four: a reinforcer is contingent when a specific behavior (button pressing) must occur before that reinforcer (water) will be present. Example: The starting of a car (reinforcer) is contingent upon putting keys in the ignition (response).

4 Define limited-responding DRL, and give an example.

In limited responding DRL, an individual is reinforced if fewer than a certain number of responses occur during a session, or during a separate interval within a session. Thus, from zero to the maximum allowable number of responses might occur and the subject will still be reinforced. For example, in Tommy's case, an interval of 50 minutes was specified, and reinforcement occurred at the end of the interval if it contained three or fewer talk-outs by Tommy. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5 Define spaced-responding DRL, and give an example.

In spaced-responding DRL, an instance of a behavior must occur for reinforcement, and that instance must be separated from a previous instance of that behavior by a specified period of time. For example, this type of schedule might be used with a child who asks a parent for a drink of water every few minutes. The child might be put on a spaced- responding DRL one response per hour schedule, meaning that a request for a drink will be reinforced only if it has not occurred during the preceding hour. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

1 define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement.

Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behavior is positively reinforced only occasionally, rather than every time it occurs. For example, your problem solving behavior is not reinforced after each math problem you solve; instead you receive reinforcement after a fixed number of problem solving responses have occurred.

34 In a sentence or two, explain what we mean by interobserver agreement. (Describe th the process, but don't give the procedures for calculating IOA.)

Interobserver reliability is a measure of the extent to which two observers agree on the occurrences of a behaviour after independently observing and recording it during a specified period of time.

12 Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?

It is necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program so that you help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and change in the frequency, which is the yardstick by which one can judge reinforcer effectiveness and increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied constantly.

11 In what way is positive reinforcement like gravity?

It's a law, it's very predictable

39 Consider this statement: "A college student was reinforced for studying 3 hours on the weekend by getting a good grade on the test the following week." How does this statement exemplify the inaccurate-explanation-of-behaviour pitfall.

It's an oversimplified explanation. There was a long gap between studying and consequence of an A. We should look for immediate consequences that strengthened the behavior (if consequence happens more than 30 seconds after behavior) eg. Anxiety reduction

29Briefly describe momentary time-sampling recording.

Momentary time-sampling recording is a special case of time sampling in which a behavior is recorded as occurring or not occurring at specific points in time, such as every hour on the hour rather than during specific brief intervals.

31 What do we mean by the natural environment? By natural reinforcers? By programmed reinforcers?

Natural environment: A setting in which an individual carries out normal, everday functions. Natural reinforcers: Reinforcers that follow behavior in the course of everday living and occur in the natural environment. Programmed Reinforcers: Reinforcers arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers, and others in behavior modification programs.

24 Describe an example of how VI/LH might be applied in a training program.

A VI/LH schedule can be used in a classroom setting. For example, a teacher faced with a class full of rambunctious young students might use a variation of The Timer game, such as a VI 30 mins/LH 0 seconds schedule to reinforce in-seat behaviour. That is, if the children are working quietly at their seats whenever the timer rings after a variable 30 minute interval, they would receive some desirable item such as points that could be accumulated toward extra free time.

7 Explain in two or three sentences what a token economy is.

A behavior modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviours and case them in for backup reinforcers. The tokens are used because they can bridge the gap between behavior and reinforcement.

4 Distinguish between a behaviour sequence that is a chain and one that is not a chain.

A behaviour chain consists of stimuli and responses that occur closely to each other in time, and a reinforcer typically follows the last response. Making a sandwich is said to be a behaviour chain, as each stimulus prompts a response in the chain, leading to a final reinforcer. To put this into context, hunger leads to preparing bread; seeing that the bread is prepared (buttered etc.) leads to putting on lunchmeat; seeing that the meat is placed on the bread leads to putting on condiments or sauce and so on until the final prepared sandwich is a reinforcer.

14 What do we mean by common-element stimulus class? By conceptual behavior? Describe an example of each that is not in this chapter.

A common-element stimulus class is a set of stimuli, all of which have one or more physical characteristic in common. Example: When teaching shape recognition to a child you would have to reinforce the response "circle" many times when showing objects shaped like a circle and extinguish responses other than circle. Conceptual behavior occurs when an individual responds appropriately to all members of a common-element stimulus class and does not emit that response to stimuli that do not belong to that class. Example: When a child responds appropriately to the above example of "circle" when they see a ball, a wheel, etc.

5 Define conditioned reflex and describe an example.

A conditioned reflex is a response to the once unconditioned response. A stimuli that did not originally elicit a response, but has come to do so through appropriate pairings with a stimulus that did elicit that response. In the example in chapter 3, the conditioned reflex was Susan having emotions of fear every time she approached a take off position for a double axel.

8 What is a discrete-trials procedure? Give an example.

A discrete-trials procedure is when the individual is "not free" to respond at whatever rate he or she chooses because the environment places limits on the availability of response opportunities. For example, a parent tells a teenager that they can use the family car after they have helped do the dishes following three evening meals.

26 Explain what an FD schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of FD schedules that occur in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter).

A fixed ratio (FR) schedule is when a reinforcer occurs each time a fixed number of responses of a particular type are emitted. One example would be an individual having to solve 10 math problems correctly before being reinforced. Another example is when a hockey team must skate two laps before taking a break.

7 What is a free-operant procedure? Give an example.

A free-operant procedure is one in which the individual is "free" to respond at various rates in the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. For example, if you are given 12 math problems to solve, you could work at a rate of one per minute, three per minute, or at which ever rate you choose.

23 Explain what a VI/LH schedule is. Describe the details of an example that occurs in everyday life (that is not in this chapter)

A variable interval schedule with a limited hold (VI/LH) is the same as a FI/LH schedule except the interval can vary instead of being fixed to a certain time. An example would be if we are phoning a friend but their line is busy. As long as the line is busy we will not get through to our friend no matter how many times we dial, and we have no way of predicting how long the line will be busy. However, after finishing the call our friend might receive another call. If we don't call after one of the limited periods in which the line is free, we miss the reinforcement of talking to our friend and must wait another unpredictable period before we have another opportunity to gain this reinforcement.

11 Explain what a VR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of VR schedules in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter). Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure or a discrete-trials procedure?

A variable-ratio (VR) schedule is when a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response, and the number of response required for each reinforcer changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next. Casting for fish in an example of a VR schedule, because you need to cast an unpredictable amount of times to get a bite. This would involve a free-operant procedure. Another example would be gambling on a slot machine, because there is no way of predicting how many times you must play to win. This would involve a free-operant procedure.

2 What is an ABC assessment?

An ABC (antecedent, behavior and consequences) assessment occurs when you identify the antecedents and consequences of a behavior.

21 Explain what an FI/LH schedule is, and illustrate with an example that is not in this chapter.

An FI/LH schedule a fixed interval schedule with a limited hold. For instance, after a fixed interval, there's a limited amount of time for the response to be made. For example when going to see a movie, you can arrive an hour before, 15 minutes before, or as the previews are starting, but you will still be able to see the entire movie.

27 Give an example of functional communication training.

An example of functional communication training would be a situation is which children were taught a simple communication response (eg. ringing a bell) as an alternative to self-abuse to obtain staff attention. The self-injurious behavior would effectively be eliminated.

6 Define unconditioned punisher. Describe an example that illustrates the complete definition.

An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus that is punishing without prior learning. It is a physical punisher which is a stimulus that activates pain receptors which are technically called nociceptors. These are nerve endings located throughout the body that detect pressure, stretching, and temperature changes strong enough to potentially cause tissue damage, and that, when activated are experienced as pain. Example: Spanking. This is because a spanking is a stimulus that activates pain receptors which are technically called nociceptors. It is a stimulus that is punishing without prior learning

17 Suppose that a professor gives an exam to students every Friday. The students' studying behavior would likely resemble the characteristic pattern of an FI schedule in that studying would gradually increase as Friday approaches, and the students would show a break in studying (similar to a lengthy postreinforcement pause) after each exam. But this isn't an example of an FI schedule for studying. Explain why.

Because The students must make more than one study response in order to receive a good grade, and responding before the interval does affect the result as it contributes to a good grade.

10 What is meant by the term starting behaviour in a shaping program? Give an example.

Behaviour that occurs often enough to be reinforced within the session time, and it should approximate the final target behaviour. Ex. Frank's behaviour of walking around the house once is something that he did periodically. This was the closest approximation that he regularly made with respect to the goal of jogging a quarter of a mile.

10 What is a behavioral excess? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.

Behavioural excess is when too much behaviour of a particular type is shown. Examples include studying continuously and drinking one drink after another.

12 What is biological preparedness? Give an example.

Biological preparedness is a term coined by Seligman (1971) to refer to the predisposition of members of a species to be more readily conditioned to some neutral stimuli as conditioned stimulus then others. For example humans learn more quickly to fear snakes and insects that pose a threat to our survival than to stimuli such as pictures of flowers that are nonthreatening.

11 briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages of indirect assessment procedures.

Briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages of indirect assessment procedures. Advantages: - Convenient - Do not require inordinate amount of time - Potentially can provide information about covert behaviors Disadvantages: - Those providing the information may not remember relevant observations accurately - Those providing information may have a particular bias that would influence them to provide inaccurate data

8 What is operant behavior? Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behavior.

Operant behaviour is a behaviour that is influenced by its consequences Ex. as a husband and wife are getting ready for bed, the husband picks up the wife's underwear and puts it in the laundry. His wife pats him on the back and says thank you. In the future, he is more likely to do the same thing again because of the praise he got from her

3 Describe the conditioning procedures and the results of conditioning for operant conditioning (positive reinforcement only) and respondent conditioning.

Operant conditioning Procedure: in the presence of a stimulus, a response is followed by a reinforcer Result: response is more likely to occur to prior stimulus now called an SD Respondent conditioning Procedure: Pairing of a neutral stimulus with an eliciting stimulus prior to a response Result: response is more likely to occur to the neutral stimulus not called a CS

23 : What is operant conditioning? Give an example.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences. For example, we have learned to turn on a water tap to produce water as a consequence. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

12 In a sentence for each, summarize three important components that make up our emotions, and name the type of conditioning involved in each component. (pg. 146)

Our emotions are made up of the following 3 components: • The autonomic reaction that one feels during the experience of an emotion (typically accompanied by visible signs such as frowns or smiles), this component is influenced by respondent conditioning • The way that an individual learns to express an emotion overtly (such as shouting, jumping up and down) which is influenced by operant conditioning • The way that an individual becomes aware of and describes his or her emotions, which is influenced by operant conditioning

23 Using an example, explain how the quality of a behavior is a refinement of one or more of the other dimensions of behavior.

Quality is not a characteristic additional to those mentioned previously. Rather, it is a refinement of one or more of them. Sometimes differences in judgements of quality are based on topography, as when a figure skating jump that is landed on one foot is considered better than one that lands on two feet. Sometimes it is a combination of frequency and stimulus control. For example, someone who is a good student is most likely show a high frequency of studying and answering test questions correctly.

12 List the five main types of indirect assessment procedures.

Questionaires interviews with the client and significant others information obtained from consulting professionals role playing client self monitoring

17 Define respondent stimulus discrimination and give an example.

Respondent stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus that functions as a CS to elicit a CR because that stimulus has been paired with a US that elicits that CR, but a similar stimulus does not function as a CS for that CR because the second stimulus has been paired with extinction trials. For example if we were to experience several episodes of the dentist's drill paired with pain, and several episodes of the butchers cutting machine never being paired with pain the we would eventually show respondent stimulus discrimination.

16 Define respondent stimulus generalization. Give an example.

Respondent stimulus generalization occurs when an organism has been conditioned so that a particular CS elicits a CR, and then a similar stimulus elicits that CR. For example while the dentist is drilling a cavity, you experience e pain. The dentist's drill is likely to become a CS causing you to cringe. Later at the meat market you hear the sound of the butcher's cutting machine, you feel yourself cringing.

2 define and give an example of response rate.

Response rate is the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time. For example, solving five math questions in 10 minutes.

19 Compare S(delta) to S(Dp). Give an example of each from your own experience.

SD - stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced Ex.) When a child is playing with his friends, the laughter and attention from his friends reinforces the response of swearing, so the stimulus of the other children is the SD SDP - stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished Ex.) When children as their parents for something when they were in a bad mood, this lead to a reprimand, so the characteristic of being in a bad mood is an SDP OR S^ - stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced Ex.) My parents ignored my brother when he was swearing, they withheld their attention as a reinforcer, and the swearing decreased, the sight of my parents would be a S^ for swearing SDP - stimulus in the presence of which a response will be punished Ex.) When my brother swore, my parents reduced 25 cents from my brother's allowance and the behavior then decreased. So the sight of my parents would be an SDP for swearing

10 Describe the operant stimulus discrimination training procedure. Give an example that is not in this chapter.

SIMILAR: Define stimulus discrimination training and give an example that illustrates the procedure and the result that are not in this chapter Stimulus discrimination training refers to a) the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of an SD and extinguishing that response in the presence of an SE, and b) two results including: i) good stimulus control in that response consistently occurs to the SD; and ii) a stimulus discrimination on that response occurs to SD and not to SE. Ex. When a basketball player learns to shoot with more force when he is further from the basket.

3 Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement.

Schedule of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if any, will be reinforced. For example, a parent tells their child that each time they finish their homework they are rewarded with getting to play video games, however, if they don't do their homework, they don't get to play video games.

16 Define extra-stimulus prompt. Give an example not from this text. Does your example involve a teacher-behaviour prompt or an environmental prompt?

Something that is added to the environment to make a correct response more likely. Ex. suppose that a teacher is attempting to teach a child to discriminate between brown and blue objects when the teacher says, "brown" or "blue." The correct object (e.g., a brown object when the teacher says, "brown") could be placed closer to the child, and the incorrect object could be placed farther away. The position prompt (of the objects) in this case would be an extra-stimulus prompt, and could be faded across trials. This is an example of a teacher-behaviour prompt.

22 What do behavior modifiers mean by the term satiation? Give an example.

That condition in which the individual has experienced the reinforcer to such an extent that it's no longer reinforcing. Eg. Jessica is given a candy every time she solves a multiplication problem. Soon she grows tired of the candy, and won't do her math.

16 What basic assumption do the authors of this text make about public and private behavior?

The assumptions that the authors make of this text about public and private behaviour are that although it is true that the great majority of studies in behaviour modification have been concerned with observable behaviour's, many behaviour modifiers have taken an interest in dealing with private behaviour. Thinking and feeling as private behaviour's are proper subject matter for behaviour modifiers and can be readily dealt with in terms of operant and respondent conditioning principles.

15 What happens if the frequency of reinforcement on DRL, DRO, DRI, or DRA is too low or is decreased too rapidly?

The behavior is likely to increase in frequency to its level of occurrence prior to the introduction of the schedule.

7 If a behavior that was maintained by positive reinforcement is not reinforced at least once in a while, what will happen to the behavior?

The behavior that was positively reinforced will occur less frequency

3 Define stimulus control.

The degree of correlation between the occurrence of a particular stimulus and the occurrence of a subsequent response.

2 Define shaping.

The development of a new behaviour by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behaviour and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behaviour until the new behaviour occurs.

5 Describe four advantages of intermittent reinforcement over CRF for maintaining behavior.

The four advantages of intermittent reinforcement over CRF for maintaining behavior are: a) The reinforcer remains effective longer because satiation takes place more slowly b) Behavior that has been reinforced intermittently tends to take longer to extinguish c) Individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules d) Behavior that has been reinforced intermittently is more likely to persist after being transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment

16 What does the frequency of behavior mean? Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

The number of instances of the behavior that occur in a given period of time - Rate is often used interchangeably with this - common measure of the amount of behavior - Ex: if interested in improving the practice performance of young skaters, you might examine the frequency with which they performed various jumps and spins during practices - Frequency graph: each data represents the total number of elements completed during a session - Cumulative Graph

10 What do we mean by final target stimulus? Give an example.

The occurrence of the response to that particular stimulus is likely to be maintained in the natural environment at the end of a fading program. Ex. such as a dog raising his paw on its own when asked to

17 What is a primary distinction between stimulus generalization involving common-element stimulus classes and stimulus generalization involving stimulus equivalence classes?

The primary distinction between stimulus generalizations involving the two classes is that common-element stimulus classes involve physically similar items (a ball, a wheel are both circles) whereas stimulus equivalence classes involve items which have no physical similarity but we have learned to group them together (a carrot and a pea are both vegetables).

24 Define continuous recording. Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

The recording of every instance of a behaviour during a designated observation period. Commonly used when successive responses are quite similar in duration such as the number of cigarettes smoked, instances of a child pinching or slapping another child, or frequency of saying "eh".

11 What do we mean by starting stimulus? Give an example.

The stimulus that reliably evokes the desired behavior at the beginning of the fading program. Ex. Teaching someone their name- The trainer knew that the person would mimic the last word of a question when that word was spoken loudly. Therefore, the starting stimulus for the person was the question, "what's your name?" said very softly and followed quickly by shouting their name. The shouted name prompted them to give the correct answer.

12 Define behavior modification.

The systematic application of principles and techniques of learning to improve individuals' covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their daily functioning. It includes applied behavior analysis, behavior therapy, and cognitive behavior modification or therapy.

22 What do we mean by the latency of a response? Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

The time between the occurrence of a stimulus and the beginning of a response - Usually assessed with stopwatches or clocks (like duration) Ex: child in class might work effectively once she gets started, problem is that she fools around for a very long latency; that is, after the teacher asks her to do something, she fools around forever before starting

21 What do behavior modifiers mean by the term deprivation? Give an example.

The time during which an individual doesn't experience the reinforcer. Eg. John's parents don't let him eat pizza, until after baseball practice.

18 Describe two pitfalls of conditioned reinforcement, and give an example of each.

There are 2 pitfalls of conditioned reinforcement: 1.The Unaware - Misapplication Pitfall • Unaware-misapplication pitfall = when people who are unfamiliar with principle of conditioned reinforcement unknowingly misapply it in various ways o Example: Adult frequently punishes child for behaving inappropriately but never provides any type of backup punisher and reprimand is accompanied by other aspects of adult attention that are likely to have acquired conditioned reinforcing value because of previous pairings with reinforcers 2.The Partial Knowledge - Misapplication Pitfall • Partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall = is ceasing to pair a conditioned reinforce with a backup reinforcer occurs, can have unfortunate results for those who are not aware that this will cause a conditioned reinforce to lose its value o Example: teacher awards stamped happy faces as tokens for good behavior but fails to use effective backup reinforces so stamped happy faces lose reinforcing power they once had

28 Define time-sampling recording. Give an example that is not in this chapter.

Time-sampling recording scores a behavior as occurring or not occurring during very brief observation intervals that are separated from each other by a much longer period of time. For example, whether a child is demonstrating positive play behavior with other children at preschool. The teacher could observe the child once every 30 minutes for a 10 second interval and record whether the child is demonstrating positive play behavior. Each 10-second interval would be 30 minutes apart.

6 Define and give an example of the following: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - a stimulus that elicits a response WITHOUT prior learning or conditioning - ex. Loud noise Unconditioned response (UR) - a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus - ex. Salivating Conditioned stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that elicits a response because that stimulus has been PAIRED with another stimulus that elicits that response - ex. Dog paired with loud noise Conditioned Response (CR) - a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

7 Give another name for warning stimulus.

Warning stimulus can also be referred to as a conditioned aversive stimulus.

28 Give an example of contingent reinforcement that isn't in this chapter.

You will get an icecream after you clean your room. (A behaviour must occur before reinforcer is presented)

15 Define within stimulus prompt. Give an example not in the text. Does your example involve a teacher-behaviour prompt or an environmental prompt?

a variation of the SD or the Sdelta to make their characteristics more noticeable and therefore easier to discriminate. Ex. suppose that a teacher has placed several brown objects and several blue objects in front of a child. When teaching the child to respond correctly when the teacher asks, "brown" vs. "blue", the teacher might initially exaggerate the difference in the words by saying "brown" in a loud, high-pitched voice, and saying "blue" in a soft, low-pitched voice. After the child has learned the difference between brown objects and blue objects, the teacher can stop saying the words in a different tone. This is an example of teacher-behaviour prompt.

18 Using the definition of positive reinforcer, describe the steps to test if a particular item is a reinforcer for someone. Illustrate with an example that is not from this chapter.

a) Identify a behavior that occurs once in a while and record its occurrence without reinforcement over several trials; (b) then present a consequence immediately following the behavior over several trials; and (c) finally, compare the results of (a) and (b). If the behavior increases in frequency during the second phase relative to the first phase, then the consequence is a reinforcer.

41 Ideally, what four qualities should a reinforcer have (Besides the necessary quality of functioning as a reinforcer).

a) Readily available b) Can be presented immediately following the desired behavior c) Can be used over and over without causing rapid satiation d) Do not require a great deal of time to consume.

16 Define behavioural assessment.

collection and analysis of information and data in order to : (a) identify and describe target behaviours (b) identify possible causes of the behaviour (c) guide the selection of an appropriate behaviour treatment (d) evaluate treatment outcome

30 describe three relatively simple methods for recording behavior.

frequency recording: behaviour occured in a designated period of time such as minute, hour, day, week. duration recording: percentage or average of times behaviour occurred interval recording: whole interval- observing for a few seconds in intervals and if behavior occurs for the whole entire interval Partial interval- behavior occurred at least once during short observation Momentary- if behavior occurred immediately or at certain time

4 Describe the extinction procedure and the results of extinction for operant conditioning and respondent conditioning

i. Operant conditioning a. Extinction procedure= a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer b. Results of extinction= response is less likely to occur to the former SD ii. Respondent conditioning a. Extinction procedure= the CS is no longer paired with the US b. Results of extinction= the CS loses the ability to elicit the CR

4 State the principle of punishment.

in a given situation, someone does something that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when she or he next encounters a similar situation.

9 What is meant by the term final target behavior in a shaping program? Give an example.

increases the chances for consistent reinforcement of successive approximations of that behaviour. Ex. Frank jogging a quarter of a mile each day.

3 What is a punisher? Give an example that you experienced, and identify both the response and the punisher.

is an immediate consequence of an operant behaviour that causes that behaviour to decrease in frequency. Ex. I used to hit my brother all the time. The response was "Kristen, no that is wrong you do not hit your brother, you are going to time out" and the punisher is being put in time out for my hitting.

3 What is another name for shaping?

method of successive approximations

26 Briefly describe the right-to-effective-treatment and freedom-from-harm positions concerning the deliberate use of punishment treatment procedures.

right to effective treatment- a client's right to effective treatment might in some cases dictate the use of quiker-acting punishment procedures rather then slower acting procedures involving positive reinforcement of alternative behavior ---- freedom-from harm: non aversive methods for eliminating unacceptable behavior are always at least as effective as punishment, therefore using pain inducing punishment is never justified

2 List the *five* phases of a behavior modification program.

screening phase baseline assessment base treatment phase follow-up phase

5 How does the meaning of the word punishment for behaviour modifiers differ from three meanings of that word for most people?

the application of an immediate consequence following an individual's specific behaviour in a specific behaviour in a specific situation that has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of future instances of that individual engaging in that specific behaviour in that specific situation.

1 Define fading and give an example

the gradual change over successive trials of an antecedent stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus. Ex. Point to your shirt and say shirt.

9What is a behavioural deficit? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.

too little of a certain behaviour e.g., someone may not be loading their dishes in the dishwasher e.g.,child has not learned their manners yet

33 What is meant by weaning an individual from a behavioral program?

two general methods of weaning individuals from tokens when transferring behavior to the natural environment 1. Eliminate them gradually- making the token delivery schedule more and more intermittent 2. Decrease their value gradually- gradually decreasing the amount of backup reinforcement that a given number of tokens can purchase

2 Define errorless discrimination training.

use of fading procedure to establish a stimulus discrimination so that no errors occur.

22 In what types of situations should operant extinction not be applied? Give an example.

when situations or behaviors are destructive to individual or others behavior when it shouldnt be applied-ingoring a violent behavior.. it could get worse first... are you in harms way. situation- ignoring screaming in a restaurant and the screaming continues and gets worse first too long

11 Why is it necessary to consider the setting as a factor influencing your operant extinction program?

• (1) Minimize influence of alternative reinforces on undesirable behavior to be extinguished • (2) Maximize the chances of the behavior modifier persisting with program

1 What are the two parts to the principle of operant extinction?

• (1) if an individual, in a given situation, emits a previously reinforced behavior and that behavior is not followed by a reinforce, • then (2) that person is less likely to do same thing again when next encountering a similar situation

11 Distinguish between a simple conditioned reinforcer and generalized conditioned reinforcer. Explain why a generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer.

• A simple conditioned reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a single backup reinforcer. o An example of a simple conditioned reinforce is the sound the ice cream truck makes. • In contrast, a generalized conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer. o An example of a generalized conditioned reinforce is money. Generalized conditioned reinforcers are more effective because there is a greater variety of backup reinforcers they can be paired with. • A generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer because at any given time, at least one reinforcer will be able to maintain behavior at a high reinforcing rate

1 Explain what an unconditioned reinforcer is. Give two examples.

• An unconditioned reinforcer is a stimulus that is reinforcing without prior learning or conditioning. Often an unconditioned reinforcer is a stimulus or event vital to biological functioning or species survival. They can also be called primary or unlearned reinforcers. o Examples include food for a hungry person and warmth for someone who is cold.

11 Describe the procedures that are major causes for each of the emotions of joy, anger, anxiety and relief.

• Presentation of reinforcers produces the emotion of JOY. o Ex- getting an A on an exam, cashing in a paycheck • Withholding or withdrawing reinforcers produces the emotion called ANGER. o ex-putting money into a vending machine that takes it but fails to produce the goods, using a pen that stops writing in the middle of a quiz • The presentation of aversive stimuli produces the emotion called ANXIETY. o Ex- seeing a car drive directly towards you at a high speed, approaching scary looking strangers in a dark alley • Withdrawal of aversive stimuli produces an emotion that is called RELIEF. o Ex- receiving the results from a test that confirm that the problem is not cancer

9 Describe how each of the three major chaining methods could be used to teach bed making.

• Remove the pillow • Pull up the top sheet • Tuck in the top sheet • Pull up the comforter • Put the pillow back in place In backward chaining: The person would be taught making the bed by having someone else do the steps 1-4 and having the person put the pillow in place. Then the teacher would do steps 1-3 and the learner would put the pillow in place and pull up the comforter, this continues until the learner can then do all the steps. In forward chaining: The learner would start with the first step removing the pillow and after that is mastered, then the learner would do both steps, remove pillow and pull up the top sheet. The learner would then link three steps together, remove pillow, pull up the top sheet, tuck in the top sheet and continue linking until the entire chain is taught. In total-task presentation: The learner will continue doing the tasks from removing the pillow to putting the pillow back in place, from steps 1-5, until they have successfully completed making the bed with no errors.

13 Distinguish among the types of target behavior typically established by shaping, fading and chaining.

• Shaping - New behavior along some physical dimension such as topography, amount, or intensity • Fading - New stimulus control of a particular behavior • Chaining - New consistent sequence of stimuli and responses (p. 108)

15 What is meant by the term task analysis? Describe a plausible task analysis appropriate for teaching a 3-year-old child the chain of tying a knot in a shoelace.

• The process of breaking down a task into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training. • Break the task into the following steps Put on the shoe, lay out laces on each side, cross the laces, loop under with one, pull tight, make a bunny ear, wrap lace around bunny ear, put lace trough hole, pull both bunny ears. (p. 109)

16 Briefly describe three strategies to help individuals use prompts independently to guide the mastery of a chain of behaviors.

• Written task analysis - For learners able to read. Read the first step, perform that step, read second step, perform it, and so on. • Picture prompts: For learners who can't read. Look at picture of the first step, perform it, look at second picture, perform the step, and so on. • Self-instructions: Individuals with developmental disabilities have been taught to recite self-instructions to prompt correct completion of vocational tasks.

10 Give in some detail an example, which is not in this chapter, of how DRO would be useful in treating a behavior problem.

● An example of how DRO might be useful in treating a behavior problem can be using it with nail biting. Nail biting for a lot of people is a very bad habits that is continuous throughout the day. If a person was trying to stop biting their nails, they can use DRO to slowly cut the habit down. They can start with short intervals before their reinforcement is received and gradually make their way up to longer and longer periods of time.

20 Briefly describe an example of a pitfall of operant extinction. Which type of pitfall does your example illustrate?

● Child in program for persons with developmental disabilities has been reinforced by an aide for dressing himself, aide goes on vacation and is replaced by new aide who is less familiar with principles of positive reinforcement and extinction, new aide spends much time helping children who cannot dress themselves and gives little attention to one child who does dress himself; partial-knowledge pitfall'. If a child's self-dressing is to be maintained after it has been established it must be reinforced at least occasionally.

16 What is extinction burst? Describe an example.

● Extinction Burst: an increase in response during extinction o Example: kid snaps fingers in classroom for attention, teacher introduces operant extinction (ignores student's finger snapping) so behavior increases for first few minutes of extinction before begins to taper off.

15 What is the effect of continuous versus intermittent reinforcement on the resistance to extinction of an operant behavior?

● When intermittent reinforcement has maintained a behavior, that behavior is likely to extinguish slowly and is resistant to extinction; ● When continuous reinforcement has maintained a behavior, that behavior will extinguish quicker and is less resistant to extinction; so extinction takes longer for behaviours reinforced by intermittent reinforcement

1 Define escape conditioning. Describe how it was used with Joanne.

Escape conditioning (also known as negative reinforcement) states that the removal of certain stimuli (called aversive stimuli) immediately after the occurrence of a behavior will increase the likelihood of the behavior. In the second component of the treatment used with Joanne's, the removal of the loud tone following the response of showing good posture was an escape procedure that increased the probability that she would show good posture as an escape response in the presence of the tone.

29 Give an example of noncontingent reinforcement that isn't in this chapter.

Every child in the school gets to go out for recess at 10am. (Reinforcer is presented regardless of behaviour)

14 Illustrate with two examples of how FR or VR might be applied in training programs (by training program, we refer to any situation in which someone deliberately uses behavior principles to increase and maintain someone else's beahviour, such as parents to influence a child's behavior, a teacher to influence student's behavior, etc.) Do your examples involve a free-operant or discrete-trials procedure?

Example 1: Jennifer's parents want her to do her chore of mowing the lawn, so they give her $10 once she has mowed the lawn 3 times. This is FR 3, and a discrete-trial procedure. Example 2: Jake had hand surgery and is now learning how to use his hand again. To help him gain use of his fingers again, he is to turn the knob on a gumball machine. On average, 1 in 10 gumballs in the machine are black, and the black gumball gets him a toy. This is VR 10, and free-operant.

14 What is the difference between DRI and DRA?

DRI involves decreasing a target behavior by withholding reinforcers for it and reinforcing an incompatible response to the target behavior. DRA involves extinction of a problem behavior combined with reinforcing a behavior that is topographically dissimilar to, but not necessarily incompatible with, the problem behavior.

7 What is the purpose of the follow-up phase of a behavior modification program?

Determine whether or not initial improvements reached during the treatment are maintained after the program has ended.

What are three characteristic effects of an FR schedule?

1. High steady rate of responses until reinforcement followed by a post reinforcement pause. 2. The length of the PRP depends on the value of the FR 3. High resistance to extinction

6 What is the principle of positive reinforcement?

If someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time they encounter a similar situation

20 What are 4 guidelines in reared to delivering a punisher?

1) Punisher should be presented immediately following the undesirable behaviour 2) Punisher should be presented following every instance of the undesirable behaviour 3) The delivery of punisher should not be paired with positive reinforcement 4) Person administering the punisher should remain calm when doing so

1 Identify the 3 basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented & describe them with an example.

1) Specify the final target behaviour - frank's goal was to jog a quarter of a mile each day. However, for a chronic non exerciser, this was more than could be expected. 2) Identify a response that could be used as a starting point in working toward the final target behaviour - Frank decided that he would put on his sneakers + walk around the outside of the house once (30 yards). Although this was a long way from a quarter of a mile, it was a start. 3) Reinforce the starting behaviour; then reinforce closer and closer approximations until eventually the final target behaviour occurs - Frank decided to use the opportunity to drink a beer as a reinforcer. He explained his program to his wife and asked her to remind him that he had to complete his exercise before he could have a beer. After the first approximation of 30 years occurred on several successive afternoons, Frank increased the requirement to walking around the house twice (60 yards). A few days later, the distance was increased to walking around the house four times (120 yards), then six times (180 yards), then farther and farther until the distance was approx. a quarter of a mile, and then finally to jogging that distance.

22 List four myths or misconceptions about behaviour modification.

1) outdated 2) only deals with observable behaviour but can't help improve covert behaviours like feelings and thoughts 3) modifiers are cold and unfeeling - no empathy 4) treatments like drugs and electroconvulsive therapy

14 State seven defining characteristics of behaviour modification.

1) strong emphasis on defining problems to be measured and using changes in the measurement of behaviour as the best indicator of the degree to which the problem is being helped 2)treatment/techniques alter an individual's current environment to help that individual function more fully 3)its methods and rationales can be described precisely 4)its techniques are often applied by individuals in everyday life 5)the techniques stem from basic and applied research in the science of learning in general, and the principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning in particular 6)it emphasized scientific demonstration (of success) that a particular intervention or treatment was responsible for a particular behaviour change 7)it places high value on accountability for everyone involved in behaviour modification programs

5 What is the difference between forgetting and operant extinction?

1. Forgetting: is a behavior is weakened as a function of time following its last occurrence. 2. Operant extinction: extinction weakens behavior as a result of being emitted without being reinforced

23 What are three possible reasons for the failure of an operant extinction program?

1. The attention you are withholding following the undesirable behaviour is not the reinforcer that was maintaining the behaviour 2. The undesirable behaviour is receiving intermittent reinforcement from another source 3. The desired alternative behaviour has not been strengthened sufficiently.

7 Describe or define four different types of punisher, and give an example of each.

A physical punisher is most commonly stimuli that activate pain receptors which are technically called nociceptors. These are nerve endings located throughout the body that detect pressure, stretching and temperature change strong enough to potentially cause tissue damage, and that, when activated, are experienced as pain. Example: Spanking. A reprimand is a strong negative verbal stimulus immediately contingent on behaviour Example: Parent saying, "No! That was bad!" immediately after a child emits an undesirable behavior. A timeout is a period of time immediately following a particular behavior during which an individual loses the opportunity to earn reinforcers. There are two types: exclusionary and non-exclusionary. Example: Children in a classroom wearing a ribbon that was removed for a short time when a child was disruptive. When not wearing the ribbon, the child was not allowed to participate in classroom activities and was ignored by the teacher. Response cost involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer immediately following a behaviour. Example: losing your drivers license after driving stupid many times

5 What is a positive reinforcer?

A positive reinforcer is an event that, when presented immediately following a behaviour, causes the behaviour to increase in frequency

7 What is a procedural difference between a spaced-respnding DRL and an FD schedule?

A reinforcer is presented after a fixed period of time in both types of schedules, but in an FD schedule, the behavior has to have been occurring continuously for the fixed amount of time for the reinforcer to be presented, whereas in spaced-responding DRL, the behavior has to NOT occur during the fixed interval of time.

14 Give an example of the Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall in which shaping might be accidentally applied to develop an undesirable behaviour. Describe some of the shaping steps in your example.

A small child receives very little social attention from family members when he performs appropriate behavior. Perhaps one day the child accidentally falls and strikes his head lightly against a hard floor. Even if the child is not injured seriously, a parent may come running quickly and make a big fuss over the incident. Because of this reinforcement and because anything else the child does that is appropriate seldom evokes attention, he is likely to repeat the response of striking his head lightly against the floor. The first few times this occurs the parent may continue to reinforce the response but eventually seeing that the child is not harming themselves the parent may stop reinforcing it. The child may begin to hit his head more forcefully (intensity) and the louder thud will cause the parent to come running again. If this shaping process continues the child will eventually hit his head with such great force that will cause sufficient injury. Then undesired final target behaviour would be the child hitting his head against the ground causing injury. The starting behavior would be the accidental falls where his head lightly striked the floor. The light falls were reinforced and so were the successive approximations.

16 What do we mean by stimulus equivalence class? Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

A stimulus equivalence class is a set of completely dissimilar stimuli that an individual has learned to group or match together or respond to in the same way. Example: When people have the same last name (for example, "Rodriguez") and we group all the people with that last name together.

1 What is a stimulus? Give two examples that are not from the text.

A stimulus is anything that can be detected by one's senses and can affect behavior. Example: The beep of a microwave, the flash of police car lights.

6 Define avoidance conditioning, and describe how it was used with Joanne.

Avoidance conditioning states that a behavior will increase in frequency if it prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. In the presence of the ticking sound (a warning stimulus), Joanne quickly learned to show good posture in order to avoid the backup aversive stimulus, the loud tone.

1 what are two other names for respondent conditioning?

Classical Conditioning Pavlonian conditioning

6 What are tokens?

Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers.

23 With examples that are not in this chapter, distinguish between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior.

Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that develops because of its immediate consequences through trial and error. Example: Looking at your cell phone during a class and missing what your professor says guides your behavior of not looking at your phone when your professor is talking. Rule-governed behavior is controlled by a statement of a rule (not by trial and error). Example: A sign that says "No cell phones during the movie" guides your response to turn off and put away your cell phone during a movie.

5 In what two procedural ways is negative reinforcement different from positive reinforcement? How are their effects similar?

Differences in procedure: (a) In negative reinforcement, an aversive stimulus is present prior to the response being conditioned, whereas in positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is not present prior to the response (b) In negative reinforcement, the stimulus is removed contingent on the target response, whereas in positive reinforcement, the stimulus is presented contingent on the response. Similarity in effects: Both procedures increase the likelihood of the target response.

9 Give three examples of conditioned reflexes, one for each of these categories: digestion, circulation, and respiration.

Digestive system:When I was younger, my mom made okra as one of the side dishes of veggies at dinner. I remember eating a couple and thinking to myself what an odd vegetable that was slightly fuzzy in texture and quite mushy. The first couple I had were quite alright and interesting, before I knew it, I had eating almost an entire plate of okra in which after wards I had become so sick of the watery/fuzzy texture and taste that I threw up. To this day, I now cringe at the sight or thought of even eating okra. Thus today, the sight and thought of okra is a conditioned stimulus for a cringe/nausea reflex. Circulatory system:Whenever I am placed in an unknown setting where I do not know many people (i.e. a big party) I often blush and my heart rate increases as I often feel embarrassed for some unknown reason. Thus, my placement in an unknown setting (stimulus) causes me to blush, have an increased heart rate and feel embarrassed (conditioned reflex).Respiratory system:Whenever I happen to see a police car or a car that resembles an undercover cop car, I always freak out and begin wheezing or coughing. Although I do suffer from mild asthma, the sight of a police car or under cop or even a cop alone (stimulus) causes me to react in such an asthmatic way (conditioned reflex).

9 Briefly distinguish between direct and indirect assessment procedures.

Direct Assessment Procedures: - Specific behaviors of the client are precisely defined and directly observed by other individuals Indirect Assessment Procedures: - Used when Behaviors in which you cannot observe -> private/covert behaviors - Used when client wants to change some of their thoughts/feelings that others couldn't observe - Interviews with client and significant others, questionnaires, role-playing, obtaining information from consulting professionals, and client self-monitoring

14 Briefly describe the main advantage and the three disadvantages of direct assessment procedures.

Direct Assessment Procedures: Pros: they are more accurate than indirect assessment procedures. Cons: They are time consuming, require that observers be appropriately trained, and cannot be used to monitor covert behaviors

26 Distinguish between the direct- and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement.

Direct-acting effects: The increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences. Indirect-acting effect: Strengthening of a response that is followed by a reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed. Delayed reinforcers may have an effect on behaaviour because of instructions about the behavior leading to the reinforcements or self-statements (thoughts) that intervene between that beahviour and the delayed reinforcer.

8 What is the name of the type of avoidance conditioning that involves a warning stimulus?

Discriminated avoidance conditioning.

1 What is behavior general and technically? Give three synonyms for behavior.

Generally, behavior is anything that a person says or does. However, technically, behavior is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Some synonyms of the word behavior include "activity," "action," "performance," "responding," "response," and "reaction."

8 Diagram an example of higher-order conditioning.

Higher order conditioning is the procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another conditioned stimulus, instead of with an unconditioned stimulus. In the example from questions (6) if you were to flash a yellow light several times prior to the opening motif of Beethoven's fifth symphony (a CS for salvation) eventually the yellow light itself would elicit the CR of salvation.

22 In two or three sentences, Describe the case of the lemon juice therapy with Sandra or the ice cube therapy with Gerri.

Ice Cube Therapy - Gerri had a severe case of grinding one's teeth. She was given a mild pain-inducing punishment, which was that each time Gerri audibly ground her teeth; a staff member touched her face with an ice cube for a few seconds. Her teeth grinding decreased within the first few days of treatment and her bruxism almost completely ceased after 2 months of treatment.

17 Explain what causes a conditioned reinforcer to lose its value.

If a conditioned reinforcer is presented a number of times without being associated with other reinforcers, it will eventually lose its reinforcing effectiveness.

10 How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?

Positive and negative are similar in the sense that they both increase the response of a certain behavior. However positive reinforcement works by adding an event following the response whereas negative reinforcement works by removing an event following the response.

3 Explain what a backup reinforcer is. Give and explain two examples.

When a stimulus becomes a conditioned reinforcer through deliberate association with other reinforcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers. Eg. Seaworld trainers Eg. When John solves math problems he gets points, when he earns enough points he gets a sticker. The stickers and points are backup reinforcers.

31 What are concurrent schedules of reinforcement? Give an example.

When each of two or more behaviors is reinforced on different schedules at the same time, the schedules of reinforcement that are in effect are called concurrent schedules of reinforcement. For example, a student is doing homework, watching TV, and talking on the phone at the same time.

9 Give an example (not from this chapter) of a stimulus that is an Sᴰ for one behavior and an S∆ for a different behavior.

When you're doing the hokey pokey and they say to "put your left leg in" this is an Sᴰ to put your left leg in and an S∆ to put your right leg in.

30 Describe an example of how punishment is applied by people who are not aware that they are doing so.

any example involving criticizing or ridiculing a person for inadequate behavior (example: beginner at the gym)