Forensic Minds Exam 4 - Ch. 11 Terrorism
Learned helplessness (reactive depression)
A learned passive and withdrawing response in the face of perceived hopelessness, as theorized by Martin Seligman (1975).
Culturally motivated terrorists
Driven by fear of irreparable damage to their way of living, national heritage, or culture done by an organization, foreign country, or powerful factions. Most often, religion is the aspect that generates the fervor or passion in the group as well as the individual. National or cultural groups that are largely governed or socially defined by a particular system of faith are often constantly vigilant for forces that may eradicate their religious way of life or cultural identity Ex: The Taliban- Islam provided not only a system of religious faith as understood in the West, but the entire system of civil and criminal law, political organization, and social behavior" Under such conditions, a perceived threat to the faith would be cause for alarm and a threat to the group's exist
Multinational terrorism
Expanding globalization has been instrumental in the emergence of the first multinational terrorist group of the twenty-first century, al-Qaeda, the group responsible for the attacks of September 11 Multinationalist terrorists train and carry out attacks in many different countries, and they are typically associated with a philosophy that advocates a violent jihad, or duty to be violent
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg identifies three primary stages: Pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality. Within each primary stage, there are two additional stages, which we will refer to as early and late.
social learning theory
Social learning theory also provides some insight into the psychological processes that influence members to join a terrorist organization. "Teenagers living in hotbeds of political strife may directly witness terrorist behaviors and seek to imitate them or, even more commonly, learn from their culture's public glorification of terrorists—for example, the 'martyr posters' lining the streets of Shi'a regions of Lebanon and Palestinian refugee camps or the songs celebrating the exploits of the PIRA" However, although the theory has strong explanatory power for why they join, it does not completely explain why more young teenagers living within these social contexts do not become terrorists.
The opportunity for significant gain
The opportunity for significant gain may occur when the terrorist goals promise a considerable increase in status and self-esteem. If a person has undergone a series of personal setbacks and has developed a sense of meaninglessness in his life, an organization that comes along and offers the opportunity to become somebody, or to contribute to an important cause, becomes a powerful influence. The tactic of indoctrinating youths into terrorist groups with convincing stories of martyrdom and heroism. This approach reflects the group's attempt to create a promised opportunity for immense significance once they join the cadres of the group's fighters later in their lives
Late conventional stage
The orientation is to do things out of duty and to respect the authority of others. The person becomes especially aware that certain rules and regulations are necessary to ensure the smooth functioning of society or of terrorist organizations. Socially approved behavior is motivated by anticipation of dishonor and blame if one is derelict in performing one's duty. Guilt feelings arise principally out of doing concrete harm to others. It is at this stage—an average level of moral development—that many young recruits of al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations probably begin their journey.
International terrorism
Violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or any state and under the direction of a foreign government, group, organization, or person Most international terrorism aimed at U.S. property or citizens occurs in other countries
Rationally motivated terrorists
Those who consider the goals of the organization and the possible consequences of their actions. They develop well-defined and theoretically achievable goals that may involve political, social, economic, or other specific objectives. In many cases, rationally motivated terrorists try to avoid loss of life but focus instead on destroying infrastructures, buildings, and other symbolic structures to get their message across. However, multiple examples of deaths caused by rationally motivated terrorists can be found. Note that this classification does not suggest that the behavior of the group is rational or logical; rather, they believe it is, and they typically carry out carefully planned activities
Timothy McVeigh
Timothy McVeigh, the Oklahoma City bomber, is often used as another classical example of a lone wolf terrorist, despite the fact that he worked closely with Terry Nichols, who was also convicted. McVeigh, a veteran of the Persian Gulf War, associated himself with the militia movement. McVeigh did the planning, target selection, and decision making. 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City resulted in the deaths of 168 people and was the deadliest attack of terrorism in the United States prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks. McVeigh's motivation was revenge against what he perceived was a tyrannical U.S. government. He was especially critical of federal intervention in events at Waco, Texas, and Ruby Ridge, Idaho, in the early 1990s. McVeigh was executed by lethal injection in 2001.
Special interest extremists
Activities revolve around one issue about which they are passionate. The predominant representatives of this group are violent antiabortion groups that firebombed women's health centers during the 1990s.
Left-wing extremist groups
Although less likely to be labeled "terrorists," their actions may qualify them for that designation when they move from political activism to violent activities. Historically, left-wing extremism developed from working-class movements seeking in theory to eliminate class distinctions. More modern left-wing extremists, however, protest and politically agitate against certain governmental policies, discrimination, and environmental issues. Characterized by extreme egalitarianism, an extreme hatred of racism and capitalism, and an overt opposition to militarianism Ex: The Weather Underground and the Black Panther Party
Boka Haram
An affiliate of al-Qaeda that kidnapped over 200 Nigerian girls in 2014, is responsible for the slaughters of over 5,000 people in that country. In some countries (e.g., Syria and Yemen), groups and individuals are trained in terrorist techniques and sent back to other countries to carry out their crimes.
Radical environmental groups
Belongs to category of special interest extremists Radical environmental groups such as the Earth Liberation Front (ELF). The ELF organization received particular attention during the late 1990s by destroying homes, earth-moving equipment, power lines, computer systems, and buildings that they believed damaged the earth's ecology. In its own words, the organization's primary mission is to "speed up the collapse of industry, to scare the rich, and to undermine the foundations of the state.
Cognitive constructs
Cognitive constructs allow flexibility of thought and increase our ability to anticipate future events and to alter a course of action based on unanticipated events. Some people possess more cognitive constructs and knowledge about the world than others. That is, some people are more cognitively complex and their decision making considers all gray areas. People who possess many sophisticated constructs are able to evaluate behavior and world events in more complex ways than people with few, crude constructs. A construct is an element of knowledge, which varies with age. As experiences and learning with the environment accumulate, the number, quality, and organization of these constructs normally change Leaders of terrorist organizations try to recruit young men who are enthusiastic but who operate at a relatively low level of cognitive complexity. This does not mean they look for individuals with low intelligence, only that they are young, naïve, and idealistic
Euphemistic language
Cognitive restructuring process based on the well-known research finding that language shapes thought patterns on which people base many of their actions. Importantly, people can display more cruelty or at least can feel better about what they are doing when their conduct is given a sanitized or neutral label. Consequently, they use terms such as "collateral damage" to designate civilians who are killed in bombings. Obviously, euphemistic language is employed in many contexts other than terrorist activities (e.g., wars; drone strikes; control of prisoners).
Advantageous comparison
Cognitive restructuring process where terrorists are convinced that their way of life and fundamental cultural values are superior to those they attack. Advantageous comparison is further advanced when the terrorists are told and come to believe that the enemy engages in widespread cruelties and inhumane treatment of the people the terrorists represent. Rely heavily on history to justify violence
Significant loss
A loss of significance can occur in a variety of ways, including a failure in some important pursuit It also often happens when an individual is demeaned, ostracized, or rendered powerless by another person or social group. The primary way for that individual to regain significance may be to participate in violent or terrorist acts, either by oneself or as a member of a terrorist group. Muslims as a group have been subjected to strong prejudice and disrespect, and radical-Islamic extremists may use this in their efforts to recruit members to their terrorist organization. Sometimes it is the fear of losing power that determines one's engagement in terrorist activities. The racist Ku-Klux-Klan historically recruited members by appealing to their fear that blacks would become a dominant force in society and that they themselves would lose power and status. Evidence to support the observation that individuals who have lost significance will display greater readiness to sacrifice themselves, such as they may do in carrying out terrorist suicidal attacks
Cultural devaluation
A process that occurs when a group or culture is selected by another group or culture as a scapegoat or an ideological enemy. "It might consist of beliefs that the other is lazy, or of limited intelligence, or manipulative, or morally bad, or a dangerous enemy that intends to destroy society or one's own group" US often seen this way
Point of no return ritual
As the suicide mission approaches, the organization will have those selected to complete the mission engage in a series of "point-of-no-return rituals" to ensure compliance. "These include having members write last letters to friends and relatives, videotaping a goodbye narrative, saying final prayers, and so on" These commitments make it increasingly difficult for the "living martyr" to back out. In those cases where the organization believes the martyr may back out, they arrange for a remote control detonation, just in case
Cognitive restructuring
Bandura (2004) skillfully takes the explanation for motives of terrorism into the cognitive realm. He posits that terrorists justify their horrific acts through cognitive restructuring, a psychological process that involves moral justifications, euphemistic language, and advantageous comparisons.
Psychologically motivated terrorists
Driven by "a profound sense of failure or inadequacy for which the perpetrator may seek redress through revenge" The attraction to terrorism is usually based on the psychological benefits of group affiliation and collective identity. They are especially drawn to terrorist groups that have a charismatic leader. One variation of the psychologically motivated terrorist, though, is
Dehumanization
Dehumanization is based on the premise that mistreating or randomly killing humanized or known persons significantly increases the risks of self-condemnation. It is easier to mistreat (and kill) strangers who are divested of human qualities. "Once dehumanized, they are no longer viewed as persons with feelings, hopes, and concerns but as subhuman forms"
diffusion of responsibility
Diffusion of responsibility refers to the fact that as the number of bystanders increases, the personal responsibility that an individual bystander feels decreases. As a consequence, so does his or her tendency to help
Traits of those who join terrorist groups
Emotionally stable (not mentally ill and no psychopathology), gradual indoctrination/training, mature (20-29), unmarried, male, and not mentally ill In terms of occupation, income, and educational level, terrorists appear to be largely indistinguishable from the local population
Eric Rudolph
Eric Rudolph—also known as the Olympic Park bomber—who committed a series of bombings in Georgia and Alabama in his campaign against gay nightclubs and health centers where abortions were performed. He had no known coconspirators, and apparently planned and carried out the bombings on his own. Rudolph likely identified with antiabortion activist groups and with groups opposed to equal rights regardless of sexual orientation, although the majority of these groups would not condone his actions. He maintained a socially isolated existence and was eventually captured in 2003 near a trash container as he was foraging for food
Right-wing terrorists
Extremist groups or individuals that generally adhere to an antigovernment or racist ideology and often engage in a variety of hate crimes and violence. May be prompted to become active by the passage of legislation or by government policy in opposition to their beliefs, such as laws placing restrictions on gun ownership or taxation or laws granting civil rights to various groups, such as marriage equality laws or laws applying to the children of undocumented immigrants. Far-right organizations are receiving considerable research scrutiny. It is composed of individuals or groups that are fiercely nationalistic, anti-global, suspicious of centralized federal authority, and reverent of individual liberty, such as an unrestricted right to own guns or be free from taxes. They also believe in conspiracy theories, believe attacks to national sovereignty and/or personal liberty are imminent, and consequently participate in paramilitary training in survival skills
Al Qaeda
First multinational terrorist organization
Homegrown Violent Extremists (HVE's)
ISIS has strongly encouraged lone individuals or insular groups in the United States and other Western countries to attack the authority figures and cultural events and symbols in their own countries. These lone terrorist or insular groups that are directly or loosely tied to terrorist organizations in other countries are often referred to as Homegrown Violent Extremists (HVEs). Terrorist attacks by HVEs are quickly becoming the preferred strategy in modern terrorism, often enabled by access to dark sites on the Internet. An example of an HVE attack advocated by foreign terrorist organizations is the 2013 Boston Marathon bombings The plots devised by HVEs are difficult to identify beforehand because they often display few behaviors that law enforcement and intelligence officers usually utilize to detect readiness to commit violence
jihad
It is important to stress again that the religion of Islam, with which the term is associated, does not advocate violence. To most Muslims the term "jihad" simply means religious duty. However, multinational radical Islamic terrorist groups have given it a violent interpretation—a duty to wage religious war against infidels
Differences between lone-wolf and other terrorists
Lone wolf terrorists demonstrate poor idnterpersonal and social skills and adopt isolationaist attitude, staying away from direct contact with society. conventional terrorists affiliated with a terrorist organization do not demonstrate The lone wolf operators do not rely on group or organization affiliations to validate their mission. They basically operate on their own: They design their own plans, select their own targets, choose their own modus operandi, and make their own decisions. Based on their unique interpretations of the world, they perceive injustices that they wish to bring to public attention. Alternately, they adopt the ideological or philosophical leanings of an extremist or outside group, even when the group itself does not engage in terrorist activities Greater threat in some ways than conventional terrorist organizations. They are more difficult to track and predict, and gathering intelligence on them is a challenge. Explosives tend to be their main weapon of choice, followed by firearms and they principally target civilians. The attacks are premeditated, usually carefully planned, and self-financed. Unlike conventional terrorists who are affiliated with organized groups, they usually do not plan to die during their attacks, and they often escape arrest for long periods of time The ideological motivation of most lone wolf attackers in the United States have centered on white supremacy, antiabortion, or anti-governmental issues
Fail-Safe Procedures
Many terrorist organizations develop a fail-safe procedure to ensure that the suicide mission is completed. Terrorists eventually have the difficult task of coping with the realization that they must kill people, most often innocent men, women, and children. This realization can become psychologically stressful to maintain a terrorist lifestyle during the early stages of membership. Consequently, the organization must focus on intense indoctrination of the members who will carry out the mission, and restrict the tactical details of the mission to the leaders of the organization.
Times Square Bombing Attempt
May 1, 2010, Faisal Shahzad parked a sports utility vehicle in crowded Times Square in New York City SUV was loaded with propane, gasoline, fireworks, fertilizer, an alarm clock, and electrical wiring Shahzad wanted to kill as many innocent bystanders as pos-sible to revenge the injustices done to Muslims everywhere and planned to detonate other bombs in various locations in the city a week later. Failed to detonate as it was poorly made, and the timer (the clock) was carelessly set for 7 pm rather than the intended 7 am when the number of potential victims was at its highest 31-year-old former budget analyst from Connecticut who was born in Pakistan to a wealthy, well-educated family. He became a U.S. citizen in April 2009. Maintained several contacts with Pakastani Taliban and had received bomb-making training from them. He also told interrogators that he was inspired—via the Internet—by extremist al-Awlaki to embrace the mission of al-Qaeda. Shahzad plead guilty to a 10-count indictment, including attempting an act of terrorism, and received a mandatory life term under federal sentencing guidelines
moral justification
Moral justification enables people to engage in reprehensible conduct by telling themselves that their actions are socially worthy and have an ultimate moral and good purpose. Bandura- The conversion of socialized people into dedicated fighters is achieved not by altering their personality structures, aggressive drives, or moral standards. Rather, it is accomplished by cognitively redefining the morality of killing, so that it can be done free from self-censuring restraints. Through moral sanction of violent means, people see themselves as fighting ruth-less oppressors who have an unquenchable appetite for conquest or as protecting their cherished values and way of life, preserving world peace, saving humanity from subjugation to an evil ideology, and honoring their country's international commitments.
Terrorist attacks against Americans
Most terrorist attacks on Americans do not take place on American soil
Boston Marathon Bombers
Not believed to be directly connected to any terrorist group They became self-radicalized primarily by using Internet sources to acquire terrorist philosophical beliefs and propaganda April 15, 2013 Dzhokhar Tsarnaev (19) and Tamerlan Tsarnaev (26) killed 3 injured 260 Planted twin pressure cooker bombs filled with nails, BBs, and explosives hidden in backpacks near rows of spectators close to the marathon finish line. The bombs detonated, killing an eight-year-old boy and two young women, and injuring more than 260 people, including 17 who lost limbs. Killed a campus police officer who may have recognized them from descriptions provided to law enforcement officers.
Fort Hood Shooter
November 5, 2009 Central Texas at Fort Hood near Killeer, TX, the largest active-duty U.S. military post Major Nidal Malik Hasan, an Army psychiatrist, was the worst mass shooting at a U.S. military installation 13 people are killed and more than 30 others are wounded Targeted military personnel Hasan's superiors had continued to promote him despite the fact that concerns had been raised over his behavior, which suggested he had become a radical and potentially violent Islamic extremist. Shot and paralyzed Self-radicalized No overseas networks Didn't cross borders Socially isolated
Early pre-conventional stage
One behaves solely on the basis of obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment. The individual has not yet developed any notion of right or wrong and, therefore, is not moral at all. This orientation toward reward and punishment and unquestioning deference to superior powerful others are principally characteristic of children under age seven, and unfortunately some adults.
Quest for Significance Theory
Significance theory contends that people are driven to become significant within a given society or group The motivation to engage in terrorism, the model posits, is the search to be meaningful and recognized as someone significant. The quest for significance represents the "attainment of what the culture says is worth attaining, the kind of competence that the culture deems worthy, and for which one is accorded the admiration of others who matter to oneself" The quest for significance needs to be specifically activated by someone or some event in order for it to influence behavior. This quest may be activated by three events: (1) significant loss (2) the threat of significant loss (3) the opportunity for significant gain
Lone wolf terrorist
Social media increases lone wolf terrorism Main Characteristics •They operate individually •They do not belong to an organized terrorist group, network, or organization •They act without the direct influence of a leader or hierarchy •They may claim to be acting on behalf of an interest group •Their attacks are premeditated and carefully planned •They are more likely than other terrorists to be emotionally disturbed •They demonstrate poor interpersonal and social skills The lone wolf operation, "for whom the validation of the self is not derived through group affiliation, but through the sense of power, mastery, and autonomy that attends to the ability to make unilateral decisions" With these new forms of communication, terrorist groups are now turning to the tactic to empower and motivate individuals to commit violent acts on their own, independent of the terrorist chain of command. Although they act alone, "they see themselves as belonging to a virtual community, a virtual community of hatred" In most instances, they view themselves as victims of the "system." They also may show signs of serious mental disorder. A classic example of this type of terrorist may be Theodore Kaczynski, known as the Unabomber. Often, lone-wolf terrorists have strong feelings of social alienation, anger, and extreme antigovernment ideology. Other examples: Boston Marathon Bombers, Fort Hood Shooter, The Times Square Bombing Attempt, Timothy McVeigh
Risky shift
Tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than if the same decisions were made by individual The recruits become deeply immersed in the ideology of the organization, and may even be expected to perform unpleasant acts to discover if they can tolerate hardships and cognitive dissonance without much self-censure. The social modeling of the more experienced peers becomes an integral part of the indoctrination process
5 Common Elements of Terrorism Definitions
Terrorism is broadly viewed as: (a) the use of force or violence (b) by individuals or groups (c) that is directed toward civilian populations (d) and intended to instill fear (e) as a means of coercing individuals or groups to change their political and social positions
Diffusion of Responsibility
Terrorism often requires the services of many people in the organization, all pulling together to achieve some ultimate purpose. Bandura points out that each person in the organization often performs relatively small, fragmentary jobs that, taken individually, seem harmless, and out of the limelight. The collective sense of identity that results allows members of the group to participate in being part of horrific or heinous actions that individually they may resist doing themselves.
Nuclear/biological/chemical (NBC) terrorism
Terrorist activities carried out with the use of nuclear, biological, or chemical substances (e.g., anthrax)
Displacement of Responsibility
Terrorists may view their actions as stemming from the dictates of authorities and leaders rather than from their own personal responsibility. Consequently, they avoid self-condemning reactions because they are not personally responsible for their conduct; they are only following orders, perhaps even from their god. Some serial killers have used similar justifications for their actions.
Early conventional stage
The "good boy" or "good girl" orientation. The individual's behavior is directed toward gaining social approval and acceptance, and there is much conformity to stereotyped images of what the majority regards as good behavior. During this stage, the conscience, or the ability to feel guilt, begins to emerge.
ISIS
The Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham ISIS is a dangerous terrorist organization that has the ambitious goal to solidify and expand its control of territory and govern by implementing its violent interpretation of sharia (Islamic) law The organization believes it requires territory to remain legitimate and follow caliphate rule
ISIL
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)
Domestic terrorism
The actions of groups or an individual based and operating entirely within the United States or Puerto Rico without clear foreign direction—although there may be foreign influence
Early post-conventional stage
The final and highest stage of moral development—the post-conventional—is probably reached by only a small sector of the world population. It requires the ability to be reasonably abstract and possess good cognitive ability. During the early post-conventional stage, correct action is determined by an understanding of the general rights of the individual as compared with the standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. In this stage, one must also consider the rightness or wrongness of behavior on the basis of personal values. The early post-conventional person sees flexibility in the laws of any given society
Late post-conventional stage
The late post-conventional person demonstrates an orientation "toward the decision of conscience and toward self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency" The moral principles are abstract and ethical, and they reflect universal principles of justice, of the reciprocity and equality of human rights. These principles also require considerable cognitive complexity. The person relies on his or her own personally developed ethical principles and shows respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons.
Difference between the quest significance theory and the terror management theory
The quest for significance theory and terror management theory have a number of similarities but the major difference is the motivational factor. Significance theory contends that people are driven to become significant within a given society or group. Terror management theory contends that people are driven to deal with inevitable death by striving for immortality in the hereafter. Both provide cogent explanations for many terrorist acts.
Late pre-conventional stage
The right action consists of that which satisfies one's own needs. This stage reflects a selfish orientation that considers the needs of others only to the extent that favors will be returned: "You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours." Human relationships are viewed similarly to those in a marketplace, not of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, but of using others to gain something. The person develops some understand-ing that in order to obtain rewards, one has to work with others. Note that the emphasis is still on meeting one's own needs
Terrorism definition
The systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion Also defined as a theatrical crime against person or property in which only symbolic or psychological satisfaction to the perpetrators is gained
The threat of significant loss
The threat of significant loss may arise when a person fails or refuses to comply with the pressure to engage in terrorism. In other words, if the person resists engaging in suicidal terrorism, he risks the threat of being ostracized from the group.
Federal law
The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (Code of Federal Regulations, 18 U.S.C § 2331(1)) Under federal law, terrorism may be either domestic or international, depending on the origin, base, and objectives of the terrorist organization
Ted Kaczynski
Theodore Kaczynski, the Unabomber who carried out a campaign of 16 mail bombings over a 17 Wanted to draw attention to a list of societal problems, including technology, the destruction of the environment, and the worldwide industrial system in general. The targets of his mail bombings, therefore, were usually individuals he identified as involved in some aspect of technology, such as in university research facilities. Kaczynski was a highly educated individual who was a loner throughout his life and eventually withdrew from society and lived simply in a wooded cabin. Though he is widely believed to have been seriously mentally disordered, he ferociously resisted an insanity defense. He was apparently persuaded to plead guilty to avoid a death sentence, and he entered into a plea agreement whereby he was sentenced to life in prison with no possibility of parole.
Terror Management Theory
Theory contends that people are driven to become significant within a given society or group. Terror management theory contends that people are driven to deal with inevitable death by striving for immortality in the here-after Terror management theory (TMT) offers a useful framework for understanding the motivational forces that help explain why people engage in intergroup conflict, join terrorist organizations, and are willing to sacrifice themselves for a cause. According to the theory, the sacrifice and commitment to a group or cause can be negative (terrorism against innocent people) or positive (a religious commitment toward the betterment of all humankind) People construct and maintain cultural world views as way of avoiding the anxiety and fear that comes from the knowledge that death is inevitable. The worldview is more than merely an outlook on life; it is a formula for immortality Reminders of one's own mortality encourage individuals to embrace their group's culture and ideals People must believe that "some valued aspect of themselves will continue, either literally or symbolically, after cessation of their biological body" Literal immortality refers to the form of afterlife existence, whereas symbolic immortality refers to what legacy one leaves behind, such as—in the case of a terrorist—achievements, heroic feats, and martyrdom
What is a terrorist's mental state like?
There is very little evidence that members of terrorist organizations are mentally unstable, irrational, or psychopathic Many studies report that terrorists are psychologically much healthier and considerably more stable than other violent criminals. There are exceptions. Essentially, people who demonstrate mental or emotional disorders do not make good terrorists. "They lack the discipline, rationality, self-control and mental stamina needed if terrorists are to survive for any length of time" Well-organized terrorist groups immediately expel individuals from their ranks who are emotionally unstable, primarily because they represent a security threat Much of the aggression displayed by violent criminals is spontaneous or reactive; terrorist organizations go to great lengths preparing for their attacks, and any breach of their plans seriously compromises their goals. Terrorism is most often a rational behavior based on the belief that violence is morally justified and necessary to further political goals
