Forensics

1901 Paul Uhlenhuth (Germany),

(Immunologist) developed the precipitin test to distinguish human from non-human blood He was also one of the first to institute standards, controls, and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) in NYC

*Established in 1918 by Charles Norris ~600 employees working five boroughs Investigate ~8,500 deaths per year in NYC Trained more forensic pathologists *Founded first U.S. toxicology and serology labs (Alexander Gettler) Operates only molecular genetics lab (attached to a medical examiner) DNA crime lab is largest public lab in world In response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the OCME maintains a specialized mass fatality management team

Yi Yu Ji (A Collection of Criminal Cases

-1418 Includes report of 3rd century Chinese coroner provided evidence supporting that a man's death was not by accidental fire. -He performed an EXPERIMENT in which he burned a live pig and a dead pig - ashes were in the mouth of the pig burned alive but not in the mouth of the dead pig - nor in the mouth of the dead husband. ~Advancement hampered by limited knowledge (anatomy, pathology) -Cultural or religious taboo -Continued until the late 17th / early 18th centuries

Calvin Goddard

-1920's' -perfected the comparison microscope for use in bullet comparison. -with: Charles Waite, Phillip O. Gravelle, and John H Fisher

August Vollmer

-1924 -While on leave of absence from Berkeley Police Department, he reorganized the LAPD and implemented the first U.S. police crime laboratory. -He made many contributions to modern policing. -In 1950 he established the School of Criminology at University of CA, Berkeley.

St. Valentine's Day Massacre

-1929 - Goddard -led to the founding of the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory on the campus of Northwestern University (Illinois)

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

-1932 -crime laboratory was created. -Influenced by the work of Col. Calvin Goddard application of science to criminal investigations became a priority

The American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS)

-1950 -Formed in Chicago, Illinois. -The group also began publication of the Journal of Forensic Science (JFS

Max Frei-Sulzer

-1950 -founder of the first Swiss criminalistics laboratory, -developed the tape lift method of collecting trace evidence.

Paul L. Kirk (U.S

-1953 -Biochemist, microscopist, expert on blood spatter analysis, biochemistry professor at UC Berkeley then led the Criminalistics program there. -Most known for work on Sam Sheppard case (The Fugitive) -published Crime Investigation, one of the first comprehensive criminalistics and crime investigation texts that encompassed theory in addition to practice

R. F. Borkenstein, (U.S.)

-1954 -captain of the Indiana State Police, -Invented the Breathalyzer for field sobriety testing revolutionizing enforcement of the drunken driving laws.

William Bill Bass

-1981 -State Forensic Anthropologist -Establishes the University of Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility -Aka the "Body Farm"

Sir Alec Jeffreys (Britain)

-1984 -Develops first DNA profiling test -In 1986 applied first time to solve a crime (Colin Pitchfork murders) -Same case also marked first time used to prove innocence

1836 James Marsh

-Angry and frustrated at result -Bodle also later confessed the Marsh Test in 1836, in which he "stabilized" the arsenic product by "plating it out" on a solid surface -Presence as well as quantity

1814 Mathiew Orfila (Spain):

-Father of Forensic Toxicology. -Professor of medicinal/forensic chemistry (University of Paris) -Published treatise on poisons (found in the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms) -Especially the effects on physiology, pathology, and medical jurisprudence -Also developed tests for the presence of body fluid stains in a forensic context -Such as the first to use of a microscope in the assessment of blood and semen stains. -Studied asphyxiation, decomposition, and exhumation.

Different origin/negative identification

-Hypothesis proved to be false -Two or more items of evidence are not of common origin (Non-match vs. exclusion)

1700's

-More careful and methodical research leading to greater knowledge of functions of the body - anatomy, physiology -More discoveries made in other areas of science; Chemistry, Toxicology and pharmacology, Physics, Biology -Development of technology and instrumentation -Microscopy -Photography ~The realization that the natural sciences could be applied to solving crimes

1835 Henry Goddard: (England)

-One of Scotland Yard's Bow Street Runners (London's early "detective" force), -One of the first to recognize the potential of firearms evidence to aid in identifying criminals. -Physical analysis of a bullet taken from a homicide victim to connect it to a bullet mold found in the suspect's home. -Also tied the patch (piece of newspaper) torn from a newspaper found in the suspect's home.

1823 John Evangelist Purkinje (Czecheslovakia)

-Professor of anatomy (University of Breslau) -Published the first paper on the nature of fingerprints -suggested a classification system based on nine major types ~Unfortunately, he never associated these patterns as a means of forensic identification

Crime Laboratory

-a scientific laboratory (with at least one full-time natural or forensic scientist) that -examines physical evidence in criminal matters -provides test reports and opinion testimony with respect to such physical evidence in courts of law. -does not include operations that engage exclusively in fingerprint recovery, development, and examination; crime scene investigation; computer crime inquiries; and photography (Police ID or Crime Scene units). -Example in NYSP: Forensic Identification Unit attached to -Troop G Headquarters (Latham, NY)

1862 J. (Izaak) Van Deen (Holland)

-developed a presumptive test for blood in stool using guaiac, a resin derived a West Indian shrub. -When guaiac comes in contact with blood, a blue color develops. Still used for the detection of occult blood in feces

1853 Ludwig Teichmann, (Poland),

-developed the first microscopic crystal test for hemoglobin using hemin crystals - Teichmann test - a confirmatory test for blood.

forensic evidence

-information (e.g. verbal, physical, observational) that is used in legal proceedings. -The definition usually describes it as scientific evidence, e.g. "Evidence based on science that can be used in a court. It can be blood tests, ballistics, and DNA.

James Marsh's (Scottish chemist)

-initial test for arsenic in stomach contents of victim. While he detected arsenic, reaction was unstable and deteriorated by the time of trial -Defendant acquitted.

forensic technician

-provide support to the forensic scientists. -Generally all processes are not performed by the same individual -Challenges of more advanced scientific methods require more specialization of knowledge, abilities, skills, and duties

1839 Henri-Louis Bayard (France)

-published the first reliable procedure for visualizing seminal stains by microscopy. -He also noted the different microscopic characteristics of various different substrate fabrics.

Song Ci (The Washing Away of Wrongs

1248 -Established the position of Coroner. -Contains a description of how to identify strangulation by damaged neck cartilage (damaged/broken hyoid bone). -This was the first recorded application of medical knowledge to the solution of crime. -Possibly the first forensic science publication.

Marcello Malpighi (Italy)

1686 -Professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, -Noted fingerprint characteristics-ridges, spirals, loops. -No mention of their value as a tool for individual identification ~So when did early scientists realize scientific evidence could be used systematically to solve crimes?

Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Sweden)

1775 -Detection of arsenic in corpses -By looking for it in the stomach contents

Valentin Ross (Germany)

1806 Improved Scheele's work with a more sensitive test for the presence of arsenic -In the lining of the stomach wall, -Enabling detection of the poison well after ingestion.

Discovery of DNA components, structure

1920's-1960's

Central Identification Lab

1976 established in Hawaii

DNA Identification Act

1994 establishes CODIS (Combined DNA Index System) with 13 core loci

Establishment of Integrated Automated Fingeprint Index System (IAFIS)

1999 FBI

two published studies of possible techniques to tell identical twins apart using DNA

2013,2015

public crime labs

411 government crime labs in the U.S. 2009 Not including police ID units Total budget $1.6 billion 4.1 million requests for forensic services 34% Biology 33% Controlled substances 15% Toxicology Backlog >1 million requests ~75% Biology Often rape kits

1893 Hans Gross (Austria)

A judge and professor of criminal law at the University of Graz, published Criminal Investigations, a Practical Textbook for Magistrates, Police Officers, and Lawyers, the first comprehensive description of uses of physical evidence in solving crime. Described the use of various areas of scientific inquiry to assist in criminal investigation Also later introduced a forensic journal still currently in publication Gross is also credited with coining the term, Criminalistics Pioneer of the Scientific Method

common origin

A more discriminating conclusion in that an evidence item originated from a person or other source match, identification, individualization - depending on the discipline, wording can be controversial.

1879 Alphonse Bertillon (France)

A police employee, developed "Anthropometry" - systematic, biometric means of individualizing criminals. Ten-prints were later added to the 11 body measurements included in criminal files. The first repeat offender was identified using his method of individualization.

1889 Alexandre Lacassagne (France):

A professor of forensic medicine (University of Lyons) founded the Lacassagne School of Criminology. The first to try to individualize bullets to a gun barrel after noticing the lands and grooves (rifling) on a bullet he removed from a body during autopsy. He was able to trace the bullet to a murderer's pistol.

1902 Rodolphe-Archibald Reiss (Switzerland):

A pupil of Bertillon and a professor (University of Lausanne) set up one of the first academic curricula in forensic science - first university to deliver a degree in forensic science covering all major subjects (forensic photography, crime scene investigation, and identification). His department grew into the Institut de Police Scientifique et de Criminologie.

*1892 (Sir) Francis Galton (England)

Anthropologist, scientist, inventor, explorer, and cousin of Charles Darwin, He published Finger Prints, the first comprehensive book on the nature of fingerprints and their use in solving crime. He defined and named print minutiae, known as Galton Details.

1901

Appointed head of Scotland Yard Forced the adoption of fingerprint identification to replace anthropometry

Bronze Age - 2nd Millennium BC 2000-1001 BC

Babylonians used fingerprints as signatures to protect against forgery, took fingerprints of arrestees

forensic biology

Certain aspects of human-related biology Most common uses are in body fluid (serology) and human DNA identification

200s - 900s BC

Chinese used fingerprints as seals and to sign legal documents and authenticate clay sculpture -No formal classification system yet

document examination

Document comparison Handwriting, typed, authenticity, source

toxicology

Examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons. Some crime labs have their own toxicology unit but many are distinct entities from crime labs (health departments )

1932

FBI Laboratory in Quantico, VA established J. Edgar Hoover consulted with businesses, manufacturers and scientists when formulating the lab Currently world's largest forensic lab >500 scientists and special agents, > 1million examinations per year

1981

FBI's Forensic Science Research and Training Center opens First facility dedicated to researching methods that can be applied to forensics U.S. has no national system of forensic laboratories State systems, county systems, even city systems Few connected databases, such as AFIS (fingerprints) and CODIS (DNA)

1878 Thomas Dwight (U.S.):

Father of Forensic Anthropology in the U.S." Human skeletal identification, researched methods to determine age, height, sex

firearms

Firearms, discharged bullets, casing/shells, ammunition Example: does a bullet or a casing found at a crime scene match a suspect gun

*1863 Christian Friedrich Schönbein: (Germany):

First discovered the ability of hemoglobin to oxidize hydrogen peroxide making it foam - a presumptive test for blood.

1839

First time forensic toxicology used at trial

1898 Paul Jesrich (Germany):

Forensic chemist (Berlin), devoted much of his life to forensic science. Used photography and microscopy as tools to investigate criminal evidence: hair, body fluids, handwriting, ballistics. given a bullet from a murder victim and asked if he could determine whether it could have been shot through the suspect's revolver. He test-fired the revolver and compared the microscopic markings on the surfaces of both bullets. Failed to pursue further development of this ballistics technique

identification and classification

Forensic tests used to identify and classify a substance - e.g. drugs, body fluids, trace materials

forensic geology

Geology Evidence relating to minerals, oil, petroleum, other Example: dirt found on victim or suspect's shoe(Common in Sherlock Holmes stories)

digital computer forensics

ID, collect, preserve, examine digital information Recovery of deleted or overwritten information Computers, cell phones

Great Britain

In contrast, has a national system of regional labs Early 1990s, Forensic Science Services (FSS) However, charged police agencies a fee for service FSS closed in 2012; forensics now contracted to private sector Size of Country Population: 321 million (U.S) vs. 65.1 million (GB) No state government in between

1896 Sir Edward Richard Henry (England):

Inspector General of Police in India, Collaborated with Galton and Indian police officers to develop the print classification system that came to use in Europe and North America. Later published Classification and Uses of Finger Prints

1828 William Nichol (Scotland)

Invented the polarizing light microscope

7 additional loci added to CODIS

Jan 1st 2017

1832 trial of John Bodle

John Bodle accused of poisoning grandfather (arsenic in coffee)

1798 François-Emanuel Fodéré (France)

Leading authority on public health and legal medicine who published "A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health". One of the first published treatise on forensic science

1883 Mark Twain (U.S)

Life on the Mississippi (1883) murder identified via a fingerprint And again in Pudd'n Head Wilson (1894)

1923, August Vollmer

Oldest crime laboratory in the US is the LAPD Crime Lab -1930s Vollmer heads first U.S. university institute for criminology/criminalistics but lacked official status until 1948

expanding the role of forensic science

Past 40 years: increasing need for forensic services and crime labs Agencies either foresaw need for crime lab or overwhelmed with demands of cases Supreme court cases of 1960s Greater emphasis on evidence; scientifically evaluated evidence Rights of accused New forensic sciences, techniques, leaps in technology One major factor: drug-related (arrests, abuse, wars, legal vs. illegal status) 1960s All illicit drugs must be identified Another: DNA Late 1980s/early 1990s One of the few forensic sciences that can individualize / near individualize Very intense and sophisticated demands of DNA technology Public perception

basic forensic science services

Physical Sciences Forensic Chemistry: Forensic Geology: Physics Forensic Biology: Firearms: Document Examination: Photography: Latent Fingerprints: Forensic Computer and Digital Forensics:

1892 Juan Vucetich (Argentina):

Police statistician, later promoted to head of the Bureau of Anthropometric Identification, developed the fingerprint classification system that came in use in Latin America. His system implicated a mother in the murder of her own children using her bloody fingerprints (patent prints), which was the first practical use of fingerprint science by law enforcement. Argentina was the first country to replace anthropometry with fingerprints.

latent fingerprints

Processes / develops fingerprints at crime scene and/or pieces of evidence Comparison to or search for reference matches

1864 Odelbrecht

Promoted the use of photography for documenting crime scene evidence as well as identifying criminals

Gideon v Wainwright (1963)

The Court ruled that all citizens must be provided a lawyer if they cannot afford one. This is regardless of the type of crime

Miranda v Arizona (1966)

The Court ruled that citizens must be informed of their rights prior to questioning. Any evidence or statement obtained prior to a suspect being read his/her rights is inadmissible. This has led to what is commonly referred to as one's "Miranda Rights" having to be read upon questioning or arrest.

Mapp v Ohio (1961)

The court ruled that the evidence obtained in the search was inadmissible because it was seized in an illegal search. In ruling this way the court created the "exclusionary rule" which makes illegally obtained evidence inadmissible in court. This ruling upheld the principles of the fourth amendment (unreasonable search and seizure).

additional services

Toxicology Unit Polygraph Unit Voiceprint Analysis Unit Crime Scene Investigation Unit

1900 Karl Landsteiner (Austria):

Trying to understand the reason for failed blood transfusions, Discovered human blood groups and was awarded the Nobel prize for his work in 1930.

forensic chemistry

Use of chemistry in a legal setting Identify unknown materials found at crime scenes Example: if accelerant was used at a fire

reconstruction/corroboration

Used to aid in the development of a hypothesis of The order of events - example - who died first? The relative position of actors to one another - who was driving? How the crime unfolded

photography

Visual record of crime scene, Visual record of where physical evidence was located before removal Visual record of state of evidence before testing Many courts accept photography as visual evidence Examination-quality photographs to document crime scene; evidence Need to be able to interpret photos easily Investigators Judge Jury Documents and preserves original crime scene Shows layout of scene Position and dimensions of evidence Physical relationship of pieces of evidence to each other Taken from many angles ; line of sight Victims Suspects Witnesses Especially important to document biological evidence Guidelines or standard operating procedures (SOP) (1) must be reliable (2) must be reproducible (3) secured and integrity assured (4) original, manipulation, and metadata available Photography log Only copied to writable (not rewritable) discs If enhanced, saved as a new image

crime lab services

Wide variation of services offered, due to: Variation in local law Example: marijuana (illegal vs. medical only vs. legal) Organization lab is attached to Budget and Staffing As a result, services / forensic sciences available differ Partial service / major forensic sciences Full service / major + specialized forensic sciences

Dieter Max Richter (Austria)

adapted the technique to type dried stains. This is one of the first instances of performing validation experiments specifically to adapt a method for forensic science. Landsteiner's continued work on the detection of blood, its species, and its type formed the basis of practically all subsequent work.

Edmond Locard (France):

assistant to Alexandre Lacassagne 1904: Locard's Exchange Principle: Locard published L'enquete criminelle et les methodes scientifique, in which appears a passage that may have given rise to the forensic precept that "Every contact leaves a trace." 1910: Opened the first criminal investigation laboratory developing and validating forensic testing using the scientific method. Inspired the development of police laboratories throughout Europe WWI: Referred to as the Sherlock Holmes of France - analyzed dirt and stains on WWI uniforms to identify location and cause of death. 1918: Suggested the use of 12 matching points as a positive fingerprint

1905 President Theodore Roosevelt

established Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

1903 The New York State Prison System

first systematic use of fingerprints in United States for criminal identification by including inmate fingerprints along with Bertillon measurements, using an American system of fingerprint classification developed by Captain James Parke.

forensic scientist

forensic analysts, forensic examiners) - collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence as part of an investigation (Criminalist, Examiner) - interprets test results, writes reports, provides testimony

Inconclusive

no conclusion possible

laboratory director

oversight of all of the laboratory or laboratory system

System Quality Assurance Manager

oversight of all quality, ensure lab meets all accreditation standards and requirements.

section supervisor

oversight of casework

section director

oversight of general operations including casework, databasing, budget, grants,

section quality manager

oversight of quality in the section

section technician leader

oversight of technical operations in section-proficiency testing, training, quality assurance, validation, methods development

1880 Henry Faulds (Scotland):

physician working in Tokyo published a paper in the journal Nature being the first to suggest (in a published article) that fingerprints at the scene of a crime could identify the offender (source). In one of the first recorded uses of fingerprints to solve a crime, Faulds used fingerprints to eliminate an innocent suspect and indicate a perpetrator in a Tokyo burglary. Sent explanation and samples to Charles Darwin Darwin passed materials onto cousin, Francis Galton

1901 Henry P. DeForrest (U.S):

pioneered the first systematic use of fingerprints in the United States by the New York Civil Service Commission - to prevent job applicants from having better qualified individuals take their civil service exams for them.

*1877 Thomas Taylor (U.S.):

plant microscopist at the U.S. Department of Agriculture, lectured and published on finger and palm prints and their potential application to criminal investigation

support technician

prepares reagents, performs steps in casework processing, general laboratory maintenance, provides assistance

1887 Arthur Conan Doyle (England

published the first Sherlock Holmes story: A Study of Scarlet. Sherlock Holmes probably the most renowned forensic scientist of the 1800s. Influenced popularizing scientific crime-detection methods Holmes used fingerprint comparison in The Sign of Four (1890) Scotland Yard adopted it 10 years later. Long before their use by real-life investigators: Serology Fingerprinting and Footprint anaylsis Firearms identification Questioned-documents examination

forensic science

the application of the natural sciences to criminal and civil laws

1910 Albert S. Osborne (U.S.) :

the most influential document examiner, publishes Questioned Documents (still used today).

forensic investigation

use of science and/or technology in the investigation establishment of facts or evidence for use in criminal proceedings