GEO TEST III

metal

A solid composed almost entirely of atoms of metallic elements; it is generally opaque, shiny, smooth, malleable, and can conduct electricity.

U-shaped valley

A steep-walled valley shaped by glacial erosion into the form of a U.

Tropical cyclone

A large spiral-shaped rotating storm that forms over the ocean in tropical latitudes; the category includes hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones.

Topographic profile

A line representing the intersection of the land surface with an imaginary vertical plane at a locality.

oil seep

A location where oil bubbles out of the ground on its own, without pumping.

Artificial levee

A man-made retaining wall to hold back a river from flooding.

oxbow lake

A meander that has been cut off yet remains filled with water.

coral rank

A measurement of the carbon content of coal; higher-rank coal forms at higher temperatures.

Strategic minera

A mineral containing elements of importance to technology (particularly to the military).

Glacier

A river or sheet of ice that slowly flows across the land surface and lasts all year long.

Source rock

A rock (organic-rich shale) containing the raw materials from which hydrocarbons eventually form.

Tillite

A rock formed from hardened ancient glacial deposits and consisting of larger clasts distributed through a matrix of sandstone and mudstone

Guyot

A seamount that had a coral reef growing on top of it, so that it is now flat-crested.

moraine

A sediment pile composed of till deposited by a glacier.

Braided stream

A sediment-choked stream consisting of entwined subchannels

chain reaction

A self-perpetuating process in a nuclear reaction, whereby neutrons released during the fission trigger more fission.

drilling mud

A slurry of water mixed with clay that oil drillers use to cool a drill bit and flush rock cuttings up and out of the hole.

Pore

A small, open space within sediment or rock.

Tributary

A smaller stream that flows into a larger stream.

Meander

A snake-like curve along a stream's course.

Permanent stream

A stream that flows year-round because its bed lies below the water table, or because more water is supplied from upstream than can infiltrate the ground.

Ephemeral stream

A stream whose bed lies above the water table, so that the stream flows only when the rate at which water enters the stream from rainfall or meltwater exceeds the rate at which water infiltrates the ground below.

drumlin

A streamlined, elongate hill formed when a glacier overrides glacial till.

Fuel

A substance that can be used to produce energy

trap

A subsurface configuration of seal rocks and structures that keep oil and/or gas underground, so it doesn't seep out at the surface

mineral resource

An accumulation of a useful ore, in which valuable elements are sufficiently concentrated to be worth mining.

Sand spit

An area where the beach stretches out into open water across the mouth of a bay or estuary.

Drainage network

An array of interconnecting streams that together drain an area.

ore deposit

An economically significant accumulation of ore.

Fossil Fuel

An energy resource such as oil or coal that comes from organisms that lived long ago and thus stores solar energy that reached the Earth then.

Flood

An event during which the volume of water in a stream becomes so great that it covers areas outside the stream's normal channel.

Laurentide ice sheet

An ice sheet that spread over northeastern Canada during the Pleistocene ice age(s).

Estuary

An inlet in which seawater and river water mix; created when a coastal valley is flooded because of either rising sea level or land subsidence.

dimension stone

An intact block of granite or marble to be used for architectural purposes.

Seamount

An isolated submarine mountain.

oil shale

An organic shale containing abundant kerogen.

Bathymetry

Variation in depth.

(Q003) Which type of chemical bond occurs when atoms share electrons, as shown in this diagram? a. ionic b. polarity c. covalent d. metallic

c. covalent

Stream gradient

The slope of a stream's channel in the downstream direction.

bar

(1) A sheet or elongate lens or mound of alluvium; (2) a unit of air-pressure measurement approximately equal to 1 atm.

Current

(1) A well-defined stream of ocean water; (2) the moving flow of water in a stream.

Pluvial lake

A lake formed to the south of a continental glacier as a result of enhanced rainfall during an ice age.

Crevasse

A large crack that develops by brittle deformation in the top 60 m of a glacier.

salt dome

A rising bulbous dome of salt that bends up the adjacent layers of sedimentary rock.

Depositional landform

A landform resulting from the deposition of sediment where the medium carrying the sediment evaporates, slows down, or melts.

Erosional Landform

A landform that results from the breakdown and removal of rock or sediment.

Coastal fjord

A glacially carved valley that became submerged when sea level rose, so it is now an elongate bay of the sea.

roche moutonnée

A glacially eroded hill that becomes elongate in the direction of flow and asymmetric; glacial rasping smooths the upstream part of the hill into a gentle slope, while glacial plucking erodes the downstream edge into a steep slope.

Mountain glacier

A glacier that exists in or adjacent to a mountainous region

Mid-ocean ridge

A 2-km-high submarine mountain belt that forms along a divergent oceanic plate boundary.

coal

A black, organic rock consisting of greater than 50% carbon; it forms from the buried and altered remains of plant material.

Erratic

A boulder or cobble that was picked up by a glacier and deposited hundreds of kilometers away from the outcrop from which it detached.

Cirque

A bowl-shaped depression carved by a glacier on the side of a mountain.

Pothole

A bowl-shaped depression carved into the floor of a stream by a long-lived whirlpool carrying sand or gravel.

Tidewater glacier

A glacier that has entered the sea along a coast.

Abyssal Plain

A broad, relatively flat region of the ocean that lies at least 4.5 km below sea level.

Continental shelf

A broad, shallowly submerged fringe of a continent; ocean-water depth over the continental shelf is generally less than 200 meters; the widest continental shelves occur over passive margins.

Hydrocarbon

A chain-like or ring-like molecule made of hydrogen and carbon atoms; petroleum and natural gas are hydrocarbons.

Kettle hole

A circular depression in the ground made when a block of ice calves off the toe of a glacier, becomes buried by till, and later melts.

Organic coast

A coast along which living organisms control landforms along the shore.

Beach profile

A cross section illustrating the shape of a beach's surface.

longitudinal profile

A cross-sectional image showing the variation in elevation along the length of a river.

seismic-reflection profile

A cross-sectional view of the crust made by measuring the reflection of artificial seismic waves off boundaries between different layers of rock in the crust.

blowout

A deep, bowl-like depression scoured out of desert terrain by a turbulent vortex of wind. (depression on land surface caused by wind erosion)

Trench

A deep, elongate trough bordering a volcanic arc; a trench defines the trace of a convergent plate boundary.

fjord

A deep, glacially carved, U-shaped valley flooded by rising sea level.

Geologic cross section

A depiction of contacts in the subsurface as represented by their traces on an imaginary vertical slice into the Earth.

photovoltaic cell

A device capable of transforming solar energy directly into electricity.

Wave

A disturbance that transmits energy from one point to another in the form of periodic motions.

Sheetwash

A film of water less than a few mm thick that covers the ground surface during heavy rains.

Coastal wetland

A flat-lying coastal area that floods during high tide and drains during low tide, and hosts salt-resistant plants.

Flash flood

A flood that occurs during unusually intense rainfall or as the result of a dam collapse, during which the floodwaters rise very fast.

Slow-onset flood

A flood that takes days to weeks to develop; these include seasonal floods that cover flood plains and delta plains.

Alluvial fan

A gently sloping apron of sediment dropped by an ephemeral stream at the base of a mountain in arid or semiarid regions.

Beach

A gently sloping fringe of sediment along the shore.

Hanging valley

A glacially carved tributary valley whose floor lies at a higher elevation than the floor of the trunk valley.

Drainage divide

A highland or ridge that separates one watershed from another.

Snowball Earth

A model proposing that, at times during Earth history, glaciers covered all land, and the entire ocean surface froze.

Coral reef

A mound of coral and coral debris forming a region of shallow water.

Submarine canyon

A narrow, steep canyon that dissects a continental shelf and slope.

Natural levee

A pair of low ridges that appear on either side of a stream and develop as a result of the accumulation of sediment deposited naturally during flooding.

Varve

A pair of thin layers of glacial lake-bed sediment, one consisting of silt brought in during the spring floods and the other of clay deposited during the winter when the lake's surface freezes over and the water is still.

Landform

A particular land-surface shape at a location.

Waterfall

A place where water drops over an escarpment.

horn

A pointed mountain peak surrounded by at least three cirques.

Patterned ground

A polar landscape in which the ground splits into pentagonal or hexagonal shapes.

hydrofracturing

A process by which drillers generate new fractures or open preexisting ones underground, by pumping a high-pressure fluid into a portion of the drill hole, in order to increase the permeability of surrounding hydrocarbon-bearing rocks.

Scouring

A process by which running water removes loose fragments of sediment from a streambed.

Hydrocarbon generation

A process in which oil shale warms to temperatures of greater than about 90°C so kerogen molecules transform into oil and natural gas molecules.

Stream piracy

A process that happens when headward erosion by one stream causes the stream to intersect the course of another stream and capture its flow.

Rapids

A reach of a stream in which water becomes particularly turbulent; as a consequence, waves develop on the surface of the stream.

Meandering stream

A reach of stream containing many meanders (snake-like curves).

seal rock

A relatively impermeable rock, such as shale, salt, or unfractured limestone, that lies above a reservoir rock and stops the oil from rising further.

Flood-hazard map

A representation of a portion of the Earth's surface that is designed to show how the danger of flooding varies with location.

arête

A residual knife-edge ridge of rock that separates two adjacent cirques.

stream

A ribbon of water that flows in a channel.

Esker

A ridge of sorted sand and gravel that snakes across a ground moraine; the sediment of an esker was deposited in subglacial meltwater tunnels.

Unconventional reserve

A supply of oil or gas that cannot be easily pumped; it includes forms of hydrocarbons that are too viscous to pump, or occur in impermeable rock; examples include tar sand, oil shale, shale oil, and shale gas.

Channel

A trough dug into the ground surface by flowing water.

Canyon

A trough or valley with steeply sloping walls, cut into the land by a stream.

Valley

A trough with sloping walls, cut into the land by a stream.

V-shaped valley

A valley whose cross-sectional shape resembles the shape of a V; the valley probably has a river running down the point of the V.

Continental glacier

A vast sheet of ice that spreads over thousands of square km of continental crust.

distillation column

A vertical pipe in which crude oil is separated into several components.

Conventional reserve

A volume of oil or gas in a reservoir rock within a trap; it can be pumped relatively easily from the reservoir rock.

Delta

A wedge of sediment formed at a river mouth when the running water of the stream enters standing water, the current slows, the stream loses competence, and sediment settles out.

Point bar

A wedge-shaped deposit of sediment on the inside bank of a meander.

Portland cement

Cement made by mechanically mixing limestone, sandstone, and shale in just the right proportions, before heating in a kiln, to provide the correct chemical makeup of cement.

Milankovitch cycle

Climate cycles that occur over tens to hundreds of thousands of years because of changes in the Earth's orbit and tilt.

Peat

Compacted and partially decayed vegetation accumulating beneath a swamp.

firn

Compacted granular ice (derived from snow) that forms where snow is deeply buried; if buried more deeply, firn turns into glacial ice.

Storm surge

Excess seawater driven landward by wind during a storm; the low atmospheric pressure beneath the storm allows sea level to rise locally, increasing the surge.

Seasonal flood

Floods that appear almost every year during seasons when rainfall is heavy or when winter snows start to melt.

shale gas

Gas extracted directly from a source rock (organic shale)

biofuel

Gas or liquid fuel made from plant material (biomass). Examples of biofuel include alcohol (from fermented sugar), biodiesel from vegetable oil, and wood.

Glacial striation

Grooves or scratches cut into bedrock when clasts embedded in the moving glacier act like the teeth of a giant rasp

Sea ice

Ice formed by the freezing of the surface of the sea.

Dissolved load

Ions dissolved in a stream's water.

banded iron formation (BIF)

Iron-rich sedimentary layers consisting of alternating gray beds of iron oxide and red beds of iron-rich chert.

Bed load

Large particles, such as sand, pebbles, or cobbles, that bounce or roll along a streambed.

Coastal plain

Low-relief regions of land adjacent to the coast.

Manganese nodule

Lumpy accumulations of manganese-oxide minerals precipitated onto the sea floor.

Cement

Mineral material that precipitates from water and fills the spaces between grains, holding the grains together.

ore mineral

Minerals that have metal in high concentrations and in a form that can be easily extracted.

Agent of erosion

Natural entities that remove material from the Earth's surface, and transport it elsewhere; examples include rivers, glaciers, and the wind.

Coriolis effect

The deflection of objects, winds, and currents on the surface of the Earth owing to the planet's rotation.

shale oil

Oil extracted directly from a source rock.

Beach erosion

The removal of beach sand caused by wave action and longshore currents.

Permafrost

Permanently frozen ground.

acid rain

Precipitation in which air pollutants react with water to make a weak acid that then falls from the sky

Ablation

The removal of ice at the toe of a glacier by melting, sublimation (the evaporation of ice into water vapor), and/or calving.

ore

Rock containing native metals or a concentrated accumulation of ore minerals.

reservoir rock

Rock with high porosity and permeability, so it can contain an abundant amount of easily accessible oil.

tar sand

Sandstone reservoir rock in which less viscous oil and gas molecules have either escaped or been eaten by microbes, so that only tar remains.

Glacial drift

Sediment deposited in glacial environments.

Alluvium

Sorted sediment deposited by a stream.

Hydrosphere

The Earth's water, including surface water (lakes, rivers, and oceans), groundwater, and liquid water in the atmosphere.

Energy density

The amount of energy contained by a unit volume of material.

Biomass

The amount of organic material in a specified volume

Residence time

The average length of time that a substance stays in a particular reservoir.

Recurrence interval

The average time between events of a given size or magnitude; the term is commonly used to give a sense of the frequency of earthquakes or of flooding.

Headwaters

The beginning point of a stream.

Wave refraction

The bending of waves as they approach a shore so that their crests make no more than a 5° angle with the shoreline.

Equilibrium line

The boundary between the zone of accumulation and the zone of ablation.

grade

The concentration of a useful metal in an ore—the higher the concentration, the higher the grade.

Hydrologic cycle

The continual passage of water from reservoir to reservoir in the Earth System.

Tide

The daily rising or falling of sea level at a given point on the Earth.

Plastic deformation

The deformational process in which mineral grains behave like plastic and, when compressed or sheared, become flattened or elongate without cracking or breaking.

Salinity

The degree of concentration of salt in water.

Permeability

The degree to which a material allows fluids to pass through it via an interconnected network of pores and cracks.

Wave base

The depth, approximately equal in distance to half a wavelength in a body of water, beneath which there is no wave movement.

Relief

The difference in elevation between adjacent high and low regions on the land surface.

Tidal range

The difference in sea level between high tide and low tide at a given point.

Terminal moraine

The end moraine at the farthest limit of glaciation.

Sublimate

The evaporation of ice directly into vapor without first forming a liquid.

Distributary

The fan of small streams formed where a river spreads out over its delta.

Floodplain

The flat land on either side of a stream that becomes covered with water during a flood.

Longshore current

The flow of water parallel to the shore just off a coast, because of the diagonal movement of waves toward the shore.

Glacial advance

The forward movement of a glacier's toe when the supply of snow exceeds the rate of ablation.

Backwash

The gravity-driven flow of water back down the slope of a beach.

Erosion

The grinding away and removal of the Earth's surface materials by moving water, air, or ice.

Hubbert's Peak

The high point on a graph of production vs. time; the concept that we can define Hubbert's Peak for a resource emphasizes that supplies of resources are limited. (early 1970's)

Pleistocene Ice Age

The ice age that began about 2.6 Ma, and involves many advances and retreats of continental glaciers.

Annual probability

The likelihood that a flood of a given size or larger will happen at a specified locality during any given year.

Base level

The lowest elevation a stream channel's floor can reach at a given locality.

Competence

The maximum particle size a stream can carry.

meltdown

The melting of the fuel rods in a nuclear reactor that occurs if the rate of fission becomes too fast and the fuel rods become too hot.

Stream rejuvination

The renewed downcutting of a stream into a floodplain or peneplain, caused by a relative drop of the base level.

Post glacial rebound

The rise of the surface of a continent after an ice sheet has melted away, so that isostasy is reestablished.

thermohaline circulation

The rising and sinking of water driven by contrasts in water density, which is due in turn to differences in temperature and salinity; this circulation involves both surface and deep-water currents in the ocean.

Glacial subsidence

The sinking of the surface of a continent caused by the weight of an overlying glacial ice sheet.

Glacial retreat

The movement of a glacier's toe back toward the glacier's origin; glacial retreat occurs if the rate of ablation exceeds the rate of supply.

Saltation

The movement of a sediment in which grains bounce along their substrate, knocking other grains into the water column (or air) in the process.

migrate (hydrocarbons)

The movement of hydrocarbons from source rocks to reservoir rocks.

Longshore drift

The movement of sediment laterally along a beach; it occurs when waves wash up a beach diagonally.

Oil window

The narrow range of temperatures under which oil can form in a source rock.

Mouth

The outlet of a stream where it discharges into another stream, a lake, or a sea.

Landscape

The overall shape and character of the land surface in a region.

nuclear reactor

The part of a nuclear power plant where the fission reactions occur.

Oil age

The period of human history, including our own, so named because the economy depends on oil.

Headward erosion

The process by which a stream channel lengthens up its slope as the flow of water increases.

Deposition

The process by which sediment settles out of a transporting medium.

Downcutting

The process in which water flowing through a channel cuts into the substrate and deepens the channel relative to its surroundings.

directional drilling

The process of controlling the trajectory of a drill bit to make sure that the drill hole goes exactly where desired.

coal gasification

The process of producing relatively clean-burning gases from solid coal.

coal reserve

The quantities of discovered, but not yet mined, coal in sedimentary rock of the continents.

nuclear waste

The radioactive material produced as a byproduct in a nuclear plant that must be disposed of carefully due to its dangerous radioactivity.

Shore

The region of land adjacent to a body of water.

Watershed

The region that collects water that feeds into a given drainage network.

Evapotranspiration

The sum of evaporation from bodies of water and the ground surface and transpiration from plants and animals.

Capacity

The total quantity of sediment a stream can carry.

Porosity

The total volume of empty space (pore space) in a material, usually expressed as a percentage.

Downslope movement

The tumbling or sliding of rock and sediment from higher elevations to lower ones.

Swash

The upward surge of water that flows up a beach slope when breakers crash onto the shore.

Uplift

The upward vertical movement of the Earth's surface.

Subsidence

The vertical sinking of the Earth's surface in a region, relative to a reference plane.

Discharge

The volume of water in a conduit or channel passing a point in 1 second.

Runoff

The water the flows on the surface of the Earth to drain the land; it includes streamflow and sheetflow.

Kerogen

The waxy molecules into which the organic material in shale transforms on reaching about 100°C. At higher temperatures, kerogen transforms into oil. (oil shale)

Suspended load

Tiny solid grains carried along by a stream without settling to the floor of the channel.

Rogue wave

Waves that are two to five times the size of most of the large waves passing a locality in a given time interval.

Stream terrace

When a stream downcuts through the alluvium of a floodplain so that a new, lower floodplain develops and the original floodplain becomes a step-like platform.

Drainage reversal

When the overall direction of flow in a drainage network becomes the opposite of what it once had been.

Hydrocarbon reserve

a known supply of oil and gas held underground

(Q019) Sometimes more than two plates come together at a special kind of plate boundary, as shown in the figure. What type of plate boundary feature is shown here at the intersection of the African, Indian, and Antarctic plates? a. triple junction b. continental rift zone c. modified transform plate boundary d. hot spot

a. triple junction

The age of the universe is ______, and the age of our solar system, including Earth, is ________. a. 13.7 Ga (billion) years; 4.56 Ga (billion years) b. 13.7 Ma (million) years; 4.56 Ga (billion years) c. 13.7 Ga (billion) years; 4.56 Ma (million years) d. 4.56 Ga (billion years); 13.7 Ga (billion) years

a. 13.7 Ga (billion) years; 4.56 Ga (billion years)

(Q004) This diagram shows an example of how rocks can change in the rock cycle. Which of the following properly defines the numbered processes? a. 1: weathering, transport, and deposition; 2: burial and heating; 3: melting b. 1: burial and heating; 2: melting; 3: weathering, transport, and deposition c. 1: melting; 2: burial and heating; 3: weathering, transport, and deposition d. 1: burial and heating; 2: weathering, transport, and deposition; 3: melting

a. 1: weathering, transport, and deposition; 2: burial and heating; 3: melting

The stream in this diagram flows at an average velocity of 6 feet per second. The area outlined by the dashed line is 800 square feet. The discharge of the stream is a. 4,800 cubic feet per second. b. 480 cubic feet per second. c. 133 cubic feet per second. d. 66 cubic feet per second.

a. 4,800 cubic feet per second.

When did the Earth form? a. 4.56 Ga b. 13.8 Ga c. 5.64 Ga d. 541 Ma

a. 4.56 Ga

Identify the true statement. a. A 100-year flood has a 1% chance of occurring in any given year. b. Two 100-year floods cannot occur in the same year (or in consecutive years). c. The size of a flood and its recurrence interval are inversely related; the larger the flood, the shorter its recurrence interval. d. An annual probability of 4% means that there's a 1 in 4 chance that a flood of some given size will happen in any given year.

a. A 100-year flood has a 1% chance of occurring in any given year.

(Q013) Which of the following statements about hardness is true? a. A copper penny will scratch gypsum. b. Apatite is harder than orthoclase. c. Diamond has a Mohs hardness of 10 because it is 10 times harder than talc (hardness of 1). d. Calcite will scratch fluorite.

a. A copper penny will scratch gypsum.

Which of the following statements about the hydrologic cycle is true? a. There is an exchange of water among oceans, land, and atmosphere. b. Surface snow and ice are not part of this cycle. c. Water that manages to infiltrate the land is lost to the cycle. d. Headward erosion causes sheetwash.

a. There is an exchange of water among oceans, land, and atmosphere.

Virtually all of the deaths attributed to major earthquakes have resulted from the collapse of buildings. a. True b. False

b. False

(Q003) Identify the statement that is true about mass extinctions. a. A mass extinction may happen when a comet or asteroid impact starts a chain of events that blocks sunlight for weeks or even years. b. The mass extinction of dinosaurs occurred at the Permian-Triassic boundary. c. Mass-extinction events are times in the Earth's history when few species evolve. d. The mass extinction of more than two-thirds of the species on the Earth was the result of large volcanic eruptions in Hawaii.

a. A mass extinction may happen when a comet or asteroid impact starts a chain of events that blocks sunlight for weeks or even years.

(Q015) The Basin and Range Province in Nevada consists of many narrow, elongate mountain ranges separated by basins. What is true of these mountain ranges? a. All of the possible answers are correct b. They are the tilted footwalls of normal faults. c. They are associated with continental rifting. d. They are sometimes called fault-block mountains.

a. All of the possible answers are correct

(Q001) Magmas can have a variety of chemical compositions for which of the following reasons? a. All of the possible answers are correct. b. Melts may come from different source rocks. c. Source rocks undergo varying degrees of partial melting, producing magmas of a different composition than the rock. d. Two magmas may mix together to form a third of differing composition

a. All of the possible answers are correct.

(Q004) Which geologic time interval saw the first continents, the first life, and possibly the first plates? a. Archean b. Hadean c. Phanerozoic d. Proterozoic

a. Archean

(Q008) Which soil horizon consists of weathered bedrock material that has not yet been leached or had significant accumulation? a. C-horizon b. B-horizon c. A-horizon d. E-horizon

a. C-horizon

(Q014) Which of the following statements about short-term climate change is true? a. Changing ocean currents can affect global climate. b. Large volcanic eruptions generally accelerate global warming. c. Warming seas may release frozen seafloor methane, causing global cooling. d. The planet's albedo varies with the sunspot cycle.

a. Changing ocean currents can affect global climate.

____________ create(s) an easy route for oil or gas to travel to a well. a. Hydrofracturing b. Drilling mud c. Seismic-reflection d. Pumps

a. Hydrofracturing

(Q015) What conclusion can you make from the following diagram? a. If the half-life of the parent material is 4,000 years, 3 on the horizontal axis of the graph represents 12,000 years. b. If 2 g of parent material is present after three half-lives, 6 g of daughter material will also be present. c. Equal amounts of parent and daughter material are present after the passage of two half-lives. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

a. If the half-life of the parent material is 4,000 years, 3 on the horizontal axis of the graph represents 12,000 years.

(Q018) The continents that made up Pangaea began to split apart during the a. Late Triassic/Early Jurassic. b. late Paleozoic. c. Early Devonian. d. mid Proterozoic.

a. Late Triassic/Early Jurassic.

Which of the following statements is true? a. Levees may be intentionally breached during a flood to control where the flood occurs. b. Agricultural development aids in flood control because crops retain more water than natural vegetation. c. A floodway built on one segment of a river increases the risk of flooding downstream because it increases the volume of water that the river may carry. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

a. Levees may be intentionally breached during a flood to control where the flood occurs.

(Q012) Which of the following statements about extinction is true? a. Modern species are disappearing so rapidly that some researchers suggest our present time is another mass extinction. b. The movement of tectonic plates cannot cause extinction because species move along with the plate. c. No mass-extinction events have occurred during the last 500 million years. d. A species becomes extinct when it evolves into a new species.

a. Modern species are disappearing so rapidly that some researchers suggest our present time is another mass extinction.

(Q005) Identify the true statement. a. Most of the minerals in granite weather to clay except quartz. b. Every mineral is affected by every type of chemical weathering reaction. c. All minerals weather at the same rate. d. Quartz weathers more quickly than other common minerals in granite.

a. Most of the minerals in granite weather to clay except quartz.

(Q003) Which of the following statements about fossil preservation is true? a. Organisms with hard parts made of shell or bone are more likely to become fossilized. b. A dead organism will most likely become a fossil if there is abundant oxygen in the depositional environment. c. The more slowly an organism is buried with sediment after death, the more likely it is to become a fossil. d. Low-energy environments are not suitable for preserving fossils.

a. Organisms with hard parts made of shell or bone are more likely to become fossilized.

Identify the true statement. a. Plates shift the continents around as they move, so the Earth's surface is constantly changing. b. The contacts between plates are called passive margins. c. Plates may consist of both ocean floor and continental crust, but never just oceanic or continental crust. d. There are 120 major tectonic plates.

a. Plates shift the continents around as they move, so the Earth's surface is constantly changing.

Identify the true statement. a. The composition of the giant (Jovian) planets is mainly gas and "ice." b. The only two planets with moons are the Earth and Jupiter. c. The Sun accounts for almost 50% of the Solar System's mass. d. Our Sun is the only star we know of that has planets associated with it.

a. The composition of the giant (Jovian) planets is mainly gas and "ice."

(Q003) In this illustration, which is a correct interpretation of relative ages? a. The granite pluton is older than the fault, which is older than the dike. b. The fault is older than the folded layers, which are younger than the granite. c. The granite pluton is older than the folded layers. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

a. The granite pluton is older than the fault, which is older than the dike.

A glacier can have only one of which of the following types of moraines? a. terminal b. medial c. lateral d. end

a. terminal

What did studies of oxygen-isotope ratios in marine plankton (shown in the graph below) indicate? a. There were many episodes of glacial advance and retreat during the Pleistocene Ice Age. b. The Pleistocene Ice Age began 500,000 years ago. c. Temperatures were 1°C to 3°C colder during Pleistocene glaciations than they are now. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

a. There were many episodes of glacial advance and retreat during the Pleistocene Ice Age.

(Q001) Which statement is true according to the rock cycle? a. Uplift, weathering, burial, and heating/melting can transform one rock type into another. b. All rocks in the Earth's crust will, at some point, be subducted and melted to create igneous rock. c. Earth materials cannot change from one type to another. d. The Earth is a static, unchanging system.

a. Uplift, weathering, burial, and heating/melting can transform one rock type into another.

Identify the true statement. a. Water, ice, and/or air are agents of erosion. b. If the rate of uplift exceeds the rate of erosion, the land surface subsides. c. Climate does not affect the types of landforms created in a region. d. Strong rocks, counterintuitively, tend to slide and produce gentle slopes.

a. Water, ice, and/or air are agents of erosion.

(Q023) The Himalayas are growing because a. a continental plate is colliding with another continental plate there. b. two plates are moving past each other there. c. two plates are diverging there. d. an oceanic plate is converging with a continental plate and subducting there.

a. a continental plate is colliding with another continental plate there.

(Q014) Which conditions can cause folding? a. all of the possible answers are correct b. changes in the orientation of an underlying fault c. horizontal compression of the crust d. draping above a fault at depth

a. all of the possible answers are correct

(Q019) Which of the following was important in determining the cause of the K-Pg (Cretaceous-Paleogene) extinction? a. all of the possible answers are correct b. iridium in K-Pg boundary clay c. shocked quarts in K-Pg boundary clay d. glass spheres in K-Pg boundary rocks

a. all of the possible answers are correct

(Q001) The Earth's internal heat does which of the following? a. all of the possible answers are correct. b. permits plate tectonics c. keeps the lithosphere warm enough to flow d. enables volcanism and mountain building

a. all of the possible answers are correct.

(Q021) Pillow basalts a. are formed in a submarine environment. b. contain large, bulbous crystals that cool slowly. c. occur in tabular intrusions called dikes. d. are composed of felsic lava.

a. are formed in a submarine environment.

Ocean surface currents a. are influenced by the Earth's rotation. b. form counterclockwise circles in the northern hemisphere. c. flow smoothly, with few eddies. d. are found only in low- and mid-latitude areas.

a. are influenced by the Earth's rotation.

(Q011) The black, fine-grained tabular intrusions between layers of horizontal sedimentary rock shown in this picture are a. basaltic sills. b. granitic sills. c. basaltic dikes. d. granitic dikes.

a. basaltic sills.

(Q016) The technique that injects oxygen and nutrients into a contaminated aquifer in order to foster the growth of bacteria that can break down contaminant molecules is called a. bioremediation. b. NAPL injection. c. effluent injection. d. plume extraction.

a. bioremediation.

Earthquake waves that pass through the interior of Earth are termed ____________. a. body waves b. surface waves c. interior waves d. R-waves

a. body waves

Which of the following lists contains only fossil fuels? a. coal, oil, natural gas b. coal, geothermal, wind c. coal, wood, natural gas d. hydroelectric, geothermal, wind

a. coal, oil, natural gas

(Q005) The Gobi Desert, in the interior of Asia, sits more than 2,000 km away from the nearest ocean and is therefore a good example of a a. continental-interior desert. b. a desert that forms because cold, dense air cannot rise to form clouds. c. polar desert. d. rain-shadow desert.

a. continental-interior desert.

Evapotranspiration a. describes the release of water to the atmosphere from the surface, plants, or animals. b. is a form of precipitation. c. only occurs in the ocean. d. is when evaporation transpires.

a. describes the release of water to the atmosphere from the surface, plants, or animals.

The point on Earth's surface directly above the point where an earthquake occurs is termed the ____________. a. epicenter b. vertex c. hypocenter (focus) d. eye of the fault

a. epicenter

(Q024) Which of the following is responsible for the broad, dark areas of the Moon, known as the maria, pictured here? a. flood basalts b. hot-spot volcanism c. arc volcanism d. lahars

a. flood basalts

(Q010) Low-viscosity lava a. has low silica content. b. is most often a cool-temperature lava. c. indicates an area that has high potential for explosive eruptions. d. could logically build a composite volcano.

a. has low silica content.

(Q016) Mountains a. have roots of continental crust that extend deeper than the level of crust under plains. b. remain at the same height over long periods of geologic time. c. that are not volcanoes occur in isolation. d. are randomly distributed over the Earth's surface.

a. have roots of continental crust that extend deeper than the level of crust under plains.

(Q011) Which of the following rocks is nonfoliated? a. hornfels b. slate c. phyllite d. schist

a. hornfels

Hydrocarbons are chain-like or ring-like molecules made of carbon and ____________ atoms. a. hydrogen b. oxygen c. water d. helium

a. hydrogen

(Q004) Which of the following chemical reactions breaks down feldspars into clay? a. hydrolysis b. hydration c. dissolution d. oxidation

a. hydrolysis

The point within Earth where an earthquake takes place is termed the ____________. a. hypocenter (focus) b. epicenter c. eye of the fault d. vertex

a. hypocenter (focus)

In the picture below, when the ship is filled with cargo it sinks into the water until the mass of water displaced is equal to the mass of the cargo. The ship is then said to be ____________. a. in isostatic equilibrium b. a self-exciting dynamo c. an equipotential surface d. equal to the geoid

a. in isostatic equilibrium

(Q012) The Paleozoic Era ended with a mass extinction event that was likely caused by a. intense volcanic activity. b. the formation of high-latitude ice sheets. c. the formation of Pangaea. d. the evolution of land plants.

a. intense volcanic activity.

(Q002) A crystalline rock a. is composed of interlocking minerals that grew together. b. contains mineral grains bound together by natural cement. c. is composed of a single crystal. d. is composed of all the same mineral.

a. is composed of interlocking minerals that grew together.

Oceanic crust a. is covered by a thin blanket of sediment that thickens away from the ridge axis. b. has not been sampled directly because it is too deep beneath the ocean. c. has the same composition as continental crust. d. is the same age as continental crust.

a. is covered by a thin blanket of sediment that thickens away from the ridge axis.

(Q018) When the buoyancy force pushing up on lithosphere equals the gravitational force pulling down on it, the situation is said to show a. isostatic equilibrium. b. orogenic collapse. c. epeirogeny. d. detachment.

a. isostatic equilibrium.

The Earth is round because a. its interior rock is warm enough to flow slowly in response to gravity. b. erosion over time has worn down the jagged edges of its planetesimals. c. the solar wind has shaped it. d. the gravitational tug of the Moon has worn down the jagged edges.

a. its interior rock is warm enough to flow slowly in response to gravity.

(Q003) Natural cracks in rock that form due to exhumation of deeply buried rock are called a. joints. b. salt wedges. c. faults. d. clasts.

a. joints.

(Q006) Which of the following taxonomic hierarchies of the Eukarya domain is correct? a. kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species b. order, phylum, kingdom, genus, class, species, family c. phylum, kingdom, order, class, genus, species, family d. species, order, class, phylum, kingdom, family, genus

a. kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

(Q005) The first life forms a. may have been simple cells of bacteria or archaea living near hydrothermal vents. b. required oxygen for respiration. c. probably occurred in oxygen-rich, shallow, warm ocean waters. d. date back to 4.3 billion years.

a. may have been simple cells of bacteria or archaea living near hydrothermal vents.

(Q002) A metamorphic rock a. may have preferred mineral orientation caused by differential stress. b. is always composed of the same minerals as its protolith. c. cannot be formed below 1,200°C. d. cannot develop a texture of interlocking grains.

a. may have preferred mineral orientation caused by differential stress.

(Q011) Identify the time interval when vascular plants shared the land with spiders, scorpions, insects, and crustaceans, while jawed fish cruised the oceans and the first amphibians left water to visit land. a. middle Paleozoic b. early Cenozoic c. late Mesozoic d. middle Proterozoic

a. middle Paleozoic

(Q005) The water table a. mimics the topography of the land it underlies. b. is always located beneath the ground surface. c. rises to a higher elevation during the dry season. d. usually lies within a few meters of the surface in deserts.

a. mimics the topography of the land it underlies.

(Q012) Which of the following lists accurately reflects an increase in grain size from smallest to largest? a. mud, silt, sand b. sand, silt, pebbles c. silt, mud, sand d. sand, cobbles, pebbles

a. mud, silt, sand

(Q008) What type of unconformity occurs when sedimentary rocks overlie either igneous or metamorphic rocks? a. nonconformity b. disconformity c. angular unconformity d. baked contact

a. nonconformity

(Q005) Brittle deformation a. occurs when many atomic bonds are broken quickly and rock pieces separate. b. produces folds, like anticlines. c. is more likely to occur deep in the crust than at the surface. d. is favored by high-temperature, high-pressure conditions.

a. occurs when many atomic bonds are broken quickly and rock pieces separate.

(Q018) In which of the following environments, or by which process, was this sedimentary structure most likely produced? a. on a floodplain b. by a turbidity current c. in a deep-marine environment d. all of the possible answers are correct

a. on a floodplain

Earth's magnetic field is produced in the ___________. a. outer core b. crust c. inner core d. mantle

a. outer core

(Q007) The dramatic scenery of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in California, shown here, a. owes its existence to erosion of a batholith. b. is the result of a continental hot spot. c. is especially impressive because of its dark-colored basalt rock. d. is composed of fine-grained volcanic rock.

a. owes its existence to erosion of a batholith.

(Q002) Which of the following fits the definition of a mineral? a. salt, because it's crystalline b. a lab-grown diamond, because it has a definable chemical composition c. glass, because it's inorganic d. oil, because it's a liquid, not a solid

a. salt, because it's crystalline

Which of the following pairs of elements composes most of the Earth's crust? a. silicon and oxygen b. nitrogen and oxygen c. iron and oxygen d. iron and nickel

a. silicon and oxygen

(Q014) Identify the list of rock types that is ordered by increasing degrees of metamorphism (i.e., from lower to higher grade). a. slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss b. gneiss, phyllite, schist, slate c. schist, slate, phyllite, migmatite d. shale, migmatite, schist, phyllite

a. slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss

S-waves travel ________ than P-waves; however, unlike P-waves, they _______ travel through liquids. a. slower; can't b. faster; can't c. slower; can d. faster; can

a. slower; can't

(Q010) Rodinia, Pannotia, and Pangaea are all names of a. supercontinents. b. geologic time periods. c. extinct marine organisms. d. orogenies that occurred on the eastern margin of North America.

a. supercontinents.

(Q010) Geologists call the interconnected web of interacting processes and materials on (and in) the Earth a. the Earth System. b. external processes. c. the scientific method. d. plate tectonics.

a. the Earth System.

(Q005) Footprints, burrows, and feeding marks are all types of a. trace fossils. b. microfossils. c. coprolites. d. biomarkers.

a. trace fossils.

(Q001) Groundwater a. typically moves slowly within the ground through permeable rock layers like sandstone. b. completely fills the zone of saturation above the water table. c. flows faster through shale than sandstone. d. flows mainly in underground river channels.

a. typically moves slowly within the ground through permeable rock layers like sandstone.

Coal and metal ore deposits deeper than 100 m below the ground surface are usually mined with which technique? a. underground mining b. strip mining

a. underground mining

(Q004) Which of the following creates the vesicles seen in this image? a. volatiles that escape from lava to form gas during an eruption b. slow cooling within the magma chamber in the presence of water c. high silica content in the lava d. rapid cooling of a lava flow by water

a. volatiles that escape from lava to form gas during an eruption

(Q014) The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 a. was triggered by a landslide on its northern flank. b. produced lava flows that traveled at the speed of sound and flattened forests. c. was the largest volcanic eruption ever recorded. d. occurred without warning, killing 60 people.

a. was triggered by a landslide on its northern flank.

The heavier elements on the Earth (those with atomic numbers greater than 5) a. were formed by stellar nucleosynthesis during the life cycles of older stars and supernovae. b. are constantly being created by fusion in the Earth's core. c. were in existence at the moment of the Big Bang. d. were formed immediately after the Big Bang.

a. were formed by stellar nucleosynthesis during the life cycles of older stars and supernovae.

(Q001) Which of the following is a mineral? a. oxygen b. diamond c. sugar (C6H12O6) d. glass

b. diamond

Differentiation of large planetesimals and protoplanets a. is the process by which these bodies collide to form larger celestial bodies. b. is caused by heat created by the transformation of kinetic energy from collisions into thermal energy. c. was inhibited by the presence of radioactive elements because their decay absorbs heat from the surroundings. d. began with cooling down the component materials within these bodies.

b. is caused by heat created by the transformation of kinetic energy from collisions into thermal energy.

Shale, salt, and fine-grained limestone that are unfractured are all good candidates for ____________. a. source rocks b. seal rocks c. either source rocks or reservoir rocks d. reservoir rocks

b. seal rocks

Identify the true statement about drainage divides. a. Precipitation that falls on the west side of the continental divide flows to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. b. A drainage divide is a ridge that separates one watershed from another. c. The ultimate base level for streams on the east side of the continental divide is the Pacific Ocean. d. The divide that runs along the crest of the Appalachians separates the Atlantic Ocean drainage from the Arctic Ocean drainage.

b. A drainage divide is a ridge that separates one watershed from another.

(Q009) Identify the statement that is true about soil-forming factors. a. Soil on steep slopes is thicker than soil on flat land because sediment accumulates on slopes. b. A young soil in an arid climate will be thinner than an old soil in a temperate climate. c. Basalt and granite bedrock form similar soils because they are both igneous bedrock. d. Dry soils have more organic matter than wet soils because water drowns vegetation.

b. A young soil in an arid climate will be thinner than an old soil in a temperate climate.

(Q023) How does subduction trigger melting? a. The downgoing slab melts as it reaches hotter temperatures deep in the Earth. b. Flux melting of the asthenosphere above the subducting slab creates a rising melt. c. The subducting slab is made of felsic minerals, and therefore melts at lower temperatures. d. The overriding slab insulates the subducting slab, increasing temperature and causing melting.

b. Flux melting of the asthenosphere above the subducting slab creates a rising melt.

(Q008) Identify the true statement. a. Feathers and fur never fossilize because they are not hard parts of an organism. b. Fossils represent only a tiny percentage of the number of species that have lived. c. We have no fossil information about invertebrates without shells. d. Delicate plants like fern fronds are never fossilized

b. Fossils represent only a tiny percentage of the number of species that have lived.

(Q005) As a sample moves from Point A to Point B in this diagram, what happens? a. It heats up. b. It begins to melt as a result of decompression. c. It stays at the same depth within the Earth. d. It does not change its physical state because its temperature has not changed.

b. It begins to melt as a result of decompression.

(Q012) Identify the statement that is true about wind abrasion. a. It produces wadis. b. It can produce faceted rocks (ventifacts). c. It piles fine sediment into hills called lag deposits. d. It carves cliff bases into triangular alluvial fans.

b. It can produce faceted rocks (ventifacts).

Identify the statement that is true about ocean water. a. It can float on freshwater because it is less dense. b. It contains dissolved ions derived from weathering and volcanic gases. c. Cold ocean water can hold more salt than warmer water can. d. Its salinity is homogenous in surface waters.

b. It contains dissolved ions derived from weathering and volcanic gases.

(Q017) In which time period did the first feathered birds appear? a. Pleistocene b. Jurassic c. Paleozoic d. Cambrian

b. Jurassic

(Q019) Which of the following is a line of evidence that supports the assertion of global warming, especially over the past 30 years? a. The spatial area of permafrost regions in low latitudes has substantially increased. b. Large ice shelves, such as the Larsen B in Antarctica, are breaking up. c. The rate of ice loss on the Greenland ice sheet has decreased. d. Sea ice has increased substantially, at a rate of about 3% per decade.

b. Large ice shelves, such as the Larsen B in Antarctica, are breaking up.

In the following graph, why does the line for S-waves NOT appear in the outer core? a. S-waves can't travel that far into the Earth due to the high amount of iron. b. S-waves can't travel through the outer core because it is liquid. c. S-waves can't travel through the outer core because it is solid. d. S-waves disappear after being reflected at the core-mantle boundary.

b. S-waves can't travel through the outer core because it is liquid.

(Q007) Identify the true statement. a. The organic material at the top of a soil is called the B-horizon. b. Soil consists of rock or sediment that has been modified over time. c. Leaching occurs mainly in the zone of accumulation. d. A vertical sequence of various soil layers is called the soil horizon

b. Soil consists of rock or sediment that has been modified over time.

Why do some earthquakes last longer than others? a. The distance from the epicenter is greater. b. The frequency of the waves is greater. c. The substrate in which it occurs is stronger. d. The distance from the focus is greater.

b. The frequency of the waves is greater.

(Q006) Which statement(s) describes glowing, hot, avalanche-like flows of tephra? a. They are associated with shield volcanoes. b. They are called pyroclastic flows, or nuée ardente. c. all of the possible answers are correct. d. They are associated with basaltic volcanoes.

b. They are called pyroclastic flows, or nuée ardente.

What is true of all seas? a. All of the possible answers are correct. b. They have salinity ranging between 1% and 4.1%. c. They have a surface temperature of 17°C. d. They have a pronounced thermocline.

b. They have salinity ranging between 1% and 4.1%.

Which of these areas of the United States would you expect to have the highest occurrence of seismic activity? a. Southeast b. West c. Central d. Northeast

b. West

(Q020) The feature that may form where a stream enters a lake or ocean is called a. a reef. b. a delta. c. an alluvial fan. d. a sedimentary basin.

b. a delta.

(Q020) The chain of the Hawaiian Islands extends northwest across the Pacific as shown in the figure. The island of Hawaii is the youngest, and the islands get progressively older to the northwest. Plate tectonic theory explains this as a. a hot spot moving under the Pacific Plate toward the southeast. b. a hot spot currently sitting under Hawaii and the Pacific Plate moving across it in a northwesterly direction. c. microplates breaking loose from the Pacific Plate as it moves, leaving this chain of islands in its wake. d. the rifting of the Pacific Plate, starting at the northwest end of the chain and extending southeast to Hawaii.

b. a hot spot currently sitting under Hawaii and the Pacific Plate moving across it in a northwesterly direction.

(Q020) Surface features that are created when water dissolves limestone, like sinkholes and disappearing streams, are parts of a. a potentiometric surface. b. a karst landscape. c. a geothermal landscape. d. an artesian surface.

b. a karst landscape.

What do geologists do? a. explore many environments on the Earth's surface b. all of the possible answers are correct. c. study the Earth d. work in laboratories

b. all of the possible answers are correct.

A tsunami is ____________. a. a sloshing of water back and forth within a lake or bay b. an earthquake-generated sea wave that can sometimes destroy coastal cities thousands of kilometers from its source c. the amount of change in elevation of local sea level caused by a surging wave d. the tendency of wet, clay-rich soils to behave like a liquid during an earthquake

b. an earthquake-generated sea wave that can sometimes destroy coastal cities thousands of kilometers from its source

(Q008) Mt. Vesuvius erupted in a very violent explosion in 79 C.E. and buried the residents of Pompeii in ash. On the basis of this information, which of the following would you LEAST expect to find at Vesuvius? a. lapilli (cinders) b. basaltic lava c. rhyolite lava d. ignimbrite

b. basaltic lava

(Q002) The Earth's atmosphere a. gets warmer as its carbon dioxide concentration goes down. b. became more oxygen-rich during the Proterozoic, after the evolution of photosynthetic organisms in the Archean. c. acquires its carbon dioxide from photosynthesis by green plants. d. began as nitrogen and oxygen, left over from the solar nebula.

b. became more oxygen-rich during the Proterozoic, after the evolution of photosynthetic organisms in the Archean.

(Q020) What do the Sahel of today and the U.S.-Canada Great Plains of the 1930s have in common? a. having sand dunes greater than 100 m high b. being subject to natural and human-induced desertification c. having 3 inches or less of annual rainfall d. being some of the sandiest places in the world

b. being subject to natural and human-induced desertification

Faulting and earthquakes are examples of ____________. a. ductile behavior b. brittle behavior

b. brittle behavior

(Q007) Which of the following elements is released into the atmosphere by volcanic outgassing, animal flatulence, production of cement, and metamorphism of limestone? a. nitrogen b. carbon c. phosphorus d. sulfur

b. carbon

(Q021) Which of the following is considered a warning sign of imminent eruption? a. decreased gas emissions and hydrothermal activities b. change in heat flow from a volcano's surface c. a period of quiescence in a volcano's activity d. decreased earthquake activity

b. change in heat flow from a volcano's surface

(Q006) Recrystallization a. occurs when rocks undergo squeezing and grains change shape. b. changes the texture (shape and size) of the grains. c. occurs when chemical reactions digest minerals of the protolith and new minerals grow. d. changes the mineralogical composition of the protolith.

b. changes the texture (shape and size) of the grains.

(Q018) Intrusive igneous rocks a. are rocks like basalt, andesite, and rhyolite. b. cool slowly and are coarse-grained. c. are never seen by humans because they form deep in the Earth and are never exposed at the surface. d. are fine-grained because they cooled slowly.

b. cool slowly and are coarse-grained.

(Q012) Mafic minerals a. typically crystallize last out of a melt. b. crystallize at a higher temperature than do silicic minerals. c. are rich in aluminum and sodium. d. form rhyolite and granite.

b. crystallize at a higher temperature than do silicic minerals.

(Q009) A dark, rusty brown surface coating of iron oxide, manganese oxide, and clay often found on desert rocks is known as a. talus. b. desert varnish. c. saltation. d. caliche.

b. desert varnish.

The quantity of offset that occurs along a fault is termed ____________. a. accumulation b. displacement c. fault gouge d. the fault gauge

b. displacement

A surface along which rock on opposed sides is offset by earthquake-induced slip is called a ____________. a. joint b. fault c. fold d. wall

b. fault

The intersection between a fault plane and the ground surface is called the ____________. a. seismic interface b. fault trace c. plunge d. dip line

b. fault trace

(Q008) The texture produced when minerals within a metamorphic rock are layered parallel to each other, as shown by the red line, is called a. bedding. b. foliation. c. grain size. d. bedrock.

b. foliation

(Q018) Subduction zone metamorphism a. is similar to contact metamorphism. b. forms the metamorphic rock blueschist. c. all of the possible answers are correct. d. involves high temperatures and low pressure.

b. forms the metamorphic rock blueschist.

If drilling encounters both oil and natural gas within a single interval, the ____________. a. gas will exist in a dissolved state within the oil b. gas will float on top of the oil c. oil will float on top of the gas d. gas and oil will be thoroughly mixed together

b. gas will float on top of the oil

(Q015) The greenhouse effect is caused by a. clouds reflecting light back into space. b. greenhouse gases that absorb and re-radiate heat from the Earth's surface. c. the Earth's albedo. d. the ozone hole allowing more of the Sun's heat through the atmosphere.

b. greenhouse gases that absorb and re-radiate heat from the Earth's surface.

(Q013) Which of the following are fossil plants? a. graptolites and archaeocyathids b. gymnosperms and angiosperms c. trilobites and eurypterids d. pterosaurs and plesiosaurs

b. gymnosperms and angiosperms

A scientific theory a. is less convincing to scientists than a hypothesis. b. has been tested rigorously and has withstood all tests. c. is an idea or explanation that can be right or wrong. d. cannot be tested and therefore does not change.

b. has been tested rigorously and has withstood all tests.

(Q002) Which of the following sequences explains the transition path of a rock that first experienced melting and cooling, then burial to deep depths during mountain building, and finally uplift and weathering? a. sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic b. igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary c. metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary d. igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

b. igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary

The Coriolis effect a. causes the same direction of deflection in the northern and southern hemispheres. b. is a deflection of wind or water flowing over the Earth's surface. c. is a phenomenon created by the movement of ocean currents. d. causes north-flowing currents in the northern hemisphere to curve to the west.

b. is a deflection of wind or water flowing over the Earth's surface.

A drainage network a. drains water directly into the ocean. b. is an interconnected group of streams that collects water over a large area. c. is a trunk stream that cuts across a resistant ridge. d. is considered a trellis network when rivers flow over uniform substrate with a gentle slope.

b. is an interconnected group of streams that collects water over a large area.

(Q003) Felsic (or silicic) magma a. has approximately 40% silica and little magnesium and iron. b. is more viscous than mafic magma. c. is likely to form dark-colored igneous rocks. d. crystallizes at the highest temperatures.

b. is more viscous than mafic magma.

(Q022) The figure shown here is a typical example of a ________ plate boundary. a. divergent b. transform c. convergent d. rifting

c. convergent

The geothermal gradient a. indicates that temperatures near the mantle-core boundary may exceed the temperature of the Sun's surface (5,500°C). b. is the rate of change in temperature with depth within the Earth. c. averages about 5°C per kilometer in the upper crust. d. increases exponentially as you go deeper into the Earth.

b. is the rate of change in temperature with depth within the Earth.

(Q019) In which tectonic setting would you most expect to find igneous activity? a. passive margins b. landward of oceanic trenches c. continental interiors d. continental transform fault zones

b. landward of oceanic trenches

(Q007) What is the protolith of marble? a. granite b. limestone c. gypsum d. quartz sandstone

b. limestone

(Q009) Magma may cool and crystallize to become solid igneous rock a. when its volatile content increases. b. more slowly in a deep pluton than in a shallow sill. c. more slowly in the presence of circulating groundwater. d. faster if the surface area of the intrusion is low.

b. more slowly in a deep pluton than in a shallow sill.

(Q005) Shear stress a. is a push (compression) or pull (tension) perpendicular to a surface. b. moves material parallel to a surface. c. is the reason a balloon shrinks when you take it to the bottom of a pool. d. is a compression exerted equally on all sides.

b. moves material parallel to a surface.

(Q003) Coal is a form of a. chemical sedimentary rock. b. organic sedimentary rock. c. clastic sedimentary rock. d. biochemical sedimentary rock.

b. organic sedimentary rock.

According to current plate tectonics theory a. plates move at speeds of a few meters per year. b. plates are composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. c. a continental plate will subduct under an oceanic plate when the two converge. d. plates move around by convection in the lithosphere.

b. plates are composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.

(Q016) Which of the following sedimentary structures indicates that the sediments were deposited by a moving fluid? a. fossil footprints b. ripple marks c. mud cracks d. laminations

b. ripple marks

(Q004) Which of the following would make the best aquifer? a. unfractured granite b. sandy beach deposits c. clay and shale lake deposits d. vesicular basalt

b. sandy beach deposits

(Q008) What is the name of the type of foliation that is defined by the preferred orientation of large mica flakes, as shown in the photo (looking down on the foliation plane)? a. slaty cleavage b. schistosity c. gneissic banding d. phyllitic luster

b. schistosity

(Q002) Which of the following might be considered sediment? a. quartz crystals in an outcrop of granite b. shell fragments washed up on a beach c. an outcrop of sandstone d. fossil shells in bedrock

b. shell fragments washed up on a beach

If a fault is nearly vertical in orientation and the two walls of rock on opposite sides slide past one another horizontally, the fault is termed ____________. a. reverse b. strike slip c. normal d. thrust

b. strike slip

The total sediment load of a stream includes a. bed load. b. suspended, bed, and dissolved loads. c. dissolved load. d. suspended load.

b. suspended, bed, and dissolved loads.

(Q021) During the Pleistocene Ice Age, a. continental glaciers in the northern hemisphere advanced and retreated only once. b. the continental shelf west of Alaska was exposed and allowed migration of animals and people from Asia to North America. c. sea level rose because water was tied up as ice. d. continental glaciers covered all of North America.

b. the continental shelf west of Alaska was exposed and allowed migration of animals and people from Asia to North America.

The Earth's magnetic field is created by a. lightning strikes and chemical reactions. b. the flow of liquid iron in the Earth's molten outer core. c. convecting iron-rich silicates in the Earth's mantle. d. centrifugal force pushing on the Earth's crust.

b. the flow of liquid iron in the Earth's molten outer core.

(Q002) Generally speaking, fossils can form when organisms a. are buried by a lava flow. b. travel over sediments and leave imprints. c. are preserved in recrystallized limestone called marble. d. die and get sheared during metamorphism.

b. travel over sediments and leave imprints.

(Q003) In this image of a metamorphic rock viewed through a petrographic microscope, the preferred orientation of the mineral grains is ________, indicating that the direction of greatest compression was oriented ________. a. horizontal, vertically b. vertical, horizontally c. There is no preferred orientation. d. The grains are too inequant to have a preferred orientation.

b. vertical, horizontally

(Q009) Which of the following statements about observing rocks at an outcrop is true? a. A rock's texture cannot be characterized from a hand specimen; it can only be done in thin section. b. Clay-sized and smaller grains can be identified in the field with a hand lens. c. A hand specimen is a small piece of the outcrop that can be examined closely. d. Observing the entire outcrop does not provide important information about rock relationships and layering.

c. A hand specimen is a small piece of the outcrop that can be examined closely.

Which of the following statements is true? a. A stream with a single channel is called a braided stream. b. All of the possible answers are correct. c. A meander bend that gets cut off from the main channel becomes an oxbow lake. d. A meandering stream has many active channels flowing at once.

c. A meander bend that gets cut off from the main channel becomes an oxbow lake.

The largest river in the world, on the basis of discharge at its mouth, is the a. Mississippi River. b. Congo River. c. Amazon River. d. Yangtze River.

c. Amazon River.

Which region of this topographic map shows the steepest slope? a. A b. B c. C d. D

c. C

(Q010) Which of the following statements is true? a. Chemical weathering affects all minerals the same way. b. Chemical weathering is most rapid in cold and dry places. c. Chemical and physical weathering often occur simultaneously and can compliment each other. d. Physical weathering is the same as erosion

c. Chemical and physical weathering often occur simultaneously and can compliment each other.

Identify the true statement. a. When a glacier retreats, its ice contracts and flows back toward the glacier's point of origin. b. The zone of ablation is the area of the glacier where each year more snow falls than melts. c. Glaciers can undergo ablation by melting, sublimation, or calving. d. Glaciers always retreat when they reach an elevation of less than 5,000 feet.

c. Glaciers can undergo ablation by melting, sublimation, or calving

(Q009) What is true of the ozone hole? a. It is a zone at the equator where ozone has been completely removed from the atmosphere. b. All of the possible answers are correct. c. It is caused by the destructive reaction of chlorofluorocarbons with ozone in the atmosphere. d. It is the cause of global warming.

c. It is caused by the destructive reaction of chlorofluorocarbons with ozone in the atmosphere.

(Q018) Which of the following statements has been asserted in IPCC reports? a. Sea level is falling. b. The Earth's climate system is cooling. c. It is extremely likely that human activity has contributed significantly to global climate change. d. The warming trends observed in the past 50 years can be explained by natural forcing such as cosmic-ray flux.

c. It is extremely likely that human activity has contributed significantly to global climate change.

In the figure below, which is NOT a reason for the oil to migrate to the Earth's surface? a. It is under pressure and migrates upward toward lower pressure. b. There is nothing that looks like a trap rock above it, to prevent it from rising. c. It is hot and flows upward because of its temperature. d. It is lighter than any groundwater, and so it will rise through groundwater.

c. It is hot and flows upward because of its temperature.

Which of the following statements about lithosphere and asthenosphere is true? a. Asthenosphere is defined as mantle material that is cooler than 1,280°C, whereas lithosphere is warmer than 1,280°C. b. Lithosphere and asthenosphere have the same physical properties; they are both rigid. c. Lithosphere consists of the crust and the upper mantle, and behaves like a rigid layer that breaks or bends rather than flowing like the asthenosphere. d. Lithosphere is more mafic than asthenosphere.

c. Lithosphere consists of the crust and the upper mantle, and behaves like a rigid layer that breaks or bends rather than flowing like the asthenosphere.

Which of the factors listed below does NOT hinder using geothermal energy to provide most of society's electrical needs? a. Groundwater is not available in all places, to capture and carry heat to the surface. b. Electrical transmission lines cannot carry electricity generated at geothermal power plants. c. Magma is found in the shallow crust in only limited areas of the planet. d. Rocks rarely have sufficient permeability to allow flow of groundwater.

c. Magma is found in the shallow crust in only limited areas of the planet.

(Q012) Which of the following statements about this diagram is true? a. Pumping from Well A may cause Well B to run dry. b. Pumping from Well A will reverse the flow of groundwater into Well B. c. Pumping from Well B may cause Well A to run dry. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

c. Pumping from Well B may cause Well A to run dry.

(Q002) Dipping sedimentary rock layers include a layer of basalt containing xenoliths of the overlying sedimentary rock. Which of the following statements must be true? a. The sedimentary layers were deposited on a basaltic lava flow. b. The sedimentary layers were deposited at an angle, creating the "dip" of the layers. c. The basalt is a sill intruded into older sedimentary rock. d. The basalt is older than the sedimentary rock layers above it.

c. The basalt is a sill intruded into older sedimentary rock.

(Q006) Which statement is true about this image? The water pressure is greater at h1 and h2 than at the surface of the pond because there is more rock above h1 and h2. b. The water pressure is greater at P2 than at P1. c. The higher water pressure beneath the hills will drive groundwater toward the valleys. d. Groundwater will flow in a straight line from P1 to P2.

c. The higher water pressure beneath the hills will drive groundwater toward the valleys.

(Q013) Which of the following is an accurate description of a method used to study short-term climate change? a. The color of a tree ring indicates the rate of growth in a given year. b. All of the possible answers are correct. c. The oxygen-isotope ratios of glacial ice record changes in global temperature for the past 800,000 years. d. Pollen is useful for studying modern-day climate but cannot be used to study ancient climate because pollen is not preserved in sediment.

c. The oxygen-isotope ratios of glacial ice record changes in global temperature for the past 800,000 years.

(Q013) What is true about volcanic activity in Yellowstone National Park? a. Yellowstone is no longer active. b. all of the possible answers are correct. c. The park contains a 72-km-diameter caldera that formed during an eruption 600,000 years ago. d. The park has shield volcanoes.

c. The park contains a 72-km-diameter caldera that formed during an eruption 600,000 years ago.

Which of the following climate conditions would most likely allow glaciers to form? a. mild winters with a lot of snow, coupled with very hot summers b. temperatures below freezing for one month straight c. a heavy snowfall in winter, coupled with relatively cool summers d. high winds that produce low chill factors

c. a heavy snowfall in winter, coupled with relatively cool summers

(Q009) This image of an outcrop shows a. a right-lateral, strike-slip fault. b. a thrust fault. c. a normal fault, with the hanging wall on the right. d. a normal fault, with the hanging wall on the left.

c. a normal fault, with the hanging wall on the right.

(Q007) Graphite is a. pure silicon. b. an ore of lead. c. a polymorph of diamond. d. harder than glass.

c. a polymorph of diamond.

(Q023) A sedimentary basin that forms when continental lithosphere is stretched, causing down-dropped crustal blocks bordered by narrow mountain ranges and alluvial fans, is called a. a passive-margin basin. b. a foreland basin. c. a rift basin. d. an intracontinental basin.

c. a rift basin.

The Big Bang theory states that a. all of the possible answers are correct. b. temperatures had to remain above 1 billion degrees in order for atoms to form. c. all matter and energy in the Universe was once packed into a single point. d. the process of atom creation, termed Big Bang nucleosynthesis, produced all known natural elements.

c. all matter and energy in the Universe was once packed into a single point.

(Q019) Which of the following factors may contribute to desertification? a. drought b. overgrazing c. all of the possible answers are correct d. plowing

c. all of the possible answers are correct

(Q011) This figure shows a. a nonplunging anticline. b. a nonplunging syncline. c. an anticline plunging away from you. d. a syncline plunging toward you.

c. an anticline plunging away from you.

(Q004) Which of the following is the MOST PRECISE estimate of when the folding occurred? a. before erosion of the land surface b. before the fault formed and after layer 5 was deposited c. before the granite pluton intruded, and after intrusion of the sill d. before the basalt dike intruded and after layer 6 was deposited

c. before the granite pluton intruded, and after intrusion of the sill

(Q017) In the image below, what is the best estimate for the age of the fossils? a. younger than 80 Ma b. older than 125 Ma c. between 80 and 125 Ma d. The ages of surrounding rocks are irrelevant: the fossils can be dated much more precisely with carbon-14 dating.

c. between 80 and 125 Ma

Trenches a. may be more than 100 km (62 miles) deep. b. result from seafloor spreading. c. border continental and island volcanic arcs. d. are found at divergent boundaries.

c. border continental and island volcanic arcs.

(Q005) A nonmarine clastic sedimentary rock composed of angular pebbles surrounded by matrix would be a(n) a. turbidite. b. conglomerate. c. breccia. d. arkose.

c. breccia.

(Q004) Sedimentary rocks form a. by precipitation of minerals out of lava or magma. b. under high heat and high pressure, which holds the grains together. c. by grains being cemented together. d. deep beneath the Earth's surface.

c. by grains being cemented together.

Look at the figure below. Which of the following would NOT result from increased burial temperature of hydrocarbon molecules? a. eventually destroying them, leaving only carbon b. driving all the carbon off, eventually leaving only hydrogen c. causing molecules to react and become larger d. causing molecules to contain fewer atoms

c. causing molecules to react and become larger

(Q005) This image shows an example of a. a pahoehoe flow. b. an a'a' flow. c. columnar jointing. d. volcanic blocks.

c. columnar jointing.

(Q011) Which of the following accurately lists the layers of the Earth from surface to center? a. mantle, crust, core b. core, crust, mantle c. crust, mantle, core d. crust, core, mantle

c. crust, mantle, core

(Q010) Two physical properties of minerals both result in smooth, flat surfaces with specific angles between them. The first property is externally visible and is the result of how the mineral forms; the second is inherently internal and is the result of breaking a sample of the mineral. These properties are called a. cleavage and hardness. b. cleavage and crystal habit. c. crystal habit and cleavage. d. hardness and cleavage.

c. crystal habit and cleavage.

(Q009) What does this photo of sedimentary rock layers in Utah show? a. nonconformity b. angular unconformity c. disconformity d. baked contact

c. disconformity

(Q020) In the image below, the bullseye pattern labeled A is a ________ and the one labeled B is a ________. a. basin, dome b. dome, basin c. dome, dome d. basin, basin

c. dome, dome

(Q011) A caldera forms by a. the accumulation of tephra around a vent. b. overflow of a lava lake. c. draining of a magma chamber beneath a volcano during an eruption. d. flooding of rivers by lahars to produce a lake.

c. draining of a magma chamber beneath a volcano during an eruption.

(Q008) The great oxygenation event, which added abundant oxygen to the atmosphere beginning about 2.4 Ga, was due to the a. appearance of Ediacaran fauna. b. emergence of multicellular organisms. c. evolution of photosynthetic organisms in oceans. d. appearance of photosynthetic plants on land.

c. evolution of photosynthetic organisms in oceans.

(Q020) Volcanic arcs a. are long, curving chains of volcanoes adjacent to mid-ocean ridges. b. occur only on continental crust. c. form on plates that are subducting. d. are fed magma from flux melting.

c. form on plates that are subducting.

(Q006) Which of the following minerals or rock types is associated with evaporite deposits? a. feldspar b. chert c. gypsum d. quartz

c. gypsum

(Q005) Metamorphic rock a. forms when older rock melts to form new rock. b. often displays bedding. c. has changed physical characteristics while remaining solid. d. can only be found in mountain belts.

c. has changed physical characteristics while remaining solid.

(Q006) Crystals a. display asymmetry. b. are youngest in the center and oldest at the outer edge. c. have an orderly internal arrangement of atoms organized in a lattice pattern. d. grow inward from a seed.

c. have an orderly internal arrangement of atoms organized in a lattice pattern.

Short-term predictions of earthquake behavior ____________. a. are primarily based on the behavior patterns of farm animals b. have saved millions of lives in the past decade alone c. have been largely unreliable d. are correct approximately 50% of the time

c. have been largely unreliable

(Q009) Banded iron formations (BIFs) formed a. beneath the Laurentide ice sheet. b. during uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. c. in the Proterozoic deep ocean. d. in alluvial fans at the base of the proto-Appalachian Mountains.

c. in the Proterozoic deep ocean.

(Q008) The hydrologic cycle a. never results in global change because it maintains a steady state. b. is an example of a unidirectional change. c. is a biogeochemical cycle involving both physical and biological phenomena. d. is the only biogeochemical cycle; all other element cycles are restricted to either the physical world or the biological world, but not both.

c. is a biogeochemical cycle involving both physical and biological phenomena.

(Q004) The crystallization of salt from evaporating seawater a. takes place when the solution becomes undersaturated. b. is, in mineralogic terms, formation of a silicate mineral. c. is an example of precipitation from a solution. d. results in hexagonal, prismatic crystals.

c. is an example of precipitation from a solution.

(Q012) Quartzite a. always shows strong compositional banding. b. is always either white or gray. c. is basically a solid mass of interlocking quartz grains. d. breaks around the separate grains of quartz that compose it.

c. is basically a solid mass of interlocking quartz grains.

Earthquakes are a result of ____________. a. mantle upwelling b. erosion c. lithosphere-plate movement d. a sudden change in atmospheric pressure

c. lithosphere-plate movement

During the Pleistocene Ice Age, a. CaCO3 shells in the world's oceans recorded a low ratio of O18 to O16. b. the southern boundary of the North American tundra moved 20° of latitude northward. c. mammoths, mastodons, woolly rhinos, saber-toothed cats, and giant cave bears inhabited North America. d. pluvial lakes dried up in Utah and Nevada, while increased rainfall farther south caused equatorial rainforests to flourish.

c. mammoths, mastodons, woolly rhinos, saber-toothed cats, and giant cave bears inhabited North America.

(Q014) Hot springs a. may precipitate mounds and terraces of granite as waters cool. b. contain water that is at least boiling temperature (100°C, or 212°F). c. may occur in geothermal regions where volcanism is currently occurring or has recently occurred. d. can dissolve less mineral matter than can cold-water springs.

c. may occur in geothermal regions where volcanism is currently occurring or has recently occurred.

(Q018) Which of these types of volcanic settings produced 70% of the Earth's surface? a. large igneous provinces (LIPs) b. flood basalts c. mid-ocean ridge volcanoes d. hot-spot volcanoes

c. mid-ocean ridge volcanoes

The two most common gases of the Earth's atmosphere, and their percentages, are a. oxygen (O2) at 21%, and carbon dioxide (CO2) at 78%. b. water (H2O) at 21%, and oxygen (O2) at 78%. c. nitrogen (N2) at 78%, and oxygen (O2) at 21%. d. carbon dioxide (CO2) at 21%, and oxygen (O2) at 78%.

c. nitrogen (N2) at 78%, and oxygen (O2) at 21%.

(Q001) Which of the following terms refers to the process of mountain building? a. tectonic foliation b. brittle and ductile deformation c. orogeny d. cratonic platform

c. orogeny

(Q007) The various geologic settings in which rocks can melt, metamorphose, or become sediment are ultimately generated by a. the magnetic field. b. heat from the Sun. c. plate tectonics. d. life at the Earth's surface.

c. plate tectonics.

(Q011) An unknown mineral scratches glass, has only average specific gravity, and shows no cleavage but does show conchoidal fracture. Which of the following could it be? a. talc b. halite c. quartz d. mica

c. quartz

A permeable and porous rock, regardless of lithology, is a good candidate to serve as a ____________ in an oil-producing scenario. a. seal rock b. source rock c. reservoir rock

c. reservoir rock

(Q007) A clastic sedimentary rock with clay and silt-sized grains that is finely laminated and breaks into thin sheets is called a. mudstone. b. graywacke. c. shale. d. siltstone.

c. shale.

A body of rock in which oil is formed is termed a ____________. a. seal rock b. reservoir rock c. source rock

c. source rock

(Q012) When you scrape a mineral along a ceramic plate to observe the color of its powder, you are checking the physical property known as a. luster. b. specific gravity c. streak. d. cleavage.

c. streak.

Scientists can determine the direction of movement of continental glaciers by looking at glacial a. horns. b. firn. c. striations. d. cirques.

c. striations.

Which of the following regions would have the highest relief? a. the surface of the Antarctic ice sheet b. the Nile River Valley c. the Himalayas d. the gentle, rolling hills of southern Scotland

c. the Himalayas

Which of the following energy sources drives landscape evolution? a. the Earth's magnetic field b. the Coriolis force c. the force of gravity d. the tidal pull of the Moon

c. the force of gravity

The global occurrence of earthquakes reveals that a. their locations are randomly scattered. b. they prove that the Earth is splitting apart (rifting) at all plate boundaries. c. they usually occur on the boundaries of plates or at hot spots. d. they usually occur at the center of plates.

c. they usually occur on the boundaries of plates or at hot spots.

How many seismic stations are necessary to find the epicenter of an earthquake? a. two b. one c. three d. four

c. three

A water molecule in the atmospheric reservoir has a residence time of approximately a. 10,000 years or more. b. 4,000 years. c. 10 years. d. 10 days.

d. 10 days.

(Q015) If you smashed a piece of halite (table salt) with a hammer and broke it into smaller pieces, the broken crystals would look like cubes, as seen in the image. This is because halite has a. two planes of cleavage that intersect at 60° and 120°. b. one strong plane of cleavage. c. three planes of cleavage that intersect at 90°. d. conchoidal fracture.

c. three planes of cleavage that intersect at 90°.

(Q024) In this image, the fact that shoreline beach deposits occur on top of terrestrial swamp and floodplain deposits indicates that ________ has occurred. a. rifting b. uplifting c. transgression d. regression

c. transgression

According to Milutin Milanković, which of the following caused glacial-interglacial cycles during the Pleistocene? a. sunspot cycles b. variations in ocean temperature c. variations in the shape of the Earth's orbit d. increased amounts of volcanic ash

c. variations in the shape of the Earth's orbit

(Q021) The chain of the Hawaiian Islands can be used to calculate the rate of movement of the Pacific Plate over the last few million years. The island of Hawaii currently sits on the hot spot, and is therefore 0 million years old. The island of Kauai used to sit on the hot spot; it is approximately 5.1 million years old and is now approximately 473 km away from the hot spot, to the northwest. Given these parameters, what is the average rate of motion of the Pacific Plate in centimeters per year? (Remember to convert your units properly!) a. 0.00009 cm per year b. 0.009 cm per year c. 0.9 cm per year d. 9 cm per year

d. 9 cm per year

(Q001) Identify the true statement. At times of high global sea level, the Mediterranean Sea was cut off from the Atlantic Ocean, and the trapped seawater evaporated. b. A deposit of gypsum and halite found beneath the Mediterranean Sea is about 20 km thick. c. About 60% of the water flowing into the Mediterranean Sea comes from river input, like the Nile. d. About 6 million years ago, the African Plate moved northward and collided with the European Plate to create a dam between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

d. About 6 million years ago, the African Plate moved northward and collided with the European Plate to create a dam between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

What geological setting(s) would you expect to produce seismic activity? a. rift valley b. basin c. collisional mountain belt d. All of the above are correct

d. All of the above are correct

(Q006) Identify the true statement. a. Weathering happens fastest on the flat faces of broken blocks of rock. b. Chemical weathering is fastest where surface area is low. c. Spheroidal weathering is due to faster rates of weathering along corners and edges of a rock. d. All of the possible answers are correct.

d. All of the possible answers are correct.

Continental ice sheets today are found only in a. Antarctica and Iceland. b. Greenland and Iceland. c. Alaska and Iceland. d. Antarctica and Greenland.

d. Antarctica and Greenland.

Most of the world's coal was deposited in coal swamps during the ____________. a. Cretaceous b. Ordovician c. Jurassic d. Carboniferous

d. Carboniferous

(Q007) Which of the following refers to fossils of early multicellular invertebrates that are 565 Ma to 620 Ma, like the one shown in the photo? a. stromatolites b. Rodinia c. cyanobacteria d. Ediacaran fauna

d. Ediacaran fauna

Which of the following is accurate about Louis Agassiz? a. He stated that there are changes in the amount and distribution of insolation received on the Earth. b. He stated that there are cyclical changes in the Earth's orbit and axial tilt. c. He offered ideas that explain the timing of ice-age events but not the severity of temperature change associated with ice ages. d. He stated that the presence of erratics in Europe was due to large continental ice sheets.

d. He stated that the presence of erratics in Europe was due to large continental ice sheets.

(Q010) Identify the true statement. a. A thrust fault is a reverse fault with an extremely high dip (close to 90°). b. In a strike-slip fault, movement along the fault plane is vertical. c. In a dip-slip fault, movement along the fault plane is horizontal. d. In an oblique-slip fault, there's both vertical and horizontal movement along the fault plane.

d. In an oblique-slip fault, there's both vertical and horizontal movement along the fault plane.

Which of the following statements about permafrost is true? a. Permafrost that thaws and refreezes produces a pentagonal or hexagonal ground surface pattern called columnar joints. b. It can extend as deep as 1,500 km below the ground surface. c. It is rare in periglacial environments. d. It can melt to a depth of a few meters in summer, and then refreeze in winter.

d. It can melt to a depth of a few meters in summer, and then refreeze in winter.

(Q003) The hottest verified temperature on the Earth, measured at 58°C (136°F), was in a. the Great Plains, United States. b. Death Valley, California. c. the Atacama Desert, Chile/Peru. d. Libya, Africa.

d. Libya, Africa.

(Q011) Identify the statement that is true about Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. a. In each new generation, those that survive and those that do not are determined randomly. b. As environments change, individual organisms adapt to become new species. c. Populations of organisms continuously increase in number over time. d. Organisms that are able to survive and reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring.

d. Organisms that are able to survive and reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring.

(Q013) Which of the following lists the three Phanerozoic eras in order from oldest to youngest? a. Mesozoic, Archean, Cenozoic b. Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Proterozoic c. Proterozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic d. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

d. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

Which of the following statements about how humans have influenced erosion and deposition is true? a. The area of land now covered by pavement and buildings in the United States is less than the area of the state of Delaware. b. Mining does not alter the Earth's surface landscape because mines only excavate underground. c. Agriculture significantly decreases erosion rates. d. Pavement seals the ground surface and causes runoff to spill into streams rather than into the ground.

d. Pavement seals the ground surface and causes runoff to spill into streams rather than into the ground.

(Q004) Which of the following statements is true? a. A well-sorted clastic rock is made up of a wide range of particle sizes. b. Conglomerate consists of a single grain size. c. All well-rounded clasts are also spherical. d. Pieces of broken rock produced by physical weathering are called clasts.

d. Pieces of broken rock produced by physical weathering are called clasts.

(Q019) Which of the following statements about metamorphic rocks and their characteristic environments is true? a. Hornfels is a result of burial metamorphism. b. Blueschists are found in the mid-ocean ridge. c. Foliated metamorphic rocks are usually found in contact aureoles surrounding plutons. d. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are found in areas of continental collision.

d. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are found in areas of continental collision.

What causes the velocity of a P-wave to slow down when it enters the outer core? a. The P-wave no longer has to compete with the S-wave for energy. b. The outer core is a much more dense material than the mantle. c. The outer core is a much less dense material than the mantle. d. The outer core is liquid, and thus the wave slows down.

d. The outer core is liquid, and thus the wave slows down.

(Q001) Which of the following is a characteristic of all rocks? a. They can be manufactured for commercial use. b. They must contain quartz. c. They have a definable chemical composition. d. They are a collection of minerals or a body of glass.

d. They are a collection of minerals or a body of glass.

If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is shallow (much closer to horizontal than vertical). a. strike slip b. normal c. reverse d. thrust

d. thrust

(Q010) As clastic sediment is transported downstream, away from its point of origin, what happens to the clasts? a. They become more angular. b. all of the possible answers are correct. c. They are poorly sorted. d. They become smaller in size.

d. They become smaller in size.

(Q018) Of the choices below, select the one that accurately pairs the feature with the type of plate boundary at which it occurs. a. Accretionary prisms occur at divergent boundaries. b. Volcanic arcs occur at transform boundaries. c. Black smokers occur at consuming boundaries. d. Trenches occur at subduction zones.

d. Trenches occur at subduction zones.

(Q011) Which of the following statements about the three wells shown in this diagram is true? a. All three wells must be pumped to draw water to the surface. b. The top of Well B sits below the potentiometric surface. c. Water will flow freely from Well A because it lies above the potentiometric surface. d. Well C is a flowing artesian well.

d. Well C is a flowing artesian well.

Of the following, which causes the most earthquakes? a. the sudden formation of a new fault b. a giant landslide c. the explosion of a volcano d. a sudden slip on an existing fault

d. a sudden slip on an existing fault

(Q001) A lahar is a. a lava lake in a summit crater. b. a glowing cloud of pyroclastic fragments and hot gas. c. a collapsed volcanic structure. d. a volcanic mudflow that resembles fluid concrete.

d. a volcanic mudflow that resembles fluid concrete.

What causes tidal bulges? a. the centrifugal force caused by the Earth-Moon system revolving around its center of mass b. the Sun's gravitational attraction c. the Moon's gravitational attraction d. all of the possible answers are correct

d. all of the possible answers are correct

(Q006) Which statement(s) is true about igneous rocks? a. They were molten and have frozen into a solid form. b. They may form from lava. c. They may form around volcanoes. d. all of the possible answers are correct.

d. all of the possible answers are correct.

(Q007) What physical characteristics can be used to distinguish individual rock types? a. composition b. texture c. the size and shape of grains that compose the rock d. all of the possible answers are correct.

d. all of the possible answers are correct.

(Q005) Sea-level changes a. have been as great as 3,000 m during the Phanerozoic Eon. b. are termed eustatic if they affect only a local area. c. are reflected by blankets of marine sediment called clathrates. d. are cyclic, consisting of episodes of transgression and regression.

d. are cyclic, consisting of episodes of transgression and regression.

Deltas a. form where a stream deposits sediment on a flat plain at the base of a mountain range. b. contain distributaries that flow into the trunk river. c. may sink below sea level if the river and its distributaries frequently flood the delta. d. are made of sediment deposited near the mouth of a stream.

d. are made of sediment deposited near the mouth of a stream.

Wegener's theory of continental drift took decades to be accepted a. because many of Wegener's ideas turned out to be wrong. b. because of pure stubbornness by the scientific community. c. because climate, fossil distributions, and land shape offered conflicting evidence. d. because Wegener couldn't explain how continents moved.

d. because Wegener couldn't explain how continents moved.

The total load that a stream can carry is called its a. reach. b. course. c. competence. d. capacity.

d. capacity.

(Q006) Theoretically, "snowball Earth" conditions of the late Proterozoic Eon would have persisted forever were it not for greenhouse warming caused by a. carbon monoxide. b. ammonia. c. oxygen. d. carbon dioxide.

d. carbon dioxide.

(Q001) Which of the following processes forms biochemical sedimentary rock? a. evaporation of seawater b. accumulation of mud on the seafloor c. deposition of quartz sand on a beach d. cementing together of shell fragments

d. cementing together of shell fragments

(Q002) Which of the following classes of sedimentary rock is produced by weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks? a. biochemical b. chemical c. intrusive d. clastic

d. clastic

(Q020) Shields are a. composed of rocks that were metamorphosed during recent (less than a million years ago) mountain-building events. b. composed of extensive areas of sedimentary layers laid down on lava flows. c. rarely exposed at the Earth's surface and contain blueschist. d. composed of some of the oldest rock on the Earth.

d. composed of some of the oldest rock on the Earth.

(Q009) The tendency of a mineral to break and produce smooth, curving, shell-shaped surfaces is termed a. cleavage. b. streak. c. luster. d. conchoidal fracture.

d. conchoidal fracture.

(Q004) Which of the following is a trace fossil? a. woolly mammoth frozen in permafrost b. petrified wood c. a dragonfly in amber d. coprolites

d. coprolites

(Q017) The sandstone in this photo was most likely deposited in what type of environment? (Note the trees for scale.) a. floodplain b. reef c. deep marine d. desert sand dunes

d. desert sand dunes

(Q001) All deserts are a. hot. b. sandy. c. located in the tropics. d. dry.

d. dry.

(Q006) The principle of fossil succession states that a. the same fossil assemblages appear throughout geologic time in a repeating intervals. b. fossil species found in rock are the same as species living today. c. every rock layer contains only one species of fossil. d. every fossil species spans only a limited range of rock layers, corresponding to the time period over which it lived.

d. every fossil species spans only a limited range of rock layers, corresponding to the time period over which it lived.

(Q010) Punctuated equilibrium states that a. we are not able to determine the rate of evolutionary change because of the incompleteness of the fossil record. b. each species evolves at a constant rate, but different species evolve at different rates. c. evolutionary change happens at a constant, slow rate. d. evolution takes place very slowly but has short periods of rapid change.

d. evolution takes place very slowly but has short periods of rapid change.

(Q019) A shield a. is not part of a craton. b. has layers of undeformed sedimentary rock that are extremely old. c. is the same thing as a cratonic platform. d. has Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks at its surface.

d. has Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks at its surface.

A typical longitudinal profile of a stream a. shows a cross section of the stream from bank to bank at one particular site. b. shows that most streams flow down low slopes near their headwaters, and flow down steep valleys near their mouths. c. has a constant slope from its source to its mouth. d. illustrates that a stream's gradient is steeper near its headwaters than near its mouth.

d. illustrates that a stream's gradient is steeper near its headwaters than near its mouth.

(Q003) There is no rock record for the Earth's first 500 million years because a. the surface then was one huge ocean basin filled with hot water and nothing else. b. surface rock was too cool to allow the radiometric clocks to start ticking. c. billions of years of mountain building have destroyed the ancient rock. d. intense meteorite bombardment may have destroyed most land surface.

d. intense meteorite bombardment may have destroyed most land surface.

Continental crust a. is thinner than oceanic crust. b. is less buoyant than oceanic crust. c. makes up about 80% of the Earth's surface. d. is less dense than oceanic crust.

d. is less dense than oceanic crust.

This image shows the ocean "conveyor belt," which a. mixes the entire volume of the oceans every 1.5 million years. b. forms as a result of plate movement and rotation of the Earth. c. sinks in the northern Pacific Ocean. d. is the thermohaline circulation pattern of the ocean basins.

d. is the thermohaline circulation pattern of the ocean basins.

(Q020) According to the volcanic-hazard assessment map shown here, which of the following hazards associated with Mt. Rainier may affect areas farthest from the volcano? a. lava flows b. pyroclastic flows c. lahars and pyroclastic flows d. lahars, but only within river valleys

d. lahars, but only within river valleys

(Q021) Desertification a. occurs only in only less-industrialized regions of the world. b. is a slow process that takes hundreds of years to occur. c. is always a natural phenomenon. d. may occur when human population exceeds the carrying capacity of the land.

d. may occur when human population exceeds the carrying capacity of the land.

(Q015) Flat-lying sedimentary rock layers may erode to form isolated features called a. barchans. b. cuestas. c. slip faces. d. mesas.

d. mesas.

(Q015) The center of a mid-ocean ridge is where a. two continental plates converge. b. the oldest, densest, hottest oceanic crust exists. c. molten basalt sinks back into the Earth. d. new oceanic lithosphere is created.

d. new oceanic lithosphere is created.

Most of the hydrocarbons within oil and natural gas are derived from the breakdown of organic matter from dead ____________. a. dinosaurs b. terrestrial plants c. mammals d. plankton

d. plankton

Surface waves ____________. a. are the first waves initially produced in an earthquake b. are the first waves to arrive at a seismograph station after an earthquake c. travel more rapidly than body waves d. produce most of the damage to buildings during earthquakes

d. produce most of the damage to buildings during earthquakes

(Q007) The fault in this image is a. a right-lateral, strike-slip fault. b. produced by shortening the block. c. a reverse fault. d. produced by stretching the block.

d. produced by stretching the block.

(Q012) Stratigraphic correlation a. involves the matching of sedimentary layers to layers that look the same across the Earth. b. has proven that the same sequence of rock types is present everywhere on Earth. c. cannot be performed globally because sedimentary rocks in different areas look so different. d. relates layers in different places that are the same age, regardless of how different they look.

d. relates layers in different places that are the same age, regardless of how different they look.

If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is steep (closer to vertical than horizontal). a. normal b. thrust c. strike slip d. reverse

d. reverse

(Q005) The principle of lateral continuity says that a. in a sequence of sedimentary beds, the oldest is on the bottom. b. rock containing inclusions is younger than the inclusions. c. the feature doing the cutting is younger than the feature it cuts. d. sedimentary layers began as continuous expanses of sediment.

d. sedimentary layers began as continuous expanses of sediment.

(Q008) Bowen's reaction series a. explains why some igneous rocks are phaneritic, and others aphanitic. b. explains why some compounds use ionic bonds, and others have covalent bonding. c. shows that as magma crystallizes, the remaining melt is depleted in silica. d. shows that minerals in a cooling magma crystallize in a predictable order.

d. shows that minerals in a cooling magma crystallize in a predictable order.

(Q004) Which of the following conditions will tend to make rocks change by plastic (or ductile) deformation rather than by brittle deformation? a. cool surroundings b. granitic composition c. pressure fairly close to the Earth's surface d. slowly applied stress

d. slowly applied stress

(Q009) Rhyolite lava a. may form a lava fountain above the vent. b. may flow for many tens or hundreds of kilometers from a vent. c. has less silica than basalt lava. d. tends to erupt explosively.

d. tends to erupt explosively.

Coal is the altered remains of ancient ____________. a. plankton b. mammals c. dinosaurs d. terrestrial plants

d. terrestrial plants

(Q003) The genetic scheme for classifying rocks is based on a. temperature and pressure. b. mineral (and therefore elemental) composition. c. the average grain size. d. the origin of formation.

d. the origin of formation.

(Q017) Mountains do not get infinitely high or exist forever because a. the Earth's geothermal gradient is too low. b. their composition (continental crust) causes them to remain buoyant. c. they are eventually subducted in the plate tectonics cycle. d. they experience orogenic collapse and are eroded away.

d. they experience orogenic collapse and are eroded away.

Tidal range a. is the farthest inland that the water reaches at high tide. b. is dictated only by the gravitational attractions of the Sun and the Moon. c. is the same everywhere on a given day, but varies with time. d. varies from place to place along a coastline.

d. varies from place to place along a coastline.

The Moon's landscape a. changes dramatically because there is continuous surface modification by wind erosion. b. is constantly altered by meteorite impacts. c. is constantly altered by plate motions. d. was generated by meteorite impacts and volcanic activity billions of years ago.

d. was generated by meteorite impacts and volcanic activity billions of years ago.

The heliocentric model a. was widely accepted during the Middle Ages (ca. 476-1400 c.e.). b. was developed by Ptolemy and supported by his mathematical equations. c. states that the Earth is the center of the Universe, and the Moon and planets revolve around it. d. was supported by observations that planets follow an elliptical orbit.

d. was supported by observations that planets follow an elliptical orbit.

Which of the following is a renewable resource? a. oil b. coal c. natural gas d. wind

d. wind

(Q002) Porosity decreases a. with decreasing compaction of sediments or rock. b. when fluids passing through a rock dissolve parts of the rock. c. when rocks develop joints or faults. d. with the cementing of sediments by mineral grains from groundwater.

d. with the cementing of sediments by mineral grains from groundwater.

(Q004) During World War II, the military imaged the seafloor by sending pulses of sound waves down through the water and measuring the time it took for the sound to bounce off the seafloor and return to the receiver. This method is called a. sounding. b. bathymetry. c. polar wander. d. sonar.

sonar

Energy

the ability to do work