GEOG 324 Exam 2

Urban Primacy

1. A condition wherein the largest city in a country is disproportionately larger in size and political, social, and economic influence compared to the second and third largest cities 2. The prevalence and intensity of this in South America is a unique characteristic that sets the region apart from rest of world

Natural Increase

1. A demographic measure that refers to the difference between the number of births and deaths, expressed as a percentage; does not directly include the role of migration 2. Young adults were more likely to migrate, when they arrived in the cities they made disproportionately large contributions to birth rates and disproportionately small contributions to death rates. The numbers of their children born in the cities allowed natural increase to overtake migration

Post-neoliberal Phase (2000-present)

1. A new turn to the left and to nationalism, in particular resource nationalism and the ideas of ISI and a strong welfare state 2. A continental movement against the Washington Consensus 3. Examples: Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela; Bolsa Familia in Brazil: Poor families receive small monthly payments if they keep their children in school and take them to doctor regularly 3. U.S. influence in the region decreases a lot (U.S. focuses more on middle east) 4. China becomes very influential in the region, becoming the largest importer of Latin American products 5. As a whole, economic growth in South America outpaced U.S. and Europe in the first decade of the 21st century

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP)

1. Came during the neoliberal phase 2.New loans to pay debt came with strict conditions on government spending 3. Meant huge cuts in government spending including education, welfare, health and services for the poor 4. Implemented under the direction of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)

Pre-Columbian Urbanization

1. Cities of the Incan Empire in the Andean highlands were important centers of indigenous population and development 2. Examples: Cuzco, Machu Picchu

Megacities

1. Cities with populations of more than 10 million people 2. Latin America has 4 of the World's 21 megacities (Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires 3. Face many challenges, including environmental degradation, violence and crime, poverty, and poor infrastructure

Generalized Model of the Latin American City

1. Commercial Business District 2. Elite Residential Sector 3. Zone of maturity 4. Zone in Situ Accretion 5. Zone of peripheral squatter settlements

Revanchist Urbanism

1. Connected to gentrification in the U.S., a reaction against the poor and marginalized in American cities 2. Cleansing of city spaces for investment (or tourism) 3. Connected to neoliberal urban policies 4. In Ecuador, connected to "blanquemiento" (whitening)

Neoliberal Phase (1980s-1990s)

1. Counters dependency theory (a return to early liberal period ideology) 2. Stresses privatization, foreign investments, production for export, and few restrictions on imports; trade specialization 3. Emphasized dollarization (tends to reduce inflation, eliminate fears of currency devaluation, and reduce costs of trade (benefits for foreign companies)); Failed in Argentina (crisis in 2001) 4. Not well received in South America and caused more social unrest 5. Countries borrowed money from lending agencies dominated by the USA (IMF, World Bank) during and after the ISI Phase; and interests on debt continue to affect governments

Exceptions to Primacy

1. Countries with 2 main cities (eg. Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, La Paz and Santa Cruz, Bolivia) 2. Countries with a more balanced urban hierarchy (Colombia - Bogota, then Cali and Medellin, then Baranquilla, etc.)

Consequences of SAP

1. Deindustrialization, particularly in cities where manufacturing was concentrated 2. A rise in the informal economy 3. Increase in unemployment and poverty 4. Lack of food security/food riots 5. Per capita income shrank by 3.1% in the 1980s

Dependency Theory

1. Development somewhere requires underdevelopment somewhere else 2. A theory that explains geographically uneven development 3. Characterized by core, semi-periphery and periphery countries; countries move from one to the other over time 4. Expansion of European and American capitalism created Latin American underdevelopment 5. Argues that, to break dependency, countries must be isolated from the influence of the powerful countries and develop their own economic strategies 6. Emphasizes nationalism and independence, rather than world trade 7. Colonial mercantilism hindered industrial development (because a colony could only trade with its "mother country", in the case of Latin America, Spain) 8. Resulted in primary sector dependence

Informal Economy

1. Economic Activities that are not part of the officially recorded economy and as such are not regulated, usually cash only 2. Examples include day laborers, handcrafting, and street vendors

Dependency Theory explanation for why Latin America can't compete with Europe and U.S.

1. Expansion of European capitalism created Latin American underdevelopment (core-periphery patterns) 2. Colonial mercantilism hindered industrial development (because a colony could only trade with its "mother" country, in the case of Latin America, Spain). 3. Resulted in primary sector dependence

Liberal Phase (1880-1930s)

1. Expansion of world trade with primary commodities 2. Export oriented model seen as a stimulus for economic development 3. Specialization on individual products for each country (comparative advantage) 4. A lot of foreign investment by US and Great Britain (railroads, ports to get commodities out) 5. Britain replaced Spain as Latin America's main trading power 6. Neo-colonialism begins 7. Latin America becomes dependent of foreign markets, making the region very vulnerable and dependent

Gateway Cities

1. Focal points for the extraction and preparation of raw goods for export 2. Distribution nodes for manufactured goods from the colonizing country 3. Centers for civilian administration and military control of the colonies

Children's work in Latin America

1. For many indigenous communities, children's work is an important part of rural life 2. Children's work is essential for community building but also for economic survival

Informal Housing

1. Housing that is self-constructed by residents, sometimes lacking infrastructure and formalized land tenure 2. Informal settlements are most prevalent on the urban periphery

Structural Adjustment Programs/Free Market Policies

1. Implemented under the direction of international lending organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) 2. Consequences for Latin American cities included deindustrialization, contributing to a rise in the informal economy and increase in urban poverty; urban growth shifted from large cities to urban areas that were more competitive in the global economy; the growth of these smaller and intermediate sized towns has helped, in some cases, reduce the extremes of urban primacy and led to more balanced urban systems

Children's lives in global north and global south

1. In Global North, children are family welfare recipients 2. In global south, children work to support families from very young age 3. However, "global north" notions of childhood have trickled down to children of upper classes in Latin America

Children's Rural Lives

1. In rural, low income communities, children's work and play is mixed 2. Gender division of labor 3. Effects of "demographic transition" 4. Effects of structural adjustment/neoliberalism

Issues Facing the Urban Poor

1. Lack of access to formal housing 2. Inadequate service provision 3. Exposure to violence and crime

Failures of ISI

1. Lack of financing and technology meant borrowing money from abroad, increasing debts (bad move!) 2. New industries were making inferior products 3. Lack of cooperation among countries (smaller countries could not create all industries) 4. Social unrest led to military rule (bad move!) 5. ISI "dies" in 1982 with Mexico's debt crisis (at least for now)

Hygienic Racism

1. Late 19th century idea 2. Excludes indigenous people from the city for fear of contamination 3. Continues today, and even in reverse form (reciprocal contamination) "we want them to maintain their culture"

Latin American urbanization historically

1. Latin America as a whole has experienced high levels of urban growth since World War II 2. In 1900, only 3 cities had populations over 500,000 3. New data shows over 52 cities in Latin America with populations over 750,000 4. South America's population is concentrated in urban and coastal settlements 5. The population has shifted rapidly from majority rural to majority urban

Modernist Influences in the 20th Century

1. Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris, a Swiss born architect then French citizen), father of what we typically call "modern architecture" 2. Sought efficient ways to house large numbers of people in response to urban housing crisis in Paris 3. Attempted to adopt "Taylorism" and "Fordism" from the United States to urban planning and design 4. Uneven development of the region also contributed to unfinished modernist projects 5. Brasilia is a good example (mausoleum of modernities)

Theory of comparative advantage

1. Nations are endowed with differing stocks of factors (e.g. natural resources, inexpensive labor, etc.) 2. A nation will export those goods which make intensive use of the factors with which it is relatively well endowed

Latin American urbanization relative to the rest of the world today

1. Only two regions in the world surpass Latin America's urbanization rate: Australia/New Zealand and North America 2. The rate of urbanization in Latin America has outpaced both Western Europe and North America for every five year block from 1950 to 2000, projected to continue until 2025 3. In 1950 Latin America's urban percentage was 42.8; in 2010 was 84% and projected to be 90.2% in 2040.

Industrialization

1. Opportunities declined in rural areas after World War II 2. Capital cities and ports became the locations of manufacturing and industry 3. Governmental policies promoted the creation of new cities to act as administrative capitals or to promote regional economic development 4. Worked hand in hand with rural to urban migration to propel rapid urban growth and bolster the concentration of urban activity in the region

Evolution of Latin American Cities

1. Plaza-centered grid pattern (up to 1700s) 2. European influences (mostly French, inspired by Paris) (19th century) 3. British influences (railroad expansion, inspired by industrial architecture) (early 20th century) 4. North American influences (throughout 20th century 5. Global architecture (today)

Neo-colonialism

1. Policies of developed states enable them to dominate economies of former colonies (e.g. investment loans) 2. Land sold to foreigners at low prices with low taxes

Different ways to measure primacy

1. Population comparison (compare city to next largest city) 2. Share of national population (percentage of total nation's population) 3. Four-city primacy index (compare to combination of next three largest cities)

Urban Poverty

1. Poverty in Latin America is urbanized 2. Cities will grow in the future, so if poverty rates increase or remain stable, there will be more poor people 3. As settlement size goes up, overall poverty rates decrease (larger cities present opportunities that smaller cities lack

Export oriented model of development

1. Seen as a stimulus for economic development 2. Example: A lot of foreign investment by US and Great Britain (railroads, ports to get commodities out); Britain replaced Spain as Latin America's main trading power 3. Example: Argentinian beef required many separate processes and linkages (pasture, fencing, fattening, slaughtering, and packing), creating jobs and stimulating development

Importance of central plaza

1. Served as the focal point of the city 2. Buildings such as churches and cathedrals, administrative offices of the local government and representatives of the Crown, and an elite residential zone

ISI (Import Substitution Industrialization) (1940s-1970s)

1. Shift from import of goods to the local manufacture of goods 2. Embraced policies to foster domestic industry by imposing tariffs/import taxes on all imported goods (protectionist economic policies) 3. Capital cities and ports became the locations of manufacturing and industry 4. Governmental policies promoted the creation of new cities to promote regional economic development; Growth Poles (planned industrial centers) 5. Industrialization and rural to urban migration worked hand in hand to propel rapid urban growth and bolster the concentration of urban activity in the region 6. Most successful in Argentina, Mexico and Brazil

Neo-Colonial Influence in urbanization

1. Spanish and Portuguese colonial influences gave way to American and British neo-colonialism 2. Economic influences: eg. railroads, new ports, commercial and industrial infrastructure 3. US and UK engineering and construction firms 4. Urban design influences: company towns, bridges, railroads, port cities

Demographic and Economic Drivers of Urban Growth

1. Sustained pattern of rural-to-urban migration 2. Natural Increase 3. Industrialization 4. Free-market policies/Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) 5. Growth in the informal sector

Consequences of Neoliberal Phase

1. The "lost" decade 2. Per capita income shrank by 3.1% in the 1980s 3. Inflation was rampant 4. Rise in the informal economy 5. 1990s were similar 6. Argentina's crisis in 2001 marks the official end of neoliberal period in Latin America (country defaults $140 billion of public debt)

Rural to Urban Migration

1. The migration of rural residents to urban areas, usually in search of better opportunities or services 2. A combination of push and pull factors motivate rural residents to leave the countryside

Modernization Theory (Stages of economic development)

1. Traditional Society (Limited Technology; static society) 2. Preconditions for Take-off (Commercial exploitation of agriculture and extractive industry) 3. Take-off (Development of a manufacturing sector) 4. Drive to maturity (Development of wider industrial and commercial base) 5. High mass consumption

Socioeconomic Polarization

1. Urban areas have expanded in size, bringing lower-income zones into contact with more affluent areas 2. Middle class suburbs have taken up land that, in the past, had been considered not suitable due to proximity to low-income areas 3. The topography brings high, middle, and low-income areas into closer contact with each other 4. While there are more opportunities in larger cities, the gap between the rich and poor is wider and more obvious

Recent trend in urbanization

1. Varying growth rates in primate cities 2. Population has increased in mid-sized cities

Gated Communities

A residential area that uses defensive measures such as walls, fences, and access codes to exclude undesirable groups; In Latin America, they are a new manifestation of historic processes of social segregation

More urbanized countries in Latin America

Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela were more than 90% urban in 2010

Less urbanized countries in Latin America

Bolivia and Paraguay were under 67% urban in 2010

Children of the Streets vs. Children in the Streets

Children of the streets live in the streets and children in the streets work in the streets doing jobs such as street performing, shoe shining, guarding cars, working in markets, selling candy/flowers etc.

Informal Housing Living Conditions

Conditions vary, but can be very poor (inadequate provision of infrastructure for water, electricity, and sewage, crowded conditions, reduced access to education, healthcare, and other important governmental services; These factors can lead to negative social and environmental consequences

Privatization

During neoliberal phase, most state owned companies were bought by foreign companies (including utilities such as water and resources such as oil); Form of neo-colonialism

Examples of Children's Work in Latin America

Highland Ecuador: "Children live free 4 years"; After 4, they work 1. Animals to pasture (4 years old) 2. Cook (6 years old) 3. Cultivate crops (8 to 10 years old) 4. Harvest crops (10 to 12 years old) Other examples of Work: 1. Family work on farms and small businesses 2. Street work, including prostitution, work for drug cartels 3. Selling goods in the street or picking garbage

Protectionist Economic Policies

ISI embraced policies to foster domestic industry by imposing tariffs/import taxes on all imported goods

Primary ISI

Import substitution of basic consumer products such as clothing and food processing

Secondary ISI

Import substitution of technology intensive products, consumer durables (cars), intermediate goods (steel), and capital goods (heavy machinery)

Primary Sector Dependence

Latin America's dependence on, and vulnerability to, an economic system heavily reliant on the exportation of nonessential primary products; Examples include cacao, bananas, and coffee

Primate Cities in Latin America

Lima, Santiago, Asuncion, Buenos Aires

French influence in Latin American cities

Paris (Haussmann's "Master Plan"); 1. A paradigmatic city to be emulated 2. Network of wide, straight boulevards through the core of the middle age city 3. Created areas of specialization (commercial, business, residential) 4. "Cultural corridors" for the upper and middle classes (the boulevards, places to see and be seen) 5. Boulevards physically and symbolically separated poor people from urban modernity (no clothes, no money to consume, no access to urban modernity) 6. Boulevards as a means of social control

Children's Urban Migration

Push factors, such as 1. Communities grow faster, pressure on land 2. Longer life expectancy, low access to birth control 3. Land inheritance problems; These factors send children to urban areas, where they end up as "street children"

Law of Indies

Required a plaza-centered grid pattern for all Latin American cities; regularized layout of Spanish colonial cities

Resource Nationalism

The tendency of people and governments to assert control over natural resources located on their territory; In Venezuela's case, it was the country's oil during the post-neoliberal era

Race, social hierarchy, and mestizaje

There is a hierarchy in mestizaje, and blanquamiento (whitening) is preferred

Sanitized spaces of inclusion

Today, Quito and Guayaquil create these spaces as a response to the visibility of indigenous people and street children in Ecuador

Bolivarianism

Venezuela's president Hugo Chavez promoted a socialist, regionally based alternative to neo-liberalism; proposes a united south america, provision of universal education and health care, and protection from foreign powers