Geography 110 Exam 3

what are the 4 adaptation solutions?

urban environments, rural environments and agriculture, human systems, and social changes

in what way will a combination of adaptation and mitigation to climate change influence the vulnerability of the US?

vulnerability will be reduced, but will not disappear- US will still be impacted by climate change

what percent of greenhouse gas emissions does agriculture make up?

25%

beef takes up:

28x more land 11x more water 5x more carbon (Compared to pork or chicken)

What parentage of anthropogenic carbon emissions are currently absorbed by the terrestrial biosphere?

30%

Total global agricultural output is approximately 15 Gt C/yr. About 4 Gt geos to produce biofuels. Currently, biofuels represent about 10% of global energy production. What would our global agricultural output need to be for biofuels production replace all fossil fuels (about 80% of global energy production)?

36 Gt/yr

CFL lightbulbs

40% light 60% heat

what percent of food in the US is wasted?

40%; -1.3 billions ton of food -$1 trillion (retail price) -3.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide (World hunger is a distribution problem, not a growing problem)

In a 2016 study the use of biochar was found to increase the amount of nitrogen in solids that was in a form easily accessible by plants. How much more nitrogen was there compared to the control group (which used charcoal)?

65%

LED lightbulbs

80% light 20% heat

The carbon intensity of electricity generation

Coal (1,001) Oil (840) Natural Gas (469)

adaptation of human systems: (4) insurance benefits:

Either private insurance companies or social insurance

Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector in 2010:

Electricity and heat production (25%) Agriculture, forestry, and other land use (24%) Industry (21%) Transport (14%) Other energy (9.6%) Buildings (6.4%)

avoiding maladaptation: (5) moral hazard

Encouraging inappropriate behavior such as risk taking

cost: the economics of adaptation

Optimal balance between adaptation costs and residual impacts

efficient irrigation system benefits:

less water use, less soil erosion

sensor benefits:

more efficient use of resources, better yields

nanoparticle benefits:

more efficient use of resources, fewer environmental side effects

more productive animals carbon footprint:

more productive animals have lower carbon footprint per yield of beef or milk

does grass fed cattle have a lower carbon footprint?

no

how can diverting food to fuel be problematic?

people in US are starving, increase in food price index correlate with social unrest

urban green infrastructure

reduces the urban heat island effect (plants also good for improving air and water quality)

urban infrastructure changes the speed and amount of runoff, how does this affect local rivers and flooding?

rivers receive floodwater quicker

adaptation

strategies to offset the effects of increased CO2 and thus climate change, on the natural and human environment

mitigation

strategies to stabilize, or reduce the excess buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere, thereby limiting or reducing the amount of climate change Mitigation → Less greenhouse gas emissions → geoengineering → climate change → more impacts and adaptation that lead to better impacts *Mitigation is the steps needed to achieve RCP 2.6, 4.5, or 6.0 rather than RCP 8.5

energy density

the amount of energy stored by a system per unit of volume (volumetric density) or weight (gravimetric density)

what do carbon emissions of electric vehicles depend on?

the electricity mix

in 2016, what became the biggest source of CO2 emissions in the US?

transportation *also has significant mitigation potential through aerodynamics, energy recovery, composite materials, and electric vehicles*

sample diets: distribution of food energy

vegan vegetarian no beef average meat lover -Intensities include emissions for total food supplied to provide each kilocalorie consumed -This accounts for emissions from food eaten as well as consumer waste and supply chain losses

1) Reverse land degradation to reduce soils as a carbon source: c) crop rotations

-Different crops use and release different nutrients -Legumes (alfalfa, clover, peas, beans) release nitrogen into the soil

2) Store carbon in solids to sequester it, and improve agriculture: Biochar

-Bit like charcoal, but more porous -Made by "burning" biomass in a no-oxygen environment which leaves the carbon behind in solid form -Can be a waste product in the generating of biofuels

avoiding maladaptation: (2) conflict

-By favoring one group of people over another Ex: Hydropower in Kashmir

global forest cover and changes since 2000

-Especially China -Most of losses occurring in southern hemisphere -Northern hemisphere does better *Areas used for farming in France, Italy, Spain and Portugal have decreased dramatically Spain and southern France saw widespread reforestation*

how to reduce agricultural production while still feeding 10 billion people:

-Food waste: *global hunger is a distribution problem not a growing problem* -Dietary change: low/no meat diets sue less energy -Ethical issues in farming practices

lifetime car emissions

-Gas-powered hybrids emit more over long distances -In many states high-mileage gas-powered cars are better for the climate than electric cars -Car size still dominates

avoiding maladaptation: (3)

-Ignoring traditional approaches and local relationships

The Biochar Cycle

-Improves water quality, retaining water in the soil (and therefore soluble nutrients) -Provides carbon to plants, raising agricultural productivity -Can store large amounts of carbon in the soil for centuries

1) Reverse land degradation to reduce soils as a carbon source: b) permanent soil cover

-Intercropping, mixed woodland/crop/livestock -Reduces erosion of soil -Reduces pests -Reduces problems related to soil compaction

potential economic issues from adaptation: (3) limited money

-It is likely we will only spend money on adaptation that will have greater future economic reward -There will be negative impacts of climate change that won't adapt to

potential economic issues from adaptation: (1) capital costs

-Long term savings in the future does not create funds in the present -Much easier for richer nations to engineer defenses, borrow money etc.

central heating plant

-Oil and gas replaced coal (not perfect but a start) -University carbon footprint dropped by 30% -Also uses greywater

retrofitting

-Preventing energy loss: higher quality windows and doors, plus insulation -Increasing energy efficiency: boilers and hot water heaters

avoiding maladaptation: (4)

-Retaining traditional approaches that are no longer appropriate

potential economic issues from adaptation: (2) value estimates

-Richer areas have more tangible assets -Easier to financially justify protection of richer areas - money spent to save assets

avoiding maladaptation: (1) inadequate engineering

-Short term solutions that don't recognize longer term issues ignoring the problem -Depletion of natural or human resources leading to greater vulnerability

1) Reverse land degradation to reduce soils as a carbon source: a) less soil disturbance

-Soil tillage leads to short term productivity gains but long-term declines -Also a very time and labor intensive process -But: high cost of new technology such as direct planters

The Wedge Approach to mitigating climate change

-a useful system for determining how and where we can cut future emissions to match our targets -It's only an analogy, and therefore not without its faults -15 available wedges (definitely a non-exhaustive list)

accommodating inundation

-building houses so nothing gets damaged -floating houses

farming options that can decrease methane release

-low fiber diets, steroids, hormones -not necessarily beneficial to animals or humans

algal biofuels

-traditionally grown in ponds (need lots of water + fertilizer = little overall benefit) -modern algal biofuels use closed loop systems -have potential for greater yields per hectare (therefore using up less agricultural space) -among fastest growing plants (50% of their weight is oil) -contains no sulfur; nontoxic; highly degradable -algae fuel is also known as algal fuel/oilgae

improving vehicle emissions: (3 ways)

1. Aerodynamic efficiency 2. Weight - composite materials 3. Energy recovery -Under braking -Heat recovery

If you were to replace a 60W incandescent bulb with a brand new LED bulb costing $3, how long would it take to get your money back?

15 weeks

Energy from non-fossil fuels (nuclear, hydropower, biofuels, and others such as wind, tides and geothermal) represent approximately how much of the total global energy consumption?

19%

Compared to lithium-ion batteries, biodiesel stores ___ times more energy per liter, and ____ times more energy per kilogram

19, 20

CO2 from fossil fuels and industrial processes are the largest source of GHG emissions: what is using that energy? (2)

1. Direct emissions (direct fuel consumption) 2. Indirect emissions (emissions associated with purchases: electricity, heat, waste disposal)

mitigation is all about energy use (4 questions)

1. How much energy do we use? 2. How much energy do we waste? 3. What is consuming that energy? 4. Where are we getting energy from?

What are the sources of energy? (the energy mix) (5) (various from country to country, state to state)

1. Oil 2. Coal 3. Natural Gas 4. Hydro 5. Nuclear Total US Energy Mix: 97.7 quadrillion Btu

15 Wedges in Five Areas

1. Power generation efficiency 2. End-user efficiency and energy conservation 3. Carbon capture and storage (CCS), aka "clean coal" 4. Alternative Energy Sources 5. Agriculture and Forestry

4 main strategies for mitigation:

1. Reduce emissions in agriculture itself 2. Use agricultural products for net zero emissions outside agriculture (biofuels) 3. Sequester carbon in agricultural systems 4. Reducing agricultural production while still feeding 10 billion people

Top 5 countries that produce the most biofuels

1. USA (940) -Corn industry heavily subsidized -Production way over demand for corn 2. Brazil (449) 3. Germany (68) 4. China (59) 5. Argentina (52)

GMO rice (2)

1. golden rice (vitamin A deficiency) 2. C4 rice (could improve rice efficiency by 50%)

adaptation to higher sea-levels- 3 responses

1. protection through engineering 2. accommodating inundation 3. coastal retreat

when full adaptation is not possible: (3)

1. suboptimal balance with imperfection (what we will do) 2. optimal balance (what we want to do) 3. technology limits (what we can do)

incandescent lightbulbs

10% light 90% heat

why should we reduce meat consumption?

Beef and lamb have very high carbon footprints *fruit is also carbon intensive* -freshwater usage -health benefits

adaptation of human systems: (1) improving health systems, (2) early warning system benefits:

Better forecasting of conditions Better forecasting of hazardous events Better communication of short term risks

maladaptation

Action (including inaction) that leads to increase risk of adverse, climate-related outcomes

Carbon cycle vs. Biochar cycle

Carbon: almost all of the carbon returns to air Biochar: up to half of the carbon is sequestered

adaptation of human systems: (3) hazard mapping benefits:

Identifying vulnerabilities in systems Better preparedness for emergency services Ex: Boston, localized risk leads to localized management approaches

food waste

If global food waste was a country, it would be the third largest greenhouse gas emitter after the US and China

mixed livestock/crop management benefits:

Improved yield of following crops Better use of space Improved animal welfare Healthier animals Tastier food Natural pest control

In which state would buying a Honda Civic Hybrid (50mpg) be better for the environment than buying a Tesla and powering it from the state electricity grid?

Kentucky

Using the carbon intensity of different energy generation methods and the known sources of energy in Kentucky, Washington and Massachusetts, list the states in order by the size of their expected carbon footprint (biggest to smallest)

Kentucky, Massachusetts, Washington

benefits of US beginning to use biofuels out of LAX (March 11, 2016)

Lower emissions Good public relations Stabilizes fuel costs

percent of energy from sources: (4)

Non-fossil fuels (19%) Natural gas (21.2%) Coal (28.6%) Oil (31.3%)

where does a lot of mitigation potential come from?

South America

Most building energy use (residential and commercial) is in heating and cooling the building (3 ways)

Space heating Water heating Space cooling *heating cost in particulars one of the largest consumers of energy *

adaptation in the rural environment (4)

Water management (agriculture is largest consumer of freshwater) Soil management Crop management Livestock management

how can we use agricultural products to reduce emissions elsewhere?

biofuels- diverting food to fuel, grain being used for biofuels 2000: 1% use of biofuels from food 2010: 6% of all grain went into making biofuels

carbon intensity of eating: footprints by diet type

carbon footprint: Meat lover- 3.3 Average- 2.5 No beef- 1.9 Vegetarian- 1.7 Vegan- 1.9

what does the C4 rice project aim to do?

change the way photosynthesis occurs inside the cells

to reduce flash flooding:

create permeable surfaces:(slowing down water) reduced flooding, restores groundwater recharge, reduces water pollution and algae blooms downstream

geoengineering

directly modify the earth's climate so that the build-up of CO2 is negated by other cooling effects (mainly changing albedo)

social adaptation (2)

education (changing attitudes and behaviors), laws and governance

what can help reduce beef and milk emissions?

farming practices: -Intensive farming has lower immediate CO2 emissions -Adding grain and oils to cattle feed reduces methane production -But long term soil degradation may lead to higher emissions down the line

adaptation through urban infrastructure (4)

flooding (slow water down, permeable surfaces), heat-waves (shade and evapotranspiration), air pollution (absorption of pollutants by plants), water pollution (absorption of pollutants by plants)

managed retreat

giving up land to the sea

coastal protection

hard engineering: -minimal footprint preserves coastal infrastructure -can increase erosion, undermining effectiveness

what is adaptation based on?

hazard probability in that particular area, along with the exposure and vulnerability of specific communities

double cropping and intercropping benefits:

higher yields, less soil erosion, some crops replenish nutrients

changing crops to more tolerant varieties (resistance to drought, flooding, pests) benefits:

improved yield, reduced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, reduced water use

where do we sequester carbon in agricultural systems?

in soils and in trees