Geography Sem 2 Unit 5

As we learned in the introduction, outsourcing and offshoring are distinct concepts important to the topic of globalization. In the United States, outsourcing and offshoring historically began as the exporting of manufacturing jobs to countries that could produce mainly textiles for cheaper than they could be produced in the United States. As far back as the Industrial Revolution, companies have grappled with how they can exploit their competitive advantage to increase their markets and their profits. The concept of outsourcing was not formally identified as a business strategy until 1989; however, companies had been practicing a version of outsourcing for decades, even centuries. For example, doctors' offices had been outsourcing billing functions and publishing companies had been outsourcing printing and composition services - areas that they felt could be performed better by others - externally.

According to studies tracking the offshoring of internet technology services (IT services), offshoring has resulted in a 10% to 30% reduction in the prices of computer and telecommunications equipment. The price declines helped spread IT throughout the U.S. economy. The price declines helped U.S. corporations add more IT services to boost productivity and lower costs. Many economists speak of the need for a "flexible economy" - an economy in which labor and capital resources move freely and easily between various industries and firms throughout the world. Countries that strive to create new jobs and train workers to be a part of this flexible economy will benefit the most from increased globalization. Many American businesses cite flexibility as a strength of the U.S. economy and predict that the U.S. should be able to emerge on top as flexible labor markets emerge. One way that the U.S. is trying to maintain a competitive advantage is through education. The U.S. education system is trying to incorporate 21st century skills into curriculums from kindergarten through high school and beyond. Three Myths About Outsourcing Outsourcing means hiring workers from another country. Outsourcing jobs to other countries means job loss on the local front. Only big companies can afford to outsource. Outsourcing continues to be debated by politicians, economists, and business leaders. Although some claim that outsourcing is merely another way that companies seek to reduce labor expenses at any cost, others argue that businesses are merely capitalizing on international trade flows, developing a more global approach and determining the most efficient ways to use their resources. Good data is hard to pinpoint about the effectiveness or true impact of outsourcing. While the cost to individuals who lose their jobs is obvious, the benefits of outsourcing are harder to define. One of the biggest concerns surrounding the issue of offshoring is whether or not highly-skilled international employees will outperform U.S. students entering the workforce. The bad news is that there is thought to be fewer low-wage jobs for students with high school diplomas or less. The good news is that average wages are rising for students with college diplomas. The jobs that stay in the U.S. or that are newly created in the decade ahead are likely to demand the more complex skill of recognizing patterns or require human contact. The ability to think creatively will be very important. Economists note that the U.S. was founded with an entrepreneurial spirit and work ethic. This is a strength of the nation; American workers young and old will need to capitalize on the creative and hard-working energy that helped catapult the U.S. to the forefront of the international arena.

The Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir is the main home of Muslims within the Indian region and has always had a separate identity from the rest of India. When Jammu and Kashmir was established by India's constitution, Article 370 gave the state special rights that allowed the Muslims to have a semi-autonomous region, meaning that the region has a degree of independence but also complies with the main laws of the government. In August 2019, Prime Minister Narenda Modi made the controversial move of stripping away the semi-autonomous status from the Jammu and Kashmir region and dividing it into two regions controlled by India. He claimed that the goal was further economic development of and improved security in the region. The decision led to widespread unrest from Kashmir, which resulted in a large deployment of military forces in the region. Security lockdowns that shut down communications and Internet service in Kashmir lasted over a year, and many Kashmiri politians and pro-autonomy Kashmiris were jailed. Muslims in the region continue to fear that they are being reduced to second-class citizens because of their religion. Kashmiris fear that the lack of pressure from the Indian government or other nations means that the region will likely never get back its semi-autonomous status. Although Modi promised increased economic investment, experts say the region has received minimal funding and security conditions have actually worsened. In February 2022, the People's Alliance for Gupkar Declaration (PAGD) asked the government of India to reinstate the special status of the Jammu and Kashmir region. They cited the militaristic nature of the takeover in 2019 as an assault on the region and the actions in general a violation of the Indian Constitution. It is unclear whether the government will respond to this request or if there will be pressure on it from Indians or foreign leaders to reverse its 2019 decision.

Although the caste system was formally abolished in the 1960s by the Indian government, it continues to impact society today because people accept that the caste system keeps order in society and prevents chaos. The caste system is most rigid in rural areas. The caste system in India is generally associated with Hinduism, but it is also found among Muslims and Christians. There are five different classes, or varnas, of the Indian social structure. Within each of these categories are the actual "castes" or jatis within which people are born, marry, and die. There is little movement within these jatis. However, women are more likely to have movement than men because women tend to "marry up" and marry a man of a higher caste, while men rarely, if ever, marry a woman in a higher caste. The five main categories are as follows: Brahmin Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra Harijans The Brahmin class is the highest social class. The Brahmin class is made up predominantly of educators, law makers, scholars and preachers. The Kshatriya class constitutes the military and ruling order as well as landowners. The Vaishya class comprises merchants, dairy farmers, and traders - people who sell products. Vaishyas perform one of the noblest duties of feeding the society. The Shudra class is the lowest varna of the social stratification in India. The Shudra class is generally made up of artisans and laborers - people who sell services. Technically the fifth level of the social system in India is not considered a varna - it is considered outside the caste system - or the untouchables. The "untouchables" class is referred to as Dalits or Harijans. Historically, Dalit status is associated with people holding occupations regarded as ritually impure. Occupations such as butchering, removal of dead animals, cleaning latrines, and leatherwork are all occupations considered impure. People who participate in these activities are considered to be polluting to the individual and then those people are considered "contagious" and able to pollute others. Dalits were commonly banned from many places and segregated from Indian society. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, although the government has passed laws banning the use of the caste system, Dalits continue to face discrimination and even abuse - sometimes acts of communal violence - where large groups of people attack them and the attack goes unreported for fear of retribution or the attack is reported but the authorities choose to ignore it. The caste system continues to be under careful scrutiny by officials within and outside India in the hopes of eliminating the negative effects in the near future.

India has not always been on the winning side of outsourcing. In the 1830s, cloth makers in India were put out of business when England realized that it could make cloth cheaper and more efficiently in their textile factories. The Indian cloth makers could not compete, and this was devastating for many people throughout the region. In 1934, an India governor general, William Bentinck, wrote to his British superiors, "The misery hardly finds parallel in the history of commerce." In 2002, New York Times columnist and best-selling author Thomas Friedman reported that India is the most popular destination for outsourced high-tech jobs because there are a "huge amount of educated people who speak English." High-tech jobs are coveted in India and are usually attained by those with wealth and connections to those in business. The U.S. is exporting more private services to India because there is more money to purchase these services. For example, in 2002, U.S. educational institutions collected $1.2 billion from Indian nationals attending universities throughout the country! As sectors of India grow - specifically the middle class - they are spending money outside their own country, very often in the U.S.

As India modernizes, its political leaders and citizens face many challenges to reduce poverty and grow the economy. Considering the vastness and diversity of the population, success may lie in innovating at the local level and in the willingness to question what it means to be happy and satisfied in life. Once, America and Europe were the places to visit if one wanted to see fine art. Today the United Arab Emirates in the Middle East has been developing a collection of famous art for their museum. This wealthy country plans to encourage its cultural development by investing in the arts.

Religion is generally a set of beliefs about the nature of the universe. Many religions include belief or faith in a god or gods or some other superhuman power. They may also have a set doctrine or teachings and symbols. There are many "religions" practiced around the world today. The top three religions with the most adherents are Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. If we included the number of people who identify themselves as "not religious" as a group, that number would rank them in a group after Islam. Christianity, Islam and Judaism are called Abrahamic religions and include a covenant or agreement made between God and Abraham as part of their origin. They are monotheistic and include a belief in one God. They also have origins in the Middle East. Christianity grew out of Jewish traditions and Islam grew out of both Judaism and Christianity. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism share origins in India. About 80% of the present-day Indian population adheres to the teachings of Hinduism. Though Buddhism originated in India, it quickly spread to China, Korea and Japan. Sikhism is the newest of the three and originates in Punjab, India. Christianity has many denominations that ultimately believe in God and Jesus Christ as the one savior of humankind. The many denominations are generally divided into three groups- Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox. Catholics form the largest Christian group. Protestants are divided into many different groups. During the colonial period of United States history, different Protestant sects escaped religious persecution by traveling to the Americas to practice their form of Christianity. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims and they generally fall into two denominations- Sunni and Shia. Smaller branches have grown out of the Sunni and Shia denominations. Traditional Muslims do not accept an American group of Muslims called the Nation of Islam. The group was founded in Detroit, Michigan during the 20th century as an organization to teach Islamic principles and work to improve the lives of African Americans. While Judaism is a religion, it can also be called an ethno-religion. In some Jewish communities their way of life is defined by both heritage and religious doctrine. The state of Israel is recognized as a Jewish state in its laws and is the world's only Jewish majority state. While the three Abrahamic religions have similarities, their differences lie in beliefs and teachings. All three religions express a belief in one god but each has a different view of Jesus. While the three religions have monotheism in common, they differ in their view of Jesus, sacred texts, paths to salvation and divine revelation. Christianity views Jesus as the son of God and the savior of the world who is an incarnation of God. Islam views Jesus as a prophet of God and professes that messages about Jesus as the son of God have been corrupted over time. Judaism views Jesus as a false prophet. The sacred text of Christianity is the Bible. The sacred text of Islam is the Qur'an and the sacred text of Judaism is the Torah. According to Christianity, salvation is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ. Under the tenets of Islam, an adherent reaches salvation with good deeds, belief, and adherence to the Five Pillars. Under Judaism, salvation is achieved through belief and good deeds. Divine revelations of Christianity are sent through prophets and Jesus as recorded in the Bible. The Qur'an discusses Muhammad as the Prophet of Islam with divine revelation. Under the tenets of Judaism, prophets teach divine revelation as recorded in the Torah. Buddhism comes from the word "buddhi" which means to awaken. It originated about 2500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama was enlightened or awakened. He became known as Buddha. Buddha was not a god, he was a teacher. Gotama had been born into wealth, but he realized that wealth did not guarantee happiness. For six years he studied philosophy and meditated until he reached enlightenment at age 35. In order to be free from suffering and achieve salvation, Buddha teaches his followers to learn to accept the noble truths and follow the 8-fold Path which is the fourth truth. The first Noble truth is to accept that life includes the sufferings of pain, disease, getting old and death. Life means to suffer. The second Noble truth is to understand that getting what you want does not guarantee happiness therefore attachment to things you crave is suffering. The third Noble truth is to understand that suffering can end. The fourth Noble truth is that the 8-fold Path will lead to the end of suffering. The 8-fold Path includes wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental development. This can be achieved by developing the right view of life, the right intentions, the right speech, the right actions, the right livelihood, the right effort, the right mindfulness and the right concentration. Through meditation one can find and follow the noble path. Hinduism is the world's oldest organized religion that has origins dating back to 1500 BCE, though no official date of origin is recorded. It refers to a variety of religious philosophies and traditions that developed in India. Hindus believe that there is one ultimate deity which takes many forms called Brahman. With help from a Guru, Hindus accept that humans can escape the bondage of ignorance and attain liberation if they live life according to Dharma. They believe that people continue to be reincarnated until liberation is achieved. Hinduism is more about what you do than what you believe. Hindus work to achieve Dharma. Dharma is one's destiny or purpose. A Hindu's purpose is to accept their career which is usually defined by class and family, pay debts throughout their life and live a moral and ethical life. Hindus pray to a god or form of the god Brahman. The three most important forms that Brahman takes are Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver and Shiva, the destroyer. Having origins in the 16th century, Sikhism is a relatively new religion when compared to Hinduism and Buddhism. Like the Abrahamic religions, Sikhism is monotheistic. Adherents of Sikhism follow the writings of 10 teachers called Gurus. The word Guru means teacher in Sanskrit. The 10 Gurus are the teachers of Sikhism. The purpose of life is to merge with God by following the teachings of the 10 Gurus, meditating, and living a life that includes service and charity. Sikhs believe that there is only one God who cannot take human form. They accept vices such as greed, anger, and material cravings as part of being human and work to overcome them. Sikhism does not include religious ritual such as fasting, baptism, and making pilgrimages though Sikhs do accept five physical symbols that represent devotion to the tenets of Sikhism. They are called the Five Ks: Kesh is uncut hair Kara is a steel bracelet Kanga is a wooden comb Kaccha is cotton underwear Kirpan is a steel sword Anthropologist Edward Tylor used the term animism to define the worship of spirits in the nineteenth century book, Primitive Culture. Animists believe that inanimate objects as well as living things in nature have spirits. Animism has origins in Indonesia and is characteristic of ancient Indigenous peoples who used rituals and chants to honor the dead or call for an abundant growing season. There are few representative symbols of animism though adherents will build shelters for spirits. These "Spirit Houses" serve as shrines to spirits believed to protect humans. Edward Tylor believed that ancient peoples developed animistic beliefs to help explain the natural world around him. Other anthropologists who believed that ancient peoples did not have the intellectual capacity to develop explanations challenged his work. Islam is concentrated in areas of Africa and the Middle East. Buddhism is concentrated in south east Asia and Hinduism is concentrated in India. While there are many practicing Jewish people all over the world, the largest population is concentrated in Israel. The largest population of Sikhs is in India but over the years they have migrated to form significant groupings in areas of North America, Australia, Africa and Europe.

Did you know that about 45 countries have Islam as the majority religion? Did you know that there are over 1 billion followers of Islam throughout the world? Islam is second only to Christianity in terms of the size of its faithful, yet it is one of the most misunderstood religions by many people living in the Western World - specifically the United States and Europe. Islam comes from an Arabic root word meaning "peace" and "submission." Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Over 1/5 of the world population follows Islam - that means there are over 1 billion followers!Muslims believe that since Allah alone is the Creator, it is He alone that deserves our devout love and worship. Islam holds to a strict monotheism. Any worship and prayers directed at saints, prophets, other human beings or nature is considered idolatry.Muslims try to strike a balance in their daily life by fulfilling the obligations of and enjoying this life, while always mindful of their duties to Allah and to others. Muslims worship in mosques - some examples of which are seen here. In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. The Muslim concept of worship is very broad. Muslims consider everything they do in life to be an act of worship, if it is done according to Allah's guidance. There are also five formal acts of worship which help strengthen a Muslim's faith and obedience. They are often called the "Five Pillars of Islam." 1. Muslims fundamentally believe "There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is the messenger of Allah." 2. Muslims pray at least five times a day. The timings of these prayers are spaced fairly evenly throughout the day, so that one is constantly reminded of God and given opportunities to seek His guidance and forgiveness. 3. Muslims give a small percentage of their annual savings as alms or charity, called zakat. Muslims who have wealth remaining over the year, after paying for their own basic needs, must pay a certain percentage to help others. 4. Every year, Muslims spend one entire month in daytime fasting. During Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, Muslims from all continents unite in a period of fasting and spiritual reflection. 5. Every year, millions of Muslims from around the world make the journey to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, for the annual pilgrimage (or Hajj). Dressed in the same simple white clothing to represent human equality, the pilgrims gather to perform rites dating back to the time of Abraham. The Hajj has been performed by Muslims every year for the past 14 centuries. Muhammad, born around the year 572, was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. Today, Islam is the predominant religion in much of Africa and the Middle East, as well as in major parts of Asia. Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni (85%) and Shi'a (15%). The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. Unfortunately, many people in the United States equate Muslims and Islam with terrorism. Islamic terrorism is the common term for an ideology of violence associated with Islamic fundamentalism that claims to defend Islamic culture, society, and values against the political, imperialistic, and cultural influences of non-Muslims, and the Western world in particular. While these violent religious extremists represent a minority view, the media and even the Western governments have ensured that the people of the Western World believe that their threat is real. Since 1989 the increasing willingness of religious extremists to strike targets outside immediate country or regional areas underscores the global nature of contemporary terrorism. The 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and the Sept. 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, are representative of this trend. Al Qaeda is the most famous fundamentalist terrorist organization and its stated goal is to "reestablish the Muslim State" throughout the world. The worldwide terror campaign instituted by Al Qaeda has served to give Muslims and the religion of Islam a bad name. Many people blame the media for the continued hype surrounding fundamentalist terrorist groups. Although various hijackers, suicide bombers and terrorists have claimed to base their actions on their Muslim faith, most Muslims, however, have denounced this radical minority as violating both true Islam and the true meaning of jihad.

Although India is right next door to the Middle East, the cultural characteristics of this country are quite different from those found in Middle Eastern nations. India is the seventh largest country in the world. India's sheer size naturally lends itself to much diversity within its borders. Throughout all of India people will find festivals and celebrations characterized by color, gaiety, prayers, and rituals, but the regions in India are very different. The South, North, and Northeast regions of India have carved out their own distinct traditions and ways of life, and almost every state in India has its own cultural niche. Ancient India gave rise to many influential religious and philosophical systems. India was dominated by Hinduism for many centuries, but that religion was challenged by an Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama who gave up his life of wealth and power to become a religious teacher. He was eventually called the Buddha, which means "the Englightened One," and the new religion was called Buddhism. Buddhist missionaries spread the religion around India and into other lands, increasing its popularity. One of India's most popular kings, Asoka, encouraged the spread of Buddhism and trade with other civilizations. After Asoka's reign and 500 years of disunity, the Gupta Empire emerged in northern India and reestablished Hinduism under Chandragupta II. Both Asoka and Chandragupta II, despite their religious preferences, were very tolerant toward other religions. As a result, the tenets of Buddhism and Hinduism are still evident in the people of India and around Asia today. The Gupta Empire was also known for making advancements in science and technology. Indian metallurgists refined techniques for producing iron and steel. Indian astronomers made observations that the earth was round and rotates on its axis. Indian mathematicians invented the number zero and the Arabic numerical system, which is still used by many people today.

In 1947, India finally gained its independence after years of struggle and bloodshed. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India in 1498. The colonial era in India began in 1502, when the Portuguese established the first European trading centre at Kollam, Kerala. The East India Company was formed by Queen Elizabeth in 1600 to trade with India and East Asia. The Colonial Era in India started with the British taking control over almost all parts of India and ended with the freedom of India in 1947. British East India Company indirectly ruled most of India through puppet kings. In 1857 there was an uprising in response to the widespread resentment building in the region. This uprising is referred to as the Revolt of 1857. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. The feeling of nationalism had started growing in the minds of Indians as early as the middle of the nineteenth century but it grew more with the formation of the INC in 1885. The Indian National Congress became the leader of the Indian Independence Movement, with over 15 million members and over 70 million participants in its struggle against British rule in India. In India, Mahatma Gandhi is known as "Father of the Nation" and his birthday is celebrated as a national holiday. Gandhi followed as well as preached the following principles throughout his life: Truth, Nonviolence, Vegetarianism, Brahmacharya (Celibacy), Simplicity, Faith in God. Britain levied a tax on SALT as a means of punishing the Indians. Gandhi responded by leading thousands of Indians on the Dandi Salt March. The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi's principles of non-violent protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth-force." The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front page articles on April 6 and April 7. Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of Right against Might." The "Quit India Movement" or "Bharat Chhodo Andolan" was the most aggressive revolt of the Indian National Congress. Its aim was gaining the complete exit of the British from India. In 1947, India became independent. From that year onward, India began its struggle to become one of the leading nations of the world. Britain's holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh).

An enormous world's fair was planned for 2020 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Many people were expected to visit and see all the latest in inventions. Dubai has many places of interest, including the world's tallest building. To encourage more families, planners also opened their own Legoland. Because Dubai is so hot in the summer, they have planned for shade everywhere possible as well as air-conditioning. A model of Dubai's tallest building, Burj Khalifa, took 439,000 bricks to build. The fair was delayed by the Covid-19 pandemic. It finally opened in October of 2021. In the United Arab Emirates' capital city of Abu Dhabi, a Middle East Louvre has been established. Known for its fancy hotels and desert heat, Abu Dhabi now boasts a fine art collection. More showcases will certainly follow. Khalid Abdulkhaliq Abdulla organized the first art exhibit and hopes to establish a cultural district that draws in many tourists in the years to come. Prime Minister Modi of India faces a challenge because many farmers protest his government's new agriculture laws. The recent laws deregulate the government's control over the wholesale purchase of crops. The government had previously set the price for crops and ensured that they were purchased. The new laws open local farms up to private investors. Nearly half of India's population works in agriculture. They want the new laws to be changed because they worry that large corporations will destabilize crop prices. The prime minister insists the laws are good for the farmers. Yet the people don't entirely trust the government.

In 2014 Narendra Modi was elected prime minister of India. Modi campaigned on helping India's economy to grow. He had been a state leader and was able to help its economy grow. Many Indians wanted their country to experience the same rapid growth that China had seen since the 1990s. China and India have many differences, however. More Chinese people live in cities. China also has a different type of government, where it is easier for leaders to order reforms to be made. India is more democratic. Some believe that India needs to follow its own route to development. One proposal is for the government to give local leaders more power to make changes. Though India has always been famous for its tea, it is also one of the largest coffee producers in the world. In the past, Indians tended not to drink coffee grown in India. In fact, those who liked coffee often had to buy it imported from another country. All the best coffee beans grown in India were usually sold to the government to trade with other countries. In the 1990s, this began to change. Indians buying their own farm-grown coffee is quite new, but it is on the rise. India has been working hard to improve the happiness of its people. Unhappiness is a problem for many people in India. India ranks 118 out of 156 countries in a happiness assessment according to the United Nations. One of the main causes of unhappiness is the pressure to work and make money. Satinder Singh Rekhi has started an institute to study happiness and to help people live happier lives. In India, people are not encouraged to talk about their unhappiness, so teachers think this step will help.

The image of the camel is the symbol of human survival in the desert. The history of the camel is intricately tied to the history of the major nomadic civilizations of the hot dry areas of the northern hemisphere. The camel embodies one of the essential elements of the culture and agriculture of these regions. Although the economic importance of camels has dissipated somewhat compared to pre-modern times, the camel remains an integral component of life in the Middle East. The camel is the ideal domestic animal in deserts with long and dry, hot periods of eight months or more and scarce, erratic annual rainfalls. Stony soil, increasing humidity, and the tsetse fly are all unfavorable to the camel. The camel prefers walking in sandy soil due to the structure of its large padded feet. Geographically, the camel is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical dry zones of North Africa, western Asia and northwest India. The camel has an ability to adapt to extremely harsh conditions. It can flourish where no other domestic animal can survive. The camel has some very unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. If the camel is able to forage on some greenery, it can go several months without water! In exceptionally dry conditions, a camel may drink only every eight to ten days and lose up to 30 percent of its body weight through dehydration. The camel is used for several purposes throughout the Middle East and India. It is used as a beast of burden for transporting goods and people as well as for providing milk. Milk is often the only regular food source for its owners. The camel's meat, wool and leather are also widely utilized. In arid zones the camel is a better provider of food than the cow, which is severely affected by the heat, scarcity of water and feed. Following a decrease in the world camel population between 1950 and 1980, there has been a recent resurgence of camels in the past decade due to several factors. Mainly an increasing demand for milk and meat as a result of rising population has helped fuel the resurgence of the camel. Additionally, scientists predict that the desertification of larger swathes of land in the region is also impacting the need for more camels as pack and work animals where the cost of fuel is sometimes high.

India is generally considered to be a part of south Asia. India is considered to be the 7th largest country in the world! India is bound by the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The Himalayas: While China lies beyond the northeastern border of India, the Himalayas tower between the two countries as a colossal divide. Nepal forms a perfect Himalayan niche between India and China. The Bay of Bengal: The Bay of Bengal meets the eastern coast, demarcating India from Myanmar and Thailand. The Arabian Sea: The Arabian Sea is located off the coast of Mumbai. The Ganges River: The Ganges River is one of the major rivers of the Indian subcontinent.

Climate change is threatening many places around the world. In the Middle East, extended droughts and rising temperatures have devastated water supplies and made farming extremely difficult. In India, monsoons have led to extreme flooding, which has destroyed property and wiped out farmland.

India's monsoon season is a time for badly needed rain for agriculture. However, when the rains are severe, people, structures, and plants are a risk. Unfortunately, in 2013, flooding was so great in Uttarakhand that 13,800 people were missing and thousands more were trapped. This led to a sustained effort to rescue survivors. In India, many people travel to the Hindu temples in June. However, in 2013 the monsoon came earlier than expected, stranding many. Flooding has worsened over the past 60 years. Climate change is a major factor in producing more extreme flooding events. Warmer temperatures cause more water to evaporate from the oceans. This increases the frequency of heavy rainfall, and also the amount of rainfall in a given event. Some people say construction and development are also responsible because environmental laws were ignored. Bill Gates visited Bihar, India, where many rice farmers see their crops every year ruined by monsoon flooding. He argues that because the climate is warming, farming will be hurt. Without rain, crops cannot grow, yet too much rain can damage what has begun growing. Gates believes if all countries use clean energy, it will keep the temperatures from rising as fast. He also recommends wealthier nations should help the poorest ones by sending them new kinds of seeds that can withstand floodwaters and drought. Iraq sits between two important rivers in the Middle East, the Tigris and Euphrates. This area used to be a prosperous area with abundant agriculture. Now with climate change, people are having to move away from their farms. Temperatures are now too hot, and water has dried up. Climate change can be natural, occurring over time, but it can also be caused by humans burning gas for fuel. With very little rainfall and temperatures over 125 degrees Fahrenheit in 2021, millions in Iraq and Syria are suffering. Scientists have noted that Iraq's temperatures have risen at double the rate of those in other places on Earth.

The distribution of wealth throughout the world is sharply disparate. Average wealth amounted to $505,000 per person in the U.S. in the year 2021, and 257,000 in Japan. India's average wealth per person was markedly lower at $14,250. Average wealth is measured by calculating a person's assets. Assets are defined as anything of material value or usefulness that is owned by a person or company. Although India continues to make economic progress, the sheer size of its population prevents many people from attaining any substantial economic security or acquiring assets such as a home or a car.

Irrigation systems bring water from nearby sources, often rivers, to areas where crops are grown. Early civilizations, such as those in Egypt, used irrigation systems to grow more food, enabling them to expand and grow. In modern times, more advanced irrigation systems have been developed to grow crops in areas once thought barren. In the Middle East, freshwater problems have arisen from increasing demand for water generated by rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and the irrigation required for increased agriculture needed to feed the growing population. The Middle East and North African countries (referred to as MENA) are home to 381 million people. Although they constitute about 6% of the world's population, they have only 1% of the annual renewable water resources on the globe. The Nile River, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Jordan River valley (and its tributaries), and groundwater resources in the West Bank and Israel are the sources most disputed in the region. Riparian countries are those with water sources. Riparian means relating to or located on the banks of a river or stream. Although the United States has attempted to negotiate talks between riparian countries and those in need of water, there has been little progress, because historic rivals have no interest in being subservient to countries with whom they share longstanding animosities.

The Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia and northeastern Africa. The history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, and throughout its history the Middle East has been a major center of world affairs. The term Middle East probably originated in the 1800s and became internationally accepted in the early 1900s. Following a 1903 article series, "The Middle Eastern Question," written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol, the definition of the "Middle East" was officially expanded to include "those regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India." In this section we will be examining India as well as the following countries in the region referred to as the Middle East: Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Syria, Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Uzbekistan.

More than one third of India's population is urban. At least 48 Indian cities have over one million residents! New Delhi, Calcutta, Mumbai and Chennai are four of the most important cities of India. Some cities of India like Delhi, Bangalore, Pune, and Hyderabad have grown at a tremendous pace. All of these cities have over 10 million people. Some of these major cities in India have also witnessed a phenomenal increase in the per capita incomes of people since the economic boom of the 1990s. New Delhi, Calcutta, Mumbai, and Chennai are the four wealthiest cities in the country. All of these cities are located on the coast.

During the Indian struggle for independence from the British, the British often played the "divide and rule" card to stall the progress of the Indian National movement. The goal of the British was to get the Muslim League on the side of the British in an effort to stall or prevent the demands of the Indian National Congress. The effects of this tactic were felt long after India finally gained independence in 1947. After India's independence, Gandhi focused on the peace and unity of Hindus and Muslims, but it was a difficult struggle. Gandhi was opposed to the all partition proposals and even supported a unified nation led by the Muslim leader. Following the granting of independence of India, the Muslim League called for the creation of a separate nation - Pakistan. The Muslim League was concerned that a united and independent India would be dominated by Hindus. Additionally, the Sikhs were also moving for a separate Punjab of their own, and by 1946 they were demanding a free Sikh nation-state. Independence, peace, and unity would not be an easy task. The initial plan for the division of India called for a 3-part division. According to the plan, the region would be divided into three groups of provinces. Against the wishes of many citizens of India, Britain's Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act which separated India into two independent entities - India and Pakistan. When Britain dismantled its Indian empire and granted freedom and independence to the people of the region, India and Pakistan almost instantaneously solidified their position as arch rivals. The animosity between these two nations continues to this very day. Although the animosity has its roots in religion and history, the tension continues to escalate and can now be seen in a nuclear arms race as well as a nasty battle over the states of Jammu and Kashmir.

Officially, India and Pakistan have held a cease-fire since 2003 and have not officially moved beyond the contested border known as the Line of Control. In reality, both sides have regularly exchanged fire across the border, especially after the Indian military announced that it had achieved "surgical strikes" on Pakistan terrorists in response to an attack by Pakistan that killed eighteen soldiers. That attack was one of the deadliest attacks on India in decades. Pakistan denied that the operation took place, but those attacks prompted another two years of border skirmishes, where increased border shelling led to around four thousand violations of the cease fire. In May 2018, India and Pakistan agreed to a cease-fire that restored their 2003 agreement. Despite the cease fire in 2018, the threat of terrorist activity has continued to heighten. A Pakistani attack in February 2019 killed at least 40 soldiers, leading to a barrage of Indian and Pakistani air strikes and eventual aerial combat. Concerns continue that a larger attack could trigger a war between the two nations, both of which have nuclear weapons.

The biggest deterrent to establishing sustainable agriculture is the problem of limited water and its constraints on agriculture in the region, which is largely arid and semi arid. Due to a lack of cultivable land and a limited amount of water, the Middle East produces less than half of the food and agro-industrial products it consumes. With the exception of Israel, agriculture in the region remains undeveloped. Most Middle Eastern countries are highly dependent on food from abroad. Agriculture must compete for water resources with large-scale industry and the needs of growing populations. Therefore, it is vital that the kind of agriculture practiced should use as little water as possible. Although agriculture is somewhat limited in many areas, the region continues to export a variety of products. Middle Eastern cotton and textile products are still an important export of the region. Have you ever bought a piece of clothing with a label that says "Made in Turkey?" Other important agricultural exports found in supermarkets around the world include citrus, dried dates, figs and apricots, and olive products. Israel's success in growing exotic crops under arid conditions and introducing them to the European market has been envied by other Middle Eastern nations. In order to improve agriculture in the region, economists and agriculturalists identify four components necessary to improve agriculture in the region. First, nations must develop a way to attract larger numbers of skilled workers to the agricultural sector. Second, countries must work to come up with solutions to deal with the irregular yearly rainfall in semi-arid zones. Third, the current use of fertilizers and herbicides is outdated and must be upgraded. Finally, the use of farm machinery must be improved.

Oil money has created both opportunities and problems for the region. Many countries located around the Persian Gulf have large quantities of crude oil. Over half the world's oil reserves can be found in the Middle East. In fact, Saudi Arabia possesses nearly one-fourth of the world's total oil reserves. Four of the top six nations with the largest known crude oil reserves are found in the Middle East: Saudi Arabia (266 billion barrels), Iran (157 billion barrels), Iraq (149 billion barrels), and Kuwait (101 billion barrels). Middle Eastern nations have learned to manipulate their production of oil as an international strategy. The distribution of petroleum deposits is rather uneven. Many of the smaller countries in the regions with small populations have the most oil. Countries such as Egypt send many of their citizens to work in countries like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Unfortunately, while they are there, they are often treated like second-class citizens. Even within oil-rich nations themselves, there is a large gap between rich and poor. Afghanistan, Bahrain, and Israel are all oil-dry countries. The United States produces more barrels of oil per day than Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait. All reserve estimates involve uncertainty, depending on the amount of reliable geologic and engineering data available and the interpretation of those data. Some countries also falsify data for political reasons. Usually, initial estimates are low and tend to grow in time.

In order to determine where civilization was first born and nurtured, one must first understand what defines a civilization. Historians often say that it is easier to describe civilization than it is to actually define civilization. For the most part, a group of people who live together in a single place, and have social, political, economic and religious structure qualifies as a civilization. Urban, productive, religious, and law-abiding are four basic terms to describe what makes a civilization. Before there were civilizations, there were societies, but these societies were often lacking structure. The word civilization itself comes from the Latin adjective civilis, a reference to a citizen. In a civilization, citizens come together, bound by laws and customs, with social classes and a defined economic system, as well as religious structure. In truth, the actual definition of civilization is still debated by historians and continues to evolve.

The "Fertile Crescent" refers to an ancient area of fertile soil and important rivers stretching in an arc from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates across the northern part of the Syrian Desert. A traditional theory of the spread of civilization is that it began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there. This consistent "Cradle of Civilization" concept is not necessarily supported by archaeological evidence that has revealed similar features of civilization in both hemispheres at comparable times. However, Sumer, Assyria, Babylon and the other cities of Mesopotamia, for most intents and purposes, continue to stand as the groups who gave birth to civilized life. The present day countries of Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq are all located in this region of the Fertile Crescent. Mesopotamia forms the eastern half of the region referred to as the Fertile Crescent. Mesopotamia lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which provide the life-giving water that helped transform simple villages into complex cities. The most basic unit in any society is the people, and people need to eat. A nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle could not support the needs of a growing society. The development of agriculture was the major key for promoting civilized life. In this great arc of cultivable land, wheat is considered the first domesticated crop in the region.

The Fertile Crescent is most cited by Western and Middle Eastern scholars as the cradle of civilization. The Fertile Crescent covers Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. Saudi Arabia is the largest country of the Arabian Peninsula. Which of city is located on the eastern coast of India? Kolkata

The land in the Middle East is a major source of oil and oil dependence is a world issue. Although the Middle East is known for having plentiful oil resources, the region is lacking in many other areas. The lack of water and the corresponding lack of agriculture threaten the stability and prosperity of the entire region. National economies throughout the Middle East struggled in the 19th and 20th centuries to develop their natural and human resources, to modernize their societies, and to raise their standards of living. Water has always been an important resource in the Middle East -- for its relative scarcity rather than its abundance. Egypt, Iran, and Turkey are the only countries in the region with abundant fresh water resources. Roughly two-thirds of the nations in the Middle East depend on sources outside their borders for their water supply.

Goal for improving the agricultural sector: Use less water. Activities should have a minimal impact on the sparse ecosystem. Produce materials that can promote small scale industries to help job growth. There has been a recent resurgence of camels in the past decade after a decrease in the world camel population between 1950 and 1980 because of: high cost of fuel - camel is used as a pack and work animal large human population increase - demand for milk and meat of camel desertification of the Sahara - larger desert area requires increased use of camels. Israel has a well-developed agricultural system and has had incredible success growing crops under arid conditions.

The people and culture of India and the Middle East are as interesting and diverse as the many nations that make up this region. The impact of British colonization has had long-term implications on the development as well as the stability of the region. The growing population of certain areas has forced some countries to develop some very creative solutions to a lack of land.

Palestine The land called Palestine was occupied by the Ottoman Empire, a large group of territories ruled by an oppressive regime that found itself on the losing end of World War I. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 stated that the British people and soldiers supported the construction of a homeland for the Jewish people—in Palestine. Jerusalem Jerusalem is the city at the center of the controversy between Israelis and Palestinians. Jerusalem is a key religious city for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Some Palestinians want all of Jerusalem to become a unified capital of a Palestinian state. Many Jews want the same thing. The West Bank The West Bank is a landlocked territory and is the eastern part of the Palestinian territories on the west bank of the River Jordan in the Middle East. Although almost 80% of the West Bank is Palestinian, Israel occupies the region. Palestine wants the region back. The Gaza Strip The Gaza Strip is a narrow piece of land along the Mediterranean coast between Israel and Egypt. Just 25 miles long and less than half as wide, it is home to more than 1.5 million Palestinians but has been controlled by Israel since 1967. The Golan Heights The Golan Heights is a strategic plateau and mountainous region, situated to the east of the Jordan River. It remains a hotly contested land between both Syria and Israel. The area currently is controlled by the State of Israel.

The state of Palestine was divided in 1947 to establish the nation of Israel, resulting in two separate homelands for Arab and Israeli people. This land separation has sharply divided Arabs and Israelis for over 50 years, resulting in ongoing violent conflicts.

When you think of the people and culture of the Middle East, do you think of underwater resorts and human-made islands? Look at the Palm Island Resort. It looks suspended in water. Dubai is one of the wealthiest places in the world. As part of the United Arab Emirates, Dubai has long attracted people in search of luxury and opulence. Dubai's population is growing so incredibly fast and its land area is so small that they have come up with an interesting plan to accommodate more people in quite an extravagant way. Dubai has an incredible amount of money to spend on building projects and they want to be known for having the most extravagant resorts in the world. They are creating offshore luxury townships in the Persian Gulf. Although these human-made islands might be susceptible to natural hazards like hurricanes or tsunamis, they don't seem to mind taking the risk. Although the Middle East is generally thought of as a predominantly Muslim, Arabic community, the truth is that the region has a substantial amount of ethnic and religious diversity. The area that makes up the Middle East encompasses many distinct cultural and ethnic groups including Arabs, Turks, Iranians, Greeks, Jews, Berbers, Kurds, and Assyrians. In the Middle East you will hear many languages being spoken, including Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Kurdish, and Aramaic. In fact, as we have learned in a prior section, the Middle East is considered the birthplace and spiritual center of three major religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. So then, if the Middle East is the center and birthplace of the three most widespread religions in the world and the home to such incredible cultural and ethnic diversity as well as banking centers, and industry, why is it called the MIDDLE EAST? Look at the region on a world map or put your finger on it on a globe. Is the Middle East really in the middle? Is it really in the East? Is it really the middle of the East? It depends on who is asking the question and who is writing the textbooks. Many people believe that the term Middle East is rather Eurocentric, meaning that the Middle East might be east of Europe and the United States, but obviously the Middle East isn't east of Russia or Japan, for example. To the people of India, the Middle East is actually west and to the people of Russia, the Middle East is actually south!

Three of the world's major religions -- the monotheist traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -- were all born in the Middle East and are all inextricably linked to one another. Christianity was born from within the Jewish tradition, and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism. Monotheism means belief in one god. Mono is a prefix meaning one, and theo is a Greek root word meaning god. Religion defines a particular belief system and a worldview. The world's major religions began in the Middle East. Christianity, Islam and Judaism share a common origin that separates them from Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism that share an Indian origin.

Entire college courses have been written on the issues surrounding global energy supplies, oil's unique economic properties, and its role in shaping the political economy of the Middle East and U.S. strategic interests in the region. Oil and the Middle East are inextricably linked and their relationship impacts not only the immediate region but also the world. Many people incorrectly believe that since the Middle East is home to such large amounts of oil, the region must be enjoying financial and economic security. Unfortunately, that security is not felt equally throughout the region. As we know, the Middle East is a major producer of fossil fuels, while the industrialized nations in Europe and North America are the major users. As we have learned in previous units, fossil fuels are any carbon based fuel derived from the decomposed remains of prehistoric plants and animals. The burning of fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, peat, petroleum, and natural gas have allowed humans to develop many different technologies to improve life. The "resource curse" is the idea that natural resource wealth (especially petroleum and hard-rock minerals) functions as a constraint, rather than an asset, for development. The resource curse is sometimes referred to as the paradox of plenty. A paradox is a statement that seemingly contradicts itself - most people would wonder how exactly could an overabundance of resources actually be a curse? As we learned in the unit on South America, the presence of oil in many countries actually limits their development in other areas and often impedes their growth. In the United States, we think of oil as a reason for our military involvement in the Middle East, but oil does not just produce outside intervention. The presence of large amounts of oil can also produce internal abuses of power. Very often the benefits of oil are felt by only those at the top of the political and social hierarchy. It is a huge challenge to ensure that oil profits are distributed evenly. For example, in 2005 Iraqi oil workers went on strike demanding better distribution of oil revenues. Saddam Hussein, the leader of Iraq for many years, was notorious for his human rights violations and his patently unfair and sadistic treatment of his citizens. However, some Middle Eastern countries do a good job of making sure that all the citizens are benefiting from the regions vast wealth of oil. In Saudi Arabia, oil accounts for more than 90 percent of exports and nearly 87 percent of government revenues, facilitating the creation of a system whereby the government provides for all the needs of its people - such as healthcare and education. In periods where the price of oil is very high, it is easy for the government to maintain this welfare state, but when the price of oil tumbles, it becomes more difficult for this system to be maintained.

Throughout global history, people have moved from place to place, traded goods and services, and as a result, traded ideas. There are four areas to think about when considering the movement of people, goods, and ideas around the world - including the Middle East: migration, trade, cultural diffusion, and interdependence. Migration One of the largest migrations in the Middle East took place over 2000 years ago when the Jews were forced out of Palestine by the Romans. More recently, India has experienced a sharp increase in rural to urban migration, with people in search of employment. The hope for a better life is motivating the rural poor to seek a better outcome in the sprawling cities, but this increased urbanization is creating problems of its own. Trade Trade involves imports (goods brought into a country) and exports (goods sent out of a country). The United States has bilateral free trade agreements with five countries in the Middle East. Bilateral literally means "two sides" - a bilateral trade agreement is one that has two sides - it is a trade agreement between any two countries, usually in order to reduce tariffs or trade quotas. Cultural Diffusion Cultural diffusion is the spread of ideas from one culture to another. The spread of Buddhism from India to parts of Asia along the Asian trade routes is an excellent example of cultural diffusion. Interdependence Interdependence is simply the fact that very few countries can be completely self-sufficient. Countries depend on imports from other countries to provide basic needs for their citizens. For example, some European countries import cars from the United States, tea from India and oil from the Middle East. Many Middle Eastern countries must import almost all of their agricultural needs due to a lack of cultivable land while exporting large amounts of oil.

Priests and Teachers - Brahmin Ruler, landowners, warriors - Kshatriya Merchants and Traders - sell products - Vaishya Artisans and Laborers - sell services - Shudra "Outside" the caste system - formerly known as "untouchables" - Harijans

What are reclaimed islands? Islands that are artificially created. Which of the following monotheistic religions was the first to dominate the Middle East region? Judaism What is the main religious text of the Muslims? The Quran Kashmir believes India is reducing their mostly Muslim population to second-class citizens because of their religion. Kashmir believes India needs to fulfill their promise of increased economic development in the region. Kashmir believes India needs to reinstate the special status of Kashmir because it violates the Indian Constitution. Current sources of tension between India and Pakistan: nuclear weapons Jammu and Kashmir cross border terrorism What was a tactic used by the British to stall the Indian National Congress? Divide the Hindus and Muslims How does the untouchable class differ from the higher varnas? Untouchables unable to choose occupation Untouchables experience limited movement, if any, within socio-economic status Untouchables confined to position under which they were born Which of the following religions is not commonly found in India? Judaism What has been the predominant religion in the Middle East for the past 14 centuries? Islam What was the state of relations between India and Pakistan in 2019? While a cease-fire was technically in place, both nations continued to attack each other across the border.

something with two sides: Bilateral rapid and massive growth of and migration to large cities: Urbanization supplying dry land with water: Irrigation something that can be re-grown or reproduced: Renewable markedly different: Disparate a statement that contradicts itself: Paradox any carbon based fuel derived from the decomposed remains: Fossil Fuels anything of material value to a person or business: Assets relating to or located on the banks of a river or stream: Riparian

What is the phenomenon known as the "resource curse?" Natural resource wealth sometimes is an impediment to development. Approximately what percent of the world's population owns half of all global personal wealth? 2% percent The Euphrates River, The Jordan River, The Tigris River are all regional disputed water sources.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is considered which of the following economic market structures? Oligopoly Which of the following individuals is known to have created some of the earliest laws within Mesopotamia? Hammurabi The existence of Hindu Indian communities in places such as Guyana (South America), Fiji (Oceania), and South Africa is the result of? Colonial-era labor migrations Why does the violence against Dalits continue throughout India? Lack of enforcement of laws prohibiting violence against Dalits.

Which of the following languages would NOT be considered in the Indo-European language family? Turkish (Bengali Hindi Portuguese are Indo-European) Which of the following plants was the dominant staple crop for the cultural hearths of Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt and the rest of the Fertile Crescent? Wheat In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait, in part over an oil resource that Iraq and Kuwait both claimed fell within their national borders. This type of boundary dispute can be classified as what? Allocational