Geology Part 2

LIGHTNING

#[Quinterest: A Searchable Quiz Bowl Database](http://quinterest.org/) ## Red * theory of this phenomenon suggests that it occurs when cosmic rays trigger a runaway avalanche of particles, * Lichtenberg figures appear the skin of people who are victims of this phenomenon, and the formation of red colored sprites is due to the positive type of this phenomenon * capable of producing (*) St. Elmo's fire * IC, CC, and CG, and its ball variety is rumored to appear as spherical plasma * reach temperatures of five times the surface of the Sun's, and metal rods protect buildings from being struck by them * soliton hypothesis seeks to explain one variety of this phenomenon, which may be generally caused by cosmic rays initiating runaway breakdown * ELVES are one type of it caused by nitrogen excitation * blue jets and red sprites * fulgurites, a type of glass, * Miller-Urey experiment suggested that it caused the synthesis of the first organic molecules on primitive Earth. * dielectric strength of air is exceeded comes in both cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-ground forms * Gamma rays produced from this phenomenon may carry the potency of a CT scan, * terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. * descending stepped leader connects to a return stroke along an ionized channel that subsequently is superheated by this phenomenon, producing a shock wave. * may be formed by runaway breakdown in the atmosphere, and it usually occurs due to a negative potential in the clouds * Runaway breakdown theory proposes that these phenomena are caused by cosmic rays. * glass-like fulgurite from sand * Supercells are large storms that exhibit these phenomena. * occur between the base and anvil of cumulonimbus clouds, * Fermi satellite discovered that this phenomenon produces positrons. * Sprites, elves, and blue jets are harder-to-observe variants of this phenomenon, and the positive type of it is more energeti * initial stage of it is preliminary breakdown followed by the formation of a stepped ladder. Before this phenomenon occurs, the (*) ground sends up a positive "streamer."

HARDNESS

* Brinell version of this quantity, which is used as an alternative to the Vickers Test. * Schmidt hammer is a tool used to measure the elastic properties of a rock and the surface variety of this property * defined for not elastic materials but solids, it is not (*) stiffness. * sclerometer measures the scratch variety of this property which is done by calculating the width of scratch made by a diamond. * Feldspar has a value of 6 and talc has a value of 1 on the Mohs scale for this property * measure of how resistant solid matter is to changing shape when force is applied. * property of this name is proportional to the second derivative of the energy of a chemical system with respect to the electron number for a fixed nuclear charge * one-half the difference between ionization potential and electron affinity. * Pearson system describes smaller materials with high charge states using this term, which also names a property measured with the Persoz and Konig (*) pendulums * refer to an unusually high concentration of multivalent cations in a certain substance that results in the production of calcium and magnesium stearates when that substance is combined with soap * property with this name can be measured with the Leeb rebound test, which employs a scleroscope, or on the Vickers or Rockwell scales * famously describing a property whose value for curundum is 9 on the Mohs scale. * mathematical equation used to calculate this quantity takes the applied force on an object and divides it by an expression containing values for the diameter of the indenter and that of the indentation. * Hall-Petch Relationship governs how this property increases with decreasing particle size * scratch form of this quantity is usually measured with a sclerometer. For a material to produce a color on a streak plate * measures this quantity places apatite in the middle, then increases with orthoclase feldspar, then quartz, then topaz, then conundrum, then diamond * measured by using the Mohs scale. * Meyer's Law relates the indentation form of this property with the force necessary for that indentation, which is necessary for the Brinell Scale of this property of minerals * Hall-Petch relationship states that this property increases as particle size decreases. A Vickers test is another way to determine this property for a mineral, and sclerometers are used to measure the scratch form of this property, for which talc has a value of one. * property of minerals, for which diamond has a value of ten on the Mohs Scale. * Steel alloy 1090 has the highest value of this quantity for any metal, and osmium has the highest value of it for any single element. * variety of this is measured by dropping a ball made of tungsten carbide on the surface in question this is the indentation kind measured by the Brinell test, which is similar to the Rockwell test. * measuring another type of this property includes corundum and quartz as well as eight other minerals. * highest value of the scratch type of, for 10 points, which quantity measured by the Mohs scale? * rebound" variety of this property is measured using a scleroscope, and can be ordered on a scale named for Bennet * Impression area is an important measure in the Knoop method of testing for this property. The "indentation" type * e Brinell and Rockwell methods

LAVA

* Diatremes are an example of structures known as this material's namesake spine. This substance may create a "roof" over its namesake channel to create its namesake tubes, which resemble (*) caves and may run for miles * surrounds an elevated area of land, kipukas are formed * Argon can escape from this material, making potassium-argon dating possibl * Dikes are formed when this material fills a crack and hardens * classified based on viscosity and darkness, both related to silica content, as felsic or mafic, which form rhyolite and (*) basalt. * ropey form called pahoehoe ["pa-ho-ay-ho-ay"] or a stony and sharp form called aa * Deccan and Siberian traps were formed from this natural substance. * Smooth and rough forms of this substance are called pahoehoe [pahHOHayhohay] and a'a * acruate and sinuous rilles were believed to have been created by an exotic type of this substance, one type of which is called "blocky" because of its huge quantities of andesite * Coulées are domes of this material * Circular, fine-grained, rocks that are underwater makeup the "pillow" form of this hardened substance. These thixotropic liquids can be classified as aa or pahoehoe * "pillow" form of this substance forms underwater. "Domes" of this substance form from andesite * surrounds a kipuka. * form agglutinated spatter and squeeze-u * morphology can be described as lineated, lobate, or jumbled. When its surface has angular fragments, this substance is described as block. * "kipuka." * landform called a tuya results when this substance is found beneath a glacier * "pillow" type of it

TECTONIC PLATES

* Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent boundaries between these objects * Ancient examples of these structures include one named for the god Izanagi and another named Farallon which gave rise to a modern one called Juan de Fuca * Don Anderson proposed that these objects move due to calcium carbonate deposited by living organisms * Passive and active margins * Archimedes' principle, isostasy, keeps these objects in gravitational equilibrium. * Gravity causes them to move under "slab pull" * "roll-back" to form a back-arc * ophiolites in the Himalayas was proof of their existence * meet at convergent, divergent, or transform boundaries and can sink into the mantle at subduction zones * explained the Vine-Matthews hypothesis about the reversal of the Earth's magnetic field. * convergent boundary, (*) subduction can occur, and they grow at mid-ocean ridges in the process of seafloor spreading, which causes continental drift * first proposed in Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift. They slide past each other at transform faults. For 10 points, what masses of crust float along the mantle and include the Eurasian, Arabian, and Pacific? * Cocos Island and is next to one named after a region of Peru, Nazca * spaces between them are usually classified as divergent or convergent transform faults * these objects has become connected to theories of mantle plumes, and the original theory came out of the continental drift ideas of Alfred Wegener. For 10 points, name these shifting sections of the Earth's surface. * dynamics of these objects were tested through the Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis. * Nazca and Indo-Australian. * San Andreas Fault i * boundary between the Pacific and North American ones * "basal drag." The theory that they float in a gravitational equilibrium is central to the Pratt and and Airy models of isostasy * Cratons are most often found near the centers of these objects. The three main types of borders between these entities are (*) "divergent," "convergent," and "transform."

CORUNDUM

* This and magnesium are found in spinel. Emery is mostly composed of this * Chromium and ferric oxides are used in a flame fusion process to create one form of this this mineral in a technique named after Verneuil. R * range form of this substance is known as padparadscha, and it is comprised of (*) aluminum oxide. * gemstone can get a red color due to chromium impurities, and its forms include emery, sapphire, and ruby. For ten points, identify this mineral which has a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale. * Titanium inclusions in this mineral can form a "silk" pattern * mineral names and is the basis for the structure of ilmenite. Star stones are most commonly composed of this mineral * creation of this mineral is the primary use of the Verneuil process * mineral is mixed with magnetite or other iron compounds, it forms (*) emery. * adamantine spar * mineral can have a color known as pigeon's blood. The basic unit of this mineral consists of three oxygens and two aluminium atoms * mineral that is a 9 on the Mohs scale and forms the basis of sapphires and rubies * Titanium inclusions in this mineral can form a "silk" pattern * Verneuil flame-fusion process * Rutile silk cause a notable asterism in one form of it, and Gaudin's synthetic creation of it was the first for any gemstone. * Iron and titanium make this blue, while chromium makes it red. This is a nine on the Mohs scale. This is aluminum oxide * specific gravity is high, about 4, and it occurs in hexagonal crystals * Titanium atoms embedded in crystals of it are used as a gain medium to produce tunability over a several hundred nanometer range in lasers * Impurities in it in the form of rutile needles aligned with its crystal faces can lead to asterism. Synthetic samples can be made with the Verneuil process * aluminum oxide, Al2O3 * British mining operations in southeast Asia and used as an abrasive, sometimes as a component of emery * form of this mineral was the first gemstone to be synthesized, a process completed by Gaudin in 1837 * mineral can be synthesized in the flame fusion Verneuil process and is the chief component of emery. * h gemstone varieties like red ruby and blue sapphire * precious stone typically displays needle-like intrusions of rutile, and like common mimicks of diamond, this mineral is produced in large scales by the Verneuil process * Synthetic rods of this precious stone are used as a gain medium in some lasers * characteristic color comes from chromium, and its most valuable shade is called pidgeon's blood

SOIL

* dispersal of fungal spores, but one mechanism by which this process occurs is called rain splash * mnemonic "CLORPT" summarizes Hans Jenny's state equation for these materials' formation * composition of these materials distinguishes edaphic communities. Their USDA classification has 12 orders, of which inceptisols and entisols are the most common. * zero, these materials may undergo (*) liquefaction, as when they are saturated * form from a parent material through the process of pedogenesis. * profiles of these materials are divided into layers called horizons, and they contain decayed organic matter called humus as well as sand and silt. * classified into namesake orders that include histosols and aridisols * first three layers of this substance are labeled O, A, and B, respectively. * layers are classified as this substance's namesake horizons, which together produce this substance's namesake profile * Earth is younger than the Pleistocene epoch, and cellulose is the most abundant plant residue in this material * Five percent of this material's volume is composed of humus. For 10 points, name this material, comprising the first few feet of the crust, that contains the root systems of plants as well as nutrients needed to support them. * zonal, intrazonal, and azonal orders. Hans Jenny developed the CLORPT equation * organized into repellency classes based on the WDPT, or water drop penetration time * Illuvium is material leached from one layer of this substance to another those layers are called horizons * Liquid nutrient solutions are used instead of this substance in hydroponics. For 10 points, name this substance that is composed of clay, sand, and silt, and that supports plant life. * Ammonium acetate extraction can be used to measure the cation exchange capacity of these materials * composition of these materials distinguishes edaphic communities. They are formed through pedogenesis, and have layers called horizons. * decayed organic matter called humus, and are classified by composition of silt, sand, and clay. For 10 points, name this kind of material formed from weathered rock, in which plants grow. * Hugh Hammond Bennett was one of the first to study this phenomenon, calling it "a national menace" in the title of a paper * equation modeling this process includes factors for topographic effects and crop management and is called the USLE * Ammonium acetate extraction is a way to measure the cation exchange capacity of these materials * gabion is a structure built to prevent this phenomenon, which may involve particles moving by either saltation or creep. * products of this process, which is often paired with weathering, are deposited, they become sediment. * soil and rocks are broken down by wind or water. * divided by the USDA into orders such as mollisol and entisol * via pedogenesis, this substance has layers described by the sequence O-A-B-C-R that are called horizons * Greater-than-average amounts of humus (HYOO-muhs) are found in one type of it called loam. Its texture is determined by how much silt, sand, and clay it contains * name this collection of organic materials and broken rock in which you might pot a plant. * WDPT measures the water repellency of this substance, whose color is measured by the Munsell system. * structure can be classified as columnar, blocky, platy, or granular. * O, A, B, C, and R horizons. A porous, carbonate-containing type deposited by wind or glaciers is called loess. * material may contain organic matter called humus, and its texture is classified by its proportion of sand, silt, and clay. * Hydroponics is the practice of raising crops without this substance * important measure of this material is its cation-exchange capacity and its color is notated using the Munsell system * WDPT is one measure of the water repellency of this substanc * taxonomic scheme for it includes great groups and a lowest rank of series. Its Atterberg limits include liquid and plastic limits, which are related to its porosity. Its structure can be columnar, platy, or granular * structures called peds * chernozem (CHAIR-no-zem) and solonetz * pedogenesis (PEH-doh-JEN-uh-sis). A yellowish type of it is known as "loess" * high percentage of (*) humus (HUE-muss), and is known as nutrient-rich loam

LAKES

* f interconnected ones given the name "Paternoster" * discharge from a prehistoric one of these structures near Missoula, Montana * closed or terminal, they are termed endorheic, * layers don't interact, they are meromictic. * structures can undergo deadly "overturns" in which carbon dioxide erupts from them. * starting point of a body named for G.K. Warren and is named for Louis Agassiz. For 10 points, name these bodies of water, exemplified by Victoria and Superior. * Meromictic ones near volcanic regions can undergo limnic eruptions, their namesake "overturns. * metalimnion, or thermocline, of these bodies is their region of greatest thermal gradient. Kraken and Ligeia are examples found on Titan, and one of these named Agassiz covered much of North America during the previous ice age. * Salt pans often form at the bottom of endorrheic ones, which have no outflows. On Earth, due to a deranged drainage system, 60 percent of these are found in Canada. The "oxbow" variety is formed when a meander is cut off from a river. * bodies of water enclosed by land, famous examples of which include the subglacial Vostok and the largest freshwater one, Superior. * bodies of water do not flow into seas, they are dubbed "endorheic * cirque (SURK) into a mountain, one of them called a tarn may form. * Channeled Scablands of Washington * limnologists (lim-NOL-uh-jists). When a meander is cut off from a river, a U-shaped one called an (*) "oxbow" or "billabong" is formed * name these bodies of water exemplified by Michigan and Superior. * Triggers such as a landslide can cause these entities to undergo a limnic eruption, * thousands of people were asphyxiated by carbon dioxide when one of these named Nyos * paternoster, and cirques in a glacier cirques can form a type of these called a tarn. Cutting a bend from a meandering river will form the oxbow variety of these, and ones located on volcanoes are the crater type * meromictic form of this feature, limnic eruptions can occur, * holomictic kind, thermoclines * disrupted at least annually. When these features are linked in succession, they are called paternoster. * Eolic ones form in wind-eroded depressions, and meromictic ones have a constant epilimnion and hypolimnion. * Endorheic ones are often bounded by a salt pan and are found in regions where riparian erosion is uncommon * Nutrient-poor examples of these are called oligotrophic. In those regions where endorheic ones are found, rainfall is typically low, so those examples have little occasion to rise and find an outlet. Isolated meanders form "oxbow" ones * fjords are examples of these entities that form in glacial valleys. For 10 points, name these river-fed bodies of salt or fresh water that are larger than ponds

CORIOLIS EFFECT

* identify this fictitious force that results from the Earth's rotation. * cross-terms composed of the product of two different generalized coordinates in the Euler-Lagrange equations. * opposes pressure in geostrophic flow. * always acts perpendicular to the velocity of the bob at the end of (*) Foucault's pendulum, it does no work on the bob. * magnitude of this force is given as two times the cross product of an angular velocity and a linear velocity. * namesake coefficient of this force is proportional to the sine of the latitude and the rotation rate of Earth * why a ball thrown from a carousel appears to deflect, depending on the hemisphere. For 10 points, name this fictitious force seen in rotating reference frames. * rate of change of a parameter governing this force appears in the denominator of the Sverdrup * parameter governing this force is the difference between the absolute and relative vorticity in the barotropic vorticity equation. * force leads to the beta effect * vertical component is the increased perception of gravity at the equator, called the (*) Eötvös (YOT-vosh) effect. * force is balanced against the pressure gradient, geostrophic phenomena occur. * determination of whether this effect is important within a system is denoted by the Rossby number * magnitude of acceleration can be calculated by taking the cross product of negative 2 times capital omega and v * "fictitious" force that results from the deflection of objects when reference frames undergo rotational motion. * phenomenon, a flow is geostrophic * combined effects of drag and this phenomenon create an Ekman spiral. * ratio of inertial forces to this phenomenon is given by the Rossby number. * strength of this phenomenon is directly proportional to the sine of latitude. * phenomenon results in cyclones spinning counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere but clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere * "fictitious" force causes flows in a rotating reference frame to be deflected from a straight line. * Earth's rotation and which is not actually responsible for the way a toilet flushes. * Buys-Ballot's law is a consequence of this phenomenon. The beta plane approximation is used to estimate this phenomenon's associated parameter, which is proportional to the sine of latitude * pressure gradient force is balanced by this phenomenon for a flow, it is termed geostrophi * Rossby number is one, gravitational and centrifugal accelerations cancel and this phenomenon can be observed with Foucault's pendulum. * Northern and Southern Hemispheres, this phenomenon deflects moving objects to the left, and right, respectively, creating clockwise and counterclockwise rotation * stabilizes the fourth and fifth Lagrange points. * antennae of moths assist them in flying by accounting for this effect, which is also used in mass flow meters. The Rossby number can describe whether this effect is prominent in a system by relating it to inertial forces. * considered on the Earth, the Beta effect leads to its variation with latitude. This effect is caused by a pseudoforce and it was studied by a French scientist interested in water wheels. Leading to deflection of moving objects in rotating reference frames, it drives oceanic and atmospheric currents. * effect which causes cyclones on Earth to rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. * vertical component of the effect caused by this force is sometimes named for Eotvos. * ratio of inertial forces to the magnitude of this force is a dimensionless number named for Rossby. * apparent (*) deflection of objects moving in rotating reference frames * momentum equation, this quantity is represented mathematically as two times capital omega cross v * Rossby number equals one, the net acceleration is due to this quantity, as gravitational and centripetal accelerations cancel * Beta Effect describes the variation in this quantity with (*) latitude, such that it is zero at the equator and a maximum at the poles. * weak force caused by the rotation of the Earth, which contrary to myth does not actually make toilets flush in different directions in different hemispheres. * Rossby number * fastest rate is at the equator thus causing an object traveling south from the equator to deviate westward * effect of this force is proportional to two times the rotation rate of the Earth times the sine of the angle of the latitude, thus this force causes no effect at the equator. * name this apparent deflection of an object by inertial forces in a rotating frame of reference which is partially responsible for the rotation of hurricanes but not the flow of water in a toilet. * result of this is that objects feel heavier or lighter depending on direction of motion, which is known as the Eötvös effect * Ekman spiral * ossby number. * imbalance between the cause of this phenomenon and pressure gradients causes non-dispersive waves called Kelvin waves, and it is used to find mass flow rates by comparing the twists in vibrating tubes * conservation of angular momentum, this concept is used to explain the precession of Foucault (foo-KOH) pendulums * effect leads to the formation of an instantaneous voltage called the Christoffel voltage * cyclostrophic flow sees zero * Eotvos effect is the vertical component of this phenomenon. It becomes negligible when the dimenstionless quantity also known as the Kibel number, the Rossby number * parameter is multiplied by meridional distance in the Sverdrup balance, * Ekman layer. * Rossby waves

TORNADOES

* intensity of these phenomena can be measured by the Fujita scale. For 10 points, name these weather phenomena that involve high winds and funnels, commonly affecting the Midwest. * formation of these structures usually begins with a warm RFD, though a cold, wet FFD might also occur * entities typically are either of the wedge or stovepipe varieties. The Great Natchez one of these entities appeared in Mississippi in 1840 * occur over water, they are called waterspouts * strength is now typically measured on the EF, or Enhanced Fujita scale. For 10 points, identify these rapidly rotating columns of air that occur predominantly in a namesake "Alley" of midwest states. * phenomena show side-by-side inbound and outbound radial velocities on Doppler radar. * infrasound generated by these phenomena is caused by core bursting and radial core vibrations. Rear-flank downdrafts are necessary to produce these phenomena. A key sign of this phenomenon is caused by hail wrapping around one side, called a hook echo * Fujita scale measures the damage caused by them, and a variant occurring over the water is called a waterspout. * name these weather phenomena frequently found in the Midwest that consist of a destructive, rotating column of air. * rear flank downdrafts reaching a mesocyclone within a supercell. As rain wraps around the mesocyclone, it creates a "hook echo" * Doppler radar * National Weather Service to issue a (*) "Warning" that one of these events is imminent * Fujita scales measure the impact of, for 10 points, what funnel-shaped columns of air whose debris clouds can reach the ground? * "T" is equal to the Beaufort scale value divided by two and subtracted by four, known as the TORRO scale. * thunderstorm, rear flank downdrafts can produce hook echoes which signify the development of these phenomena * phenomena usually develop from mesocyclones in supercells, but waterspouts are one form of these phenomena that form over a body of water * "hook echo" often appears on Doppler radar, which will typically have a large quantity of debris at the tip * progenitors of these phenomena appear as velocity couplets. These entities are generally located at the center of a hook-shaped echo on the southwest of their progenitors. * often form along with rear flank downdrafts from supercells and usually spawn from mesocyclones * few waterspouts may be sea versions of this phenomenon, and their strength can be measured using the Fujita scale * name these tightly rotating columns of air that frequently hit the Midwest. * low-level shear aligned by updrafts is penetrated by cold air from the downdraft, creating "hook echo" patterns on Doppler radar. * fair weather, one of these phenomena occurring over a body of water is called a (*) waterspout * Enhanced Fujita scale rates the damage of, for 10 points, what rotating columns of air formed when funnel clouds reach the ground? * "Wedge" and "rope" are informal terms used to denote large and small forms of these phenomena. * Twenty-eight different damage indicators help measure their severity via the enhanced Fujita scale * phenomena occur when a funnel cloud touches the ground. For 10 points, name these violently rotating windstorms that most often occur in their namesake "Alley" in the American Midwest. * TORRO scale, and relative velocity images can identify convergence boundaries where these form. Rear flank downdrafts are responsible for this feature's signature hook echo on Doppler radar imagery. * satellite, rope, and wedge types, strong ones often descend from wall clouds in mesocyclones, and may feature multiple vortices * "enhanced" version of the scale currently in use ranks these from zero to five. For 10 points, name this weather phenomenon, a destructive rotating column of air. * Famous scientists who studied this phenomenon include Allen Pearson, who co-names the scale used to measure it. This phenomenon is divided into "wedge" and "stovepipe" varieties * "hook echo" on radar and is associated with rear flank downdrafts in a supercell thunderstorm. It is measured on the Fujita Scale from 1 to 5. * "alley," which includes the Great Plains and Midwest.

GRANITE

* intrusive equivalent of rhyolite, * "Conway" type of this rock has an unusually high concentration of thorium * metamorphosis of this rock is the most common source of gneiss. * plutons or batholiths of this rock can form giant domes, such as the Half Dome in Yosemite. * extrusive equivalent of this intrusive rock is rhyolite * s alkali feldspar * otassium feldspars giving it a distinctive pink color. * quarried on the Scottish island of Ailsa Craig for use in curling stones * Sodium content distinguishes the S and I types of this rock, which forms batholiths like Half-Dome * Lachlan Fold Belt led to this rock's classification system, which was developed by Chappell and White * rock into high-sodium I types and low-sodium S types * upper left of the plutonic QAPF diagram * largest region on the upper triangle of a QAPF diagram * feldspars and quartz, * S-types of these rocks are produced from sediments high in SiO2s while I-types typically from crystal fracination with limited weathering in the Chappell-White classification scheme for these kinds of rocks * Cape Ann earthquake * Enchanted Rock in Texas is formed from a pink form of this rock, which often occurs in plutons due to the high viscosity of the magma that forms this substance. * "orbicular" is mostly found in Finland and weathering of this material by contact with water can produce kaolin * Chappell and White created a lettered classification system for this type of rock * upper-left side of the plutonic QAPF diagram. * pegmatite and aplite, and it can be classified as I or S type * common component of batholiths. It has relatively high sodium and potassium levels compared to magnesium and calcium * finer-grained form is rhyolite. * "Alphabet Soup" classification is used to divide this type of rock into "I" and "S" types, while the "M" and "A" types are less commo * Pegmatite or this type of rock metamorphoses into the rock type Greisen, and Skarn is a metamorphic rock that forms when carbonate-rich limestone or dolostone mixes with this type of rock. Its extrusive equivalent is rhyolite

RIVERS

* lie in forested areas, they are riparian and they leave behind alluvium. Oxbow lakes form when a meander is cut off from these systems that form gorges and deltas. * photosynthesis to respiration ratio of these ecosystems first increases, then decreases according to a "continuum concept" of these ecosystems that explains how changes in the fine-to-coarse organic matter ratio affect shredders, collectors, and grazers. * oxygen concentrations vary with pH and turbidity, and their edges are riparian zones. For 10 points, name these ecosystems with flowing water, like the Mississippi. * Playfair's Law can be used to model the effects due to one of these entities, which have sizes typically between first and third order, as determined by the Strahler number. Knickpoints are sharp changes in the gradient profile of these features, which can also form bifurcations * lotic ecosystems are bordered by (*) bosques and biodiverse riparian zones, and these features can cut off to form oxbow lakes * lie adjacent to floodplains and often branch out at their mouth to form a delta. For ten points, identify these hydrological features exemplified by the Nile and Amazon. * Strahler order is used to measure these entities based on the number of splits it contains * Bradshaw model shows that the average load of these entities increases as they continue * relationship between volumetric discharge of these entities can be modified by (*) weirs, which may be built across these structures. The discharge of weirs is described by a structural constant as well as the width of the crest and the height of the head * Erosion of the riparian zones of these entities can necessitate restoration as grass and soil may be washed away from the bank. * Tokunaga extended the Strahler ordering method of these systems to predict mean self-similarity in topology, which was confirmed by Horton's laws for the numbers and magnitudes of these systems * Cutbanks and point bars surround portions of these systems that become braided when their carrying capacity is exceeded. Interfluves lie between these systems if they are adjacent * form terraces when their base level changes. * hellbender and the now-extinct baiji could be found in these lotic ecosystems, whose productivity may be described by the flood pulse concept. * Strahler order, * Bradshaw mode * characteristics of their upper and lower courses. Hack's law relates their length to their basin area, and Baer's law describes a weak influence on their erosion. * Peneplains are low-relief plains that form due to erosion from these entities. These entities may be guided by (*) channelization and the construction of embankments. * Meanders in these structures can become isolated, forming oxbow lakes. For 10 points, name these water-bearing structures that flow towards the sea. * Conservation of mass between particles on the surface of these bodies and the particles being transported in these bodies is modeled in the Exner equation. Higher Strahler numbers for these bodies indicate more complex systems of them. * bodies, which can be "rejuvenated" with elevation change, are home to lotic ecosystems. Erosion causes these bodies to form features from which ox-bow lakes may develop * meander-containing bodies may terminate at a delta. For 10 points, name these large bodies of flowing water, one example of which is the Nile. * entities can be hierarchically classified based on the Strahler Order. * speed of objects in this kind of system varies by the sixth power of this system's speed by Brahm's law * Einstein wrote a paper about Baer's law, which claims that the hemisphere of the earth in which these bodies are situated affects erosion. * bodies form underneath glaciers, they create braided ridges known as esker * cross-sectional area multiplied by their average linear velocity gives their discharge. These bodies create ox-bow lakes when they cut off a meander

OLIVINE

* sequestering of CO2 from the atmosphere * variety of this mineral occurs naturally from the metamorphism of dolomitic limestone * Bina and Wood attribute a sharp increase in seismic velocity at 400km to this material's transformation to its spinel-structure. * weathering most easily according to the Goldich dissolution series. * iron-rich version is known as fayalite. * form the majority of the Earth's upper mantle. * above pyroxene on the discontinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series, making it the highest-ranking member. * magnesium-iron-silicate whose green gem form is called peridot. * 410 kilometer seismic discontinuity in the mantle results from this mineral's transformation to spinel * solid solution of forsterite and fayalite * Goldich's stability series, this mineral and the calcium plagiocase anorthite are most easily weathered. * 500 Celsius is the boundary temperature for a reversible reaction in which this mineral and water combine to yield serpentine * Ultramafic rocks like peridotite consist of pyroxene and this mineral. * top of the discontinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series. * silica tetrahedra linked by magnesium or iron cations * variety of this mineral reacts with quartz to form enstatite. This mineral differs from quartz in that it cannot form from magmas rich in silica * undergoes a phase transition to wadsleyite, which can then undergo a further transition to ringwoodite. * most abundant mineral in the Earth's mantle at shallower depths * both mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks * molar percentages of forsterite, the magnesium rich variety, and fayalite. * tephroite, monticellite, and kirschsteinite, this is, * known as peridot and which occupies the top of the discontinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series. * biaxial positive to negative when its most common cation makes up 85% of its total cationic sum, and Poldervaart provided the most popular diagram for estimation of this mineral's composition based on birefringence and 2V, though optical geochemistry estimations often fail due to its compositional zonation * Conchoidal fracturing provides a route for its alteration to iddingsite, * wadsleyite and ringwoodite with increasing pressure, leading to use of its structure as a depth indicator for kimberlites * M1 site produces the rare variety tephroite * Mafic rocks such as gabbro or basalt contain it in abundance, since it is at the beginning of the discontinuous branch of Bowen's Reaction Series. * orthorhombic minerals include tephroite and knebelite. * magnesium-rich variety of these minerals is believed to be the most abundant(*) consitutent of the upper mantle. * mafic minerals crystalize first in the continuous part of Bowen's reaction series, and its varieties include forsterite, also known as peridot.

SUBDUCTION ZONES

* slab pull * "flat slab" and the "steep angle" varieties * Volcanic arcs are formed above these regions, and can be further broken down into island arcs and continental arcs, depending on how the particular region was formed. * circle the Pacific Ocean, creating the Ring of Fir * Contrasted with divergent boundaries, for 10 points, name these regions where tectonic plates of different densities collide, and one tectonic plate goes under another. * corner flow induced by these structures, and their migration through rollback, are two processes that may form or enlarge back-arc basins. * flux melting following metamorphic dewatering can lead to volcanic arcs, examples of which include the Aleutians and Andes. On * stretches from northern Vancouver Island to (*) California * boundary between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. * 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was generated by a megathrust earthquake at one of these regions between the India and Burma plates. * type of ophiolite is named after a "supra" form of these regions * undergo tearing known as STEP faults. * consist of an updip zone and a seismogenic zone * Accretionary prisms are formed on one part of these regions. Nankai and Cascadia are two notable ones. * not island arcs, one area associated with them can be affected by "roll-back" and is a back arc * Benioff zones * Megathrust earthquakes, the most powerful type in the world, occur only at these regions * Some kinds of these locations are named for Benioff and Wadati. * type of volcano that can be found near these regions composes the Ring of Fire. These regions are the opposite of divergent boundaries * oceanic plate slides beneath another tectonic plate, pressing the lower plate deeper into the Earth. * kinds of these locations are named for Benioff and Wadati * feature areas of extreme activity called Wadati-Benioff zones, * back-arc basins are found above these regions. Accretionary wedges and slab suction * forearcs and volcanic arcs * basalt is denser than granite, oceanic plates tend to sink in these areas. One of them occurs between the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates, coinciding with the Mariana Trench. * near the Tokai district of Honshu had been studied by Kiyoo, * altech professor Hugo were the namesakes of the Wadati-Benioff regions * Victoria, Vancouver, Portland, and Seattle lie on one of these entities named Cascadia * Volcanic arcs are produced by these regions where the lithosphere enters the asthenosphere * Taking place at convergent plate boundaries, for 10 points, name these geological regions or processes where one tectonic plate sinks into the Earth's mantle by moving under another tectonic plate, thus causing violent volcanic eruptions and destructive earthquakes. * Seismic activity in these regions originates in a deep location known as a Wadati-Benioff zone * volcanoes that occur above them often form in arcs. These areas are frequently the sites of orogeny and lead to a dominant source of mantle convection via the sinking of the lithosphere * process which occurs at these convergent boundaries is contrasted with the process of an oceanic plate moving over a continental plate, obduction