GLOBAL 9

Marshall Plan, 1948

"Economic Recovery Program" Secretary of State, George C. Marshall "The US should provide aid to all European nations that need it. This move is not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos." Gave $12.5 billion of aid to Western Europe: was extended to Eastern Europe and USSR, but was rejected by Soviets. Focused on fixing the economies of Greece and Turkey, but helped all of western Europe.

Circle of Justice

"circle of justice." - In order for the kingdom to be prosperous and secure, the sultan required a strong army. In order to provide for this army, the state needed tax revenues from its citizens. In order for the citizens to pay their taxes, they had to receive security and justice from the sultan. Any of the sultan's subjects, could submit a petition to the palace asking redress of wrongs. Ottoman court records show many cases where peasants complained to the local judge that officials were extracting extra taxes or labor from them. These complaints were forwarded to the central government, which punished or replaced the offenders.

In Ancient India, society was organized so that each specialized job was performed by a specific group, or caste. Each caste was considered necessary to the society as a whole. First mention of caste in 1000 B.C.E. Human body metaphor:

Brahman (Priestly Class) = Society's head Kshatriya (Warrior Class) = Societ's Arms Vaishya (Traders/landowners) = Society's Legs Sudra (Servants) = feet

The optimism blinded Utopians to the nature of humanity and the world in which they lived.

Brook Farm & New Harmony were based on the notion that human beings naturally love one another or could be brought to that level. The impracticality of this doomed them to failure.

Estates General

Brought together in 1789 to fix the crisis in France...members often male...well educated....well off First Estate - clergy voted in 1 vote Second Estate - nobility voted in 1 vote ^^combine to win ^300000/26000000 ^^300 and 300 Third Estate - everyone else men over 25 who were property holders permitted to vote for third 1 vote overruled 600

6th Cent.

By 6th century, Franks were most powerful in Europe Frankish kingdom had many civil wars Charles Martel united areas under one control- led to Carolingian rule Was influenced by Anglo-Saxon St. Boniface, who adhered to Roman Christian ideas Developed relationship between kings and popes. Church was influential

Crusades (1095-1291)

Byzantines under pressure from Turks, asked for help West sent idle nobles on "quest" 1095- Pope Urban II promised "plenary indulgence" for death in battle 1000s of men from France, Germany and Italy met in Constantinople and defeated Turks- created "Crusader States" Crusades were religion, adventure and war New orders of Christian crusaders- Templars, Teutonic Knights, Hospitallers Plenary indulgence: full remission of sins for participating The Crusades: a series of campaigns beginning toward end of 11th century were remarkable expression of European self-confidence and expansions. Objective: to recapture Holy Land from Muslim control. For hundreds of years, peaceful pilgrims traveled to worship at birthplace of Jesus. During 11th century, Christian pilgrims were worried when Seljuk Turks took over Jerusalem from more tolerant Abbasid Muslims. In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed First Crusade to regain Holy Land. He called on Christians to take up the cross and strive for a cause that promised spiritual and material rewards. Outpouring of religious enthusiasm as a result. "Crusade" means "taking the cross" after the example of Christ. SHOW MAP/PIC Question for Discussion: Were the Crusades caused primarily by religious devotion or by the desire for political & economic gain? Crusades: "Taking the Cross" Objective: to recapture Holy Land from Muslim control (Failed) Significance of the Crusades: Crusading fervor carried over Crusades weakened Byzantine Empire Weakened respect for papacy Reopening of eastern Mediterranean to Western Commerce 7 campaigns in all—all failures Significance of the Crusades Even though the Crusades failed to achieve their permanent objective, they were more than mere military adventures. Much of the crusading fervor carried over to the European efforts against the Muslims in Spain and the Slavs in eastern Europe Crusades weakened the Byzantine Empire and accelerated its fall. Although early Crusades strengthened moral leadership of papacy in Europe, the misadventures of the later Crusades, together with the church's preaching of Crusades against Christian heretics and political opponents, weakened both the crusading ideal and respect for the papacy. Influenced reopening of the eastern Mediterranean to Western Commerce—helped to revive cities and develop money economy in West

Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

Future society must be cooperative & free Communal living unit of 1620 people called a "phalanstery." The members of the group voluntarily chose tasks that appealed to them to do the work needed to ensure the community's survival. Attempts to found these communities were unsuccessful including the famous Brook Farm colony in Massachusetts.

Zionism

GOALS: The spiritual and political renewal of the Jewish people in its ancestral homeland of Palestine. Freedom from Western anti- Semitism. First Zionist Conference, 1897 "Next Year in Jerusalem!" Herzl writes Der Judenstaat, or The Jewish State in 1896. Met in Basel, Switzerland. Becomes an international Jewish organization. Theodore Herzl 1860-1904 He was an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer who was one of the fathers of modern political Zionism

Salon ("room")

Gatherings of elite philosophes Salonieres

Iranian Revolution 1979

Despite economic growth, there was much opposition against the Mohammad Reza Shah, and how he used the secret police, the Savak, to control the country. Strong Shi'i opposition against the Shah, and the country came close to a situation of civil war. The opposition was led by Ayatollah Khomeini, who lived in exile in Iraq and later in France. His message was distributed through music cassettes, which were smuggled into Iran in small numbers, and then duplicated, and spread all around the country. This was the beginning of Iranian revolution.

Rise of Nazi Germany

Failure of the Weimar (Democratic) Government Harshness of the Versailles Treaty Adolf Hitler & National Socialist German Worker's Party (NAZI) 1923 Beer Hall Putsch/Mein Kampf - 1923 Munich Putsch 1933 Chancellor of Germany 1933: Withdrew from League of Nations 1935: Conscription & rearmament *Racist elements set Nazism apart (German Fascism) Dolchstoss - was the notion, widely believed and promulgated in right-wing circles in Germany after 1918, that the German Army did not lose World War I on the battlefield but was instead betrayed by the civilians on the home front

Democracy 500 BCE

Demos - people, kratein- to rule Started in Athens (Athenian Democracy) Assembly of all male citizens- citizenship was restricted (no women, slaves) Civic responsibility and participation were expected- everyone served regardless of class All decisions went through the Assembly Elected officials could be (and were) replaced

Fall of Roman Empire (476?)

Healthy Byzantium in East Western Europe in chaos ('barbarians'/Germanic tribes) It led to a time of violence and isolation Roman culture mixed with Goth and Frankish cultures

Hebrew Scriptures

Hebrew Bible, also called Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament, or Tanakh, collection of writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the Jewish people. It constitutes a large portion of the Christian Bible.

English Reformation: reasons for creation of the Church of England (Anglican Church)

Henry VIII started the process of creating the Church of England after his split with the Pope in the 1530s. Henry was anxious to ensure a male heir after his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had borne him only a daughter. He wanted his marriage annulled in order to remarry

Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

Hundred Years War 1337-1453 Largest, longest and most wide-ranging military conflict in West since Rome's Punic Wars (against Carthage) in 3rd & 2nd centuries. (Almost all of Europe got involved at some stage) England vs. France for control of monarchy and control of Flanders (FOUGHT TO CONTROL WHO WOULD RULE FRANCE) Kings of England held the duchy of Gascony as vassals of the French king; part of Eleanor of Aquitaine's former domain. Not a problem in 12th & 13th centuries, but now in 14th & 15th century as monarchs began to claim sovereignty over their domains, the English presence in "French" Gascony became more problematic. England also had close commercial links with Flanders (which always resisted French expansion) added fuel to the fire as did the French alliance with the Scots (due to England trying to invade Scotland back in 1290s). Furthermore, dispute over the French crown. Edward I of England claimed to be the rightful heir of France. (In 1328, last of King Philip IV's sons died without leaving a son; end of Capetian dynasty. New dynasty, Valois came to throne, but only due to insisting women couldn't inherit royal power. Otherwise heir to France was Edward III of England—mother Isabella had been Philip IV's daughter). Lasting results: French nationalism & transition from feudalism to centralized govt, English textile economy, both relied on taxation of peasants, hatred and prejudice Three Stages: England won (1360) France had more people & money, but internal conflict & incompetent leaders. First phase ended in 1360 when Edward III agreed to renounce claim to French throne in return for full sovereignty over enlarged duchy of Gascony Estates General in 1335- representative council. Gained power. Similar to developing Parliament in England. French taxed peasants- led to Jaquerie revolts. England did the same later- left England divided. 2. England won (1420) King of England & northern France united under Henry V. Forced dying French king to recognize him as heir to throne of France, dispossessing the heir apparent, known as the Dauphin (the dolphin), the future King Charles VII. When Henry V died, his son and new king as an infant. 3. France won (1453) Joan of Arc (17 years old) made her way to Dauphin's court and announced that an angel had told her that he was rightful king (even though he was illegitimate heir) and she would drive English out of France. Dauphin gave her troops. France rallied behind Joan of Arc & defeated English at Orleans. Ultimately she was an embarrassment (didn't fit norms)—peasant leading aristocrats, woman leading men, commoner claiming to be commissioned by God. She was tried for heresy by English church court and burned to death at 19 years old. King Charles did nothing to help her. Early version of nationalism (France gets all territory back except Calais which English controlled until it fell in 1558). (Govt. so centralized in England with incompetent heir & will lead to War of the Roses—civil war between 2 aristocratic families, Lancaster and York, who finally resolve by marrying each other and begins Tudor dynasty). England vs. France for control of monarchy and control of Flanders (France) Lasting results: French nationalism & transition from feudalism to centralized govt, English textile economy, both relied on taxation of peasants, hatred and prejudice

February/March Revolution

In Russia, the February Revolution (known as such because of Russia's use of the Julian calendar) begins on this day in 1917, when riots and strikes over the scarcity of food erupt in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg). By 1917, most Russians had lost faith in the leadership ability of the czarist regime.

Industrialization eradicated the old system, in which peasant families worked the fields during the summer and did their cottage industry work in the winter to their own standards and at their own pace.

In its place, urban life tied to the factory demanded long hours where people did repetitive tasks, using machines to process large amounts of raw materials. This was an efficient way to make a lot of high-quality goods cheaply, but the lifestyle of the factory had a terrible effect upon the human condition.

Feudalism- c. 750 CE

KEY POINT: "Feudalism" gave stability to an unstable society and created ties that allowed for political centralization in the Late Middle Ages.

British White Paper of 1939

Limited Jewish immigration to Palestine to 75,000 over the next five years. It ended Jewish land purchases. Independence for Palestine within 10 years. It is NOT British policy that Palestine become a Jewish state.

Catal Huyuk

Located in modern Turkey Walls enclosed 32 acres Population 6000 between 6700 to 5700 BCE Lived in simple mud brick houses People grew their own food and stored them in storerooms in their houses They domesticated animals They hunted but did not rely on it Some people were artisans and made weapons and jewelry Religious shrines housing figures of gods and goddesses have been found Statues of earth mothers have also been found Both these shrines and statues point to the growing role and religion in the lives of Neolithic people

Mesopotamia = refer to p. 11

Location? Place? Human-Environment Interaction? Movement? Region?

Church Organization & Doctrine

Priests Bishops Archbishop Pope

Liberalism

Pursuit of happiness individual inherent right Minimal government interference Roots: constitutionalism, laissez-faire economics, Enlightenment Utilitarianism: "greatest happiness for the greatest number" Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill

High Renaissance Artist: Raphael (1483-1520) School of Athens, 1509-11

Raphael, School of Athens (1511): artistic rendering of humanism

Schools of Thought

Rationalism Knowledge is intelectual, not sensory Innate ideas (reason) Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method (1627) "I think therefore I am" Empiricism Knowledge is based on sense, observation, experience John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) "Blank slate"

Fiefdom

Some vassals were given "benefices," or "fiefs" of land Other vassals were given money Lord was obligated to protect vassals from harm and in court, and to provide for physical maintenance.

How soviets saw the Truman doctrine and Marshall Plan

Soviets accused the US of buying their way to the top Called them capitalist plots targeted against the communist world

Ideological Struggle

Soviets and Eastern Bloc Nations ("Iron Curtain") Goal: spread world wide communism US and Western Democracies Goal: "Containment" of communism and eventual collapse of the Communist world

Feudalism

System of mutual rights and responsibilities. "Vassals" serve lords in return for protection. Nobles tried to have many vassals- military strength. Agriculture was the economy- village farms were "manors." Plow improved agriculture Landowners gave peasants land & home in return for crops Peasants farmed the manor on behalf of lords Serfs had no land

STUFF

Trade and commerce were weak, agriculture dominated Charles courted a powerful aristocracy- rewarded followers with land & goods Was not a modern "state" Government tied to church- Christian beliefs and practices, including "divine right" of kings.

Center of the Ottoman Empire - The Creation of Turkey and Women's Rights 1923-38 - Istanbul

Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 - TREATY THAT CONCLUDED WWI Modern Turkey Is Born.

Royal Opulence: The Baroque

Versailles symbolized a new artistic style (in art, architecture, interior design, clothing, etc.) BAROQUE: extravagant curves, exaggerated lighting, intense emotions Music: exaggerated sharp, staccato notes; ornamentation on notes such as trills J.S. Bach, A. Corelli, A. Vivaldi, G.F. Handel, H. Purcell, M.A. Charpentier

France, June 1940

Vichy France (French: Régime de Vichy) is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. It represented the unoccupied "Free Zone" (zone libre) in the southern part of metropolitan France and the French colonial empire.

Victor Emmanuel II -

Victor Emmanuel II was King of Sardinia from 1849 until 17 March 1861. At that point, he assumed the title of King of Italy and became the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878.

Yassir Arafat

Yasser Arafat was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 until his death in 2004, a tumultuous period in which clashes with neighboring Israel were prevalent.

Huguenots

a French Protestant of the 16th-17th centuries. Largely Calvinist, the Huguenots suffered severe persecution at the hands of the Catholic majority, and many thousands emigrated from France.

The Soviet Union

Stalin's Five Year Plans (1st one in 1928): boost industrial production 1934-38: Great Terror—Purges & Show Trials 1936: New Constitution Right to life, liberty, property Due process of law

1939-41: RESTRICTION & INTERNMENT OF JEWS ALL OVER EUROPE

Star of David Trains to Labor camps Ghetto

Winston Churchill, Prime Minister, 1940

"I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat." "We shall go on to the end....We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender."

The Renaissance

"Rebirth" began in Northern Italy. Why? Themes: Return of ancient learning Humanism Rise of secular society Urban economy Political centralization

"le Roi Soleil"

"The Sun King"—Louis adopted the sun as his royal emblem because "The unique quality of the brilliance which surrounds it, the light it communicates to other heavenly bodies which compose a kind of Court around it, the just and even allotment of its light among all the various tropics of the world...is assuredly the most beautiful and vivid image of a great monarch" From his Memoirs To symbolize his "life-giving presence" in the council chamber, he had a rising sun painted on his official chair

EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR I

"War to end all wars" Death Environmental devastation Psychological impact on society— "the lost generation" New world order: killed monarchy as dominant form of government ending Austrian, ottoman and Russian empires Revolution, civil war and totalitarian communist government in Russia Civil war in Ireland Fascist governments in Italy & Germany Instability of Europe: War solved little and precipitate another more costly total war 20 years later Harshness of Versailles peace treaty upon Germany direct cause of german nationalism, rise of hitler, and outbreak of wwii

"Young Italy" -

"Young Italy" was uncompromisingly dedicated to the unification of Italia.

France

$$$ France was forced to pay a large indemnity or compensation for war damages. Ideas of liberalism and nationalism were suppressed.

Vichy France

(French: Régime de Vichy) is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. It represented the unoccupied "Free Zone" (zone libre) in the southern part of metropolitan France and the French colonial empire.

OPEC and the Oil Embargo October 1973 - March 1974

(OPEC—Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) On October 6, 1973, the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, Egyptian forces attacked Israel from across the Suez Canal, while at the same time Syrian troops were flooding the Golan Heights in a surprise offensive. After early losses, Israeli counterattacks quickly pushed into Syrian territory in the north, as troops outflanked the Egyptian army in the south. Israel, with help from the U.S., succeeded in reversing the Arab gains and a cease-fire was concluded in November. But on October 17, OPEC struck back against the West by imposing an oil embargo on the U.S., while increasing prices by 70% to America's Western European allies. Overnight, the price of a barrel of oil to these nations rose from $3 to $5.11. [In January 1974, they raised it further to $11.65.] The U.S. and the Netherlands, in particular, were singled out for their support of Israel in the war. When OPEC announced the sharp price rise, the shock waves were immediate. Industrial democracies, accustomed to uninterrupted sources of cheap, imported oil, were suddenly at the mercy of a modern Arab nationalism, standing up to American oil companies that had once held their countries in a vise grip. The embargo in the U.S. came at a time when 85% of American workers drove to their places of employment each day. Suddenly, President Nixon had to set the nation on a course of voluntary rationing. He called upon homeowners to turn down their thermostats and for companies to trim work hours. Gas stations were asked to hold their sales to a max of ten gallons per customer. In the month of November 1973, Nixon proposed an extension of Daylight Savings Time and a total ban on the sale of gasoline on Sunday's. [Both were later approved by Congress.] But the biggest legislative initiative was the approval by Congress on November 13 of a Trans-Alaskan oil pipeline, designed to supply 2,000,000 barrels of oil a day. [This was completed in 1977. See any parallels to today's fight over the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge?] A severe recession hit much of the Western world, including the U.S., and as gasoline lines snaked their way around city blocks and tempers flared (the price at the pump had risen from 30 cents a gallon to about $1.20 at the height of the crisis). The embargo was lifted in March of 1974.

Osiris and Isis

*know story* Hieroglyphics "Alphabet" 24 letters and 700 phonetic symbols Egyptian Gods and Goddesses "The Sacred Trinity" Osiris Isis and Horus The final judgement - Anubis, Horis, and Osiris

Harappan Culture

- Architecture = functional & not artistic - Pottery and sculpture - amazing - Sculptures = amazing expression

Origin of Harappans

- Language and physical characteristics were similar to Dravidian people - Harappa is not dead....but part of the living culture of India

From Hebrew Nomads to Israelite Nation

- Origins of Western History in Tanakh/Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) - Torah - first 5 books - Abraham = father of all monotheism - Covenant between God (Yahweh) and Israelites (Abraham) - chosen people - What kind of source is the Torah/Hebrew Scriptures?

Paul of Tarsus

- Zealous Jew (Pharisee) - converted and emphasized evangelical mission of Christians - Question was: is Christianity a version of Judaism, or an entirely new religion? - Paul separated Judaism from Christianity - Second Founder of Christianity - Only faith in Christ necessary for salvation of Jews and non-Jews

Political and Social structure of Harappa

- resembled Mesopotamia and Nile valley - began in tiny farming villages scattered throughout the river valley (6500 or 7000 BCE) - villages thrived and grew till they could support a privileged ruling elite living in walled cities of considerable magnitude and affluence - center of power was city of Harappa (surrounded by brick wall) - grid like layout with kiln dried mud brick square buldings - 80k inhabitants

Mohenjo-Daro - Ancient city on the Indus

1 of the 2 major cities of the ancient Indus River civs. In addition to rows of residential housing, it had a ceremonial center with a royal palace and sacred bath that was probably used by the priests to achieve ritual purity. The bath is reminiscent of water tanks in modern Hindu temples where the faithful wash their feet prior to religious devotion. (Minakshi ). Water = integral part of Hindu temples - symbolized Vishnu's cosmic ocean and the concept of ritual purity.....also necessary in arid Indian climate

9 Basic Beliefs & 5 Cardinal Virtues

1. Divinity of the Vedas 2. One, all-pervasive god 3. Endless cycles of creation 4. Karma 5. Soul reincarnates 6. Divine beings exist 7. Guru is essential 8. All life is sacred 9. Respect for all religions 1. Purity 2. Self-Control 3. Detachment 4. Truth 5. Non-violence Material things are bad—want to detach; meditation is good

Causes of the French Revolution

1. International: struggle for hegemony and Empire outstrips the fiscal resources of the state 2. Political conflict: conflict between the Monarchy and the nobility over the "reform" of the tax system led to paralysis and bankruptcy. 3. The Enlightenment: impulse for reform intensifies political conflicts; reinforces traditional aristocratic constitutionalism, one variant of which was laid out in Montequieu's Spirit of the Laws; introduces new notions of good government, the most radical being popular sovereignty, as in Rousseau's Social Contract [1762]; the attack on the regime and privileged class by the Literary Underground of "Grub Street;" the broadening influence of public opinion. 4. Social antagonisms between two rising groups: the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie 5. Ineffective ruler: Louis XVI 6. Economic hardship, especially the agrarian crisis of 1788-89 generates popular discontent and disorders caused by food shortages.

Methodologies for both sides:

1. KGB vs. CIA 2. Arms Race (Nuclear escalation) 3. "Proxy wars": Ideological Competition for the minds and hearts of Third World peoples [Communist govt. & command economy vs. democratic govt. & capitalist economy]. This also lead to a debate of religion: Soviet Union Atheism vs. U.S. focusing on traditional christianity. 3. Bipolarization of Europe [NATO vs. WARSAW PACT]

Know

1.According to Bruni, what exactly do we learn from studying history? 2.According to Vegerius, what are liberal studies and why are they important? The humanists' program for education focused on studia humanitatis. What values and skills did these subjects (Latin, rhetoric, poetry, history, literature, philosophy) teach? Why are they necessary for civilization? RENAISSANCE VALUES VS. MEDIEVAL VALUES??? SEE ACTIVITY—WHO WOULD YOU SAVE? WHY? Humanism, Individualism, Skepticism, Well-Roundedness, Secularism Medieval Scholasticism Emphasized logic, professional training in law, medicine, and theology at the expense of the arts and literary side of education. Medieval scholasticism was a system of thought in which clerics applied reason to philosophical and theological questions. Universities started in Middle Ages (where we get our academic regalia from and the hierarchy of B.A., M.A., and Ph.D.). Curriculum based in medieval scholasticism and mastering logic.) Humanism In 14th and 15th centuries, a movement sought to recapture the learning and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Humanists, reflecting urban society's interest in the problems and values of human living, called attention to the importance of an education in the humanities—history, grammar, rhetoric, music, poetry, and moral philosophy. Humanist comes from humanistic studies, which were identified as those that "perfect and adorn man." The study of the humanities was seen as essential for educating a good citizen. As a result, humanism was an alternative approach to knowledge and culture other than religion. Although most humanists accepted Christianity, they believed a humanist education would civilize mankind, teaching the "art of living." Renaissance humanists believed they were reviving the glory of the classical age. They considered their era greater than any since the Roman Empire. If you study the "humanities" at RBC today, you are engaging in this legacy from the ancient Romans to the Renaissance humanists of the 16th century (Liberal Arts or well-rounded) Francesco Petrarca or "Petrarch" (1304-1374): the "father of humanism" Admirer of ancient Rome & believed that the greatness of that period derived from its humanist education Critical of late-medieval university curriculum of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, law & theology and the philosophical fields of logic, natural philosophy (science) & metaphysics. Petrarch argued that what was important in an education was NOT to teach practical information in order to learn a profession, but rather, to become good or "virtuous" persons by learning 2 things: eloquence & virtue. For example: Petrarch believed that immorality was given to people by poets by writing about them so they would be remembered for eternity. He argued that physicians could fix people, but not make them immortal. People only lived on through poetry or other works written about them. Virtue: piety, true wisdom, a desire for "civic duty" to become a model for others to lean an active Christian life (not a life of prayer in a monastery) Eloquence: ability to move others to want to live virtuously, have piety and seek "true wisdom" Petrarch argued that the best Romans were virtuous and eloquent. CICERO was a model. Cicero was a Roman senator, philosopher, scholar NOT a Christian but had Christian qualities—virtuous qualities to imitate. Cicero was a stoic and believed in moderation in all things—actions, emotions. His works and his life focused on the individual and how through moderation and contemplation, one could be a good citizen in one's own life, but also within the wider community of the state. For Petrarch and other humanists, a humanist education would allow a "rebirth" (RENAISSANCE) of ancient civilization—the return of "light" and the glory of Christendom after centuries of "darkness". Renaissance values - Paper Bruni, Vergerius

Qur'an (recitation)

114 surahs (chapters) Qur'an is for Muslims what Jesus is for Christians People of the Book Emphasis on purity and intentions of believers Allah is a just and forgiving judge - Adam and Eve - Jews - Christians - Hajj Women Qur' an: holy text for Islam, they are the words of God (Allah) You must memorize it Melodious element when they recite it Significance in Islam. Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God's final revelation to humanity. Women Mary is the ideal woman A lot of women's rights in the Qur' an You can have multiple wives

FIRST PHASE: BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY Dual Control, 1757-1857 British East India Company 1757-1857

1600s EIC set up trading posts in India British expand control as Mughul Empire weakens British traders in the EIC assumed dual roles of businessmen and representatives of the sovereign state (Dual Control) Local dynasties ruled under British supervision: INDIRECT RULE 1773, Governor-General, highest EIC official on subcontinent EIC Army had British officials and India soldiers (sepoys)

BRITISH INDIA 1757-1947

1757-1947

EDMUND CARTWRIGHT "POWER LOOM," 1785 TEXTILE INDUSTRY

1785: Edmund Cartwright: "power loom"; mechanized the weaving process. SO within 2 generations, what had once been a home-based craft became an industry.

The Enlightenment: THE AGE OF REASON

17th & 18th century Europe

Congress of Vienna

1814-1815 Peace in Europe

Europe in the Interwar Years

1920s-30s

European Union

1952 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC): Bel, Neth, Lux, Fr, Ger, It Coal and steel industries under a firm of supranational authority Eliminated tariff duties and quotas 1957 European Economic Community (ECC): large free trade area Eliminate all trade barriers One common tariff Free movement of capital and labor 1967 European Community (EC) European Parliament Court of Justice European Economic Integration Maastricht Agreements 1991-92: EC becomes EU One currency, one culture, one social area, and one environment! Common passport One large common market 2002: Common currency - euro 2003: EU rapid defense force

Gamal Abdul Nasser

1952 Nasser overthrew king in coup d'etat End British occupation & economic control Made Egypt a democracy, but ruled as dictator 1955 British withdrew Followed 'Third Way' policy of non-alignment In 1952, a group of military officers led by Colonel Gamal Abd al-Nasser overthrew the king and took control of the Egyptian government in a coup d'etat. Nasser and his fellow officers wanted to end British occupation and economic control, strengthen the Egyptian army, and make social reforms. They also wanted to avenge Egypt's defeat by Israel in the 1948. Didn't have a strong ideology, but just against colonialism and foreign control. In 1953, abolished the monarchy and made Egypt a democracy (on paper). Nasser ruled as a dictator with only one legal political party, the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). Outlaweed both the Muslim Brotherhood and the Egyptian Communits Party. Gained popularity by introducing land reform—redistributing land from wealthy to poor. In 1954, negotiated a treaty with Britain to remove British troops from Egypt including the Suez Canal zone and British withdrew in 1955. Followed the 'Third Way' policy of non-alignment, meaning it didn't want to side with the U.S. or USSR during Cold War. (Both countries vying for influence in the region).

21st Century changes

2002- 2004 "Road map" to peace endorsed two-state solution Both sides continued attacks on the other = no real progress 2004 start of Israel's "separation barrier" (400 miles) 2004: Arafat died, Abbas took over PA 2006: Hamas won PA elections Late 2006: Israeli soldiers killed and kidnapped, Israel sent military into Gaza and Lebanon Conflict between Fatah and Hamas over control of PA

Official Acceptance of Christianity in the R.E.

311 CE legal in East 313 CE: Constantine granted freedom of worship 380 CE: Theodosius I made Christianity official religion of R.E.

Constantine (306-337)

325 CE Moved the capital to the site of the old Greek colony of Byzantium (renaming it Constantinople). By doing son, he left Rome open to the attacks of the advancing Germanic peoples, but ensured the continuation of Roman government in a new, safer location.

Korean War 1950-53

38th Parallel N Korea - Soviet, Communism S Korea - Western, Democratic

Reincarnation: Goal is to get out of the cycle of reincarnation by achieving moksha (oneness with brahman). Karma: Good or bad karma can stay with a person for lifetimes, which will affect how the person will be reborn in next life. Karma also is a sign of how well a person fulfills his/her dharma. Yoga: Goal here is to realize/conscious of the link between humans and God and all living things. Each soul is potentially divine (atman) so the goal is to manifest this divinity within by controlling nature, external and internal. Dissolution fo ego (moksha, the release) to be one with the universe/brahman. There are 4 yogas that are practiced to achieve this union. Karma Yoga or yoga of action (work); Bhakti Yoga or yoga of devotion, feelings (worship), Raja Yoga or yoga of meditation, will (psychic control) and Jnana Yoga or yoga of knowledge, discrimination (intellect)

4 Stages of Life: Student stage (studies with guru or teacher and completely devoted to guru) Householder stage (dharma is survivial so can have money and wealth, but also pleasure, including food, games, passion, etc.) Going to the Forest (after children safely married and can take on household responsibilities, then the person can turn back on worldly concerns, drop out of society. The goal is Moksha) The Wandering holy man (If achieved moksha then this person wanders around or sits and meditates showing others that moksha is possible). MOST PEOPLE DON'T LIVE UP TO THE IDEAL AND NEVER LEAVE THE HOUSEHOLDER STAGE BUT THERE IS ALWAYS ANOTHER LIFE TO SEEK MOKSHA.

THE SOMME, JULY 1916

60,000 British troops killed in one day Over 1,000,000 killed in 5 months

Western Responses to Islam

638: Muslim conquest of Jerusalem 1099-1291: Crusades c. 500-1500: Islam and Learning

Coronation of Charlemagne,

800 CE

Charles Martel

A Frankish barbarian of the eastern Frankish kingdom of Austrasia, Charles Martel (688 - 741 C.E.) was most famous for the Battle of Tours (732 C.E.), near Poitiers, in which he successfully defeated the Saracen Moors in their invasion of France, thus preserving Christian Europe from the encroachment of Islam. He held the title of Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, but in actuality wielded the power of a king. His byname, "Martel," meant "hammer" and was used to describe the way he indefatigably drove back the Moorish invasion.

WWI Mandates

A League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League of Nations.

Hinduism: The Basics

A Way of Life or Philosophy No founder, great diversity Brought by Aryans @2000 BCE; oldest religion in human history! Brahman: supreme being, creator of world); not worshipped as personal god Atman: soul (divine essence) in each living thing as manifestation of brahman Goal: moksha (no ego; oneness with Brahman, the ultimate) Dharma: duty or law, religion, virtue, morality, custom—live up to role or purpose given at birth by caste Reincarnation: transmigration of the soul (rebirth of soul). Reinforced caste system. Karma: Measure of one's actions. Yoga: union of individual soul with brahman/divine. Yogi pursues this goal. 4 Stages of Life: Student Stage (guru) Householder Stage Going to the forest (moksha) Wandering Holy Man

The Failure of Absolutism

A case study: England - LECTURES AND READINGS

Definition of "civilization" & characteristics

A civilization is a complex culture in which a large number of people share a variety of common elements. An urban focus - cities became the centers for political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development. The cities that emerged were much larger than the Neolithic towns that preceded them. New political and military structures - an organized government bureaucracy arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing population, and armies were organized to gain land and power for defense. A new social structure based on economic power - while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free common people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and, at the very bottom of the social hierarchy, a class of slaves. The development of more complexity in a material sense - surpluses of agricultural crops freed some people to work in occupations other than farming. Demand among ruling elites for luxury items encouraged the creation of new products. And as urban populations exported finished goods in exchange for raw materials from neighboring populations, organized trade grew substantially. A distinct religious structure - the gods were deemed crucial to the community's success, and a professional priestly class, serving as stewards of the gods' property, regulated relations with the gods. The development of writing -kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep records. New and significant artistic and intellectual activity - for example, monumental architectural structures, usually religious, occupied a prominent place in urban environments.

Franco-Prussian War -

A conflict between the Second French Empire of Napoleon III and the German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia.

Abraham's Geneology

Abraham - Hagar and Sarah Hagar - Ishmael - 12 Arabian Tribes Sarah - Isaac - Jacob = Esau - 12 Tribes of Israel

Absolute King vs. Tyrant

Absolute King Unlimited sovereignty (power to make law) Still bound by the law *constitutionally unlimited government Tyrant Ignores laws & subjects Allows passions to take over

What is Absolutism?

Absolutism: A political theory holding that all power should be vested in one ruler or other authority. A form of government in which all power is vested in a single ruler or other authority The doctrine of an absolute being What type of governments advocate absolutism? dictatorship, authoritarianism, Caesarism, despotism, monocracy, one-man rule, shogunate, Stalinism, totalitarianism, tyranny; despotic governments C.—enter notions of divine rule; rules chosen by God

Effects of British Rule

Advantages Sati outlawed - Sati outlawed in 1829 in British territories; 1861 all over India Tried to end female infanticide and seclusion of women Comprehensive British education system English language, industry, roads, railroads, telegraph introduced more unity and wealth Disadvantages By 1900, 90% Indian men and 99% Indian women still illiterate Few schools at village level Rural poor paid for govt. through taxes on beverages and salt Unity created at the expense of diversity of religion, caste and principality

Al-Quaeda Taliban ISIS

Al-Qaeda is a militant Sunni Islamist multi-national organization founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and several other Arab volunteers who fought against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the 1980s.Usama Bin Laden and al Qaeda also forged alliances with the National Islamic Front in the Sudan and with representatives of the government of Iran, and its associated terrorist group Hizballah, for the purpose of working together against their perceived common enemies in the West, particularly the United States. Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist political movement in Afghanistan currently waging war within that country. By now, we're all pretty familiar with ISIS, the militant Islamic group cutting a violent path through both Iraq and Syria.

Know the differences between English Bill of Rights, 1689, Declaration of Independence, 1776; and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789.

All three documents condemned the actions of the reigning monarch But the English Bill of Rights laid out the individual rights given to citizens it states the power of the crown and states the role of the people in parliament The United States declaration of Independence did those too but the major difference was that it declared the United States as a separate nation from the king The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen states the natural rights given to all men, similar to the declaration of independence (thomas jefferson was involved in both so thats why). But the French declaration was designed to condemned the french king and attacked the royal family's way of life during the time

The Main Players in WWI

Allied Powers- Nicholas II - Russia George V - GB Pres. Poincore - France Victor Emmanuel II - Italy Central Power- Whelm II - germany Franz Josef - A-H Enver Pasha - Turkey

Allies v. Axis

Allies - They included Britain, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, India, the Soviet Union, China and the United States of America. Axis - On one side were the Axis Powers, including Germany, Italy and Japan.

Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

Allies occupy Istanbul in November 1918 Turkish War of Independence 1919-1923 Modern Turkey formed Democratic republic declared Sultanate and caliphate abolished Lands far to the south become part of Yemen and Saudi Arabia France and Britain get mandates from the League of Nations for in between land

Eli Whitney (1765-1825):

American inventor devised the "cotton gin"; a machine that enabled a worker to clean more than 50 times as much cotton a day. This device coincidentally played a major role in the perpetuation of slavery in the United States for another half century

Giuseppe Garibaldi -

An Italian general, politician, and nationalist.

Giuseppe Mazzini -

An Italian politician, journalist, activist for the unification of Italy and spearhead of the Italian revolutionary movement.

Frankfurt Assembly -

An assembly that tried and failed to create a united German state during the liberal Revolutions of 1848.

French Revolution - readings

Ancient Regime - Ancien régime, (French: "old order") Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France as well as a member of an estate and province.

Mandates

Arabs supported British, but were "betrayed"(?) after the war as Britain and France divided the Middle East into mandates. After WWI, League of Nations officially creates "mandates" in the Middle East. A "mandate" is an area that is governed by another nation until it is ready for independence. MANDATE System- made official by League of Nations British controlled Palestine, Transjordan (east of Jordan River), and Iraq. France had Syria and Lebanon.

Greek art is mainly in four forms: architecture, sculpture, painting, and painted pottery.

Architecture includes houses, religious buildings like temples and tombs, and public building like city walls, theaters, stadia, and stoas. Sculpture includes small figurines and life-size statues, but also relief sculptures which were on the sides of buildings, and also tombstones. We have very little Greek painting from the Classical period; most of what we have is from the Bronze Age. The paintings were painted on walls, as decoration for rooms, like murals or wallpaper. On the other hand, we have a good deal of painted pottery from all periods of Greek history.

Scientists / Mathematicians

Aristarchus → heliocentric theory Euclid → geometry Archimedes → pulley Ptolemy → geocentric theory

Arianism

Arius (256-336CE) argued Father & Son NOT equal 1. Emperor Constantine (325 CE) The Council of Nicea branded Arianism as Heresy Reinforced Trinity of God

Militarism

Arms race developed between major powers Armies and navies greatly expanded: GB and Germany competed for best navy Germany developed "Schlieffen Plan - to attack and defeat France quickly before fighting Russia Arms race lef to new technologies - development continued through the war Airplanes Machine Guns Dreadnought (battleship) Chemical Warfare Tanks *These factors make war more brutal than any in past*

The Mughul Empire 1526-1857

Arrival of Islam in India, 8th century CE Let's say you are a Muslim ruler in a Hindu majority India, how would you govern your empire?

Dunkirk, June 1940

As part of the Battle of France on the Western Front, the Battle of Dunkirk was the defence and evacuation to Britain of British and other Allied forces in Europe from 26 May to 4 June 1940. After the Phoney War, the Battle of France began in earnest on 10 May 1940.

Charles I's execution (regicide), 1649

At heart of continuing political & religious struggle, was what to do with the king. In 1648, Oliver Cromwell & Independents in the army purged the Presbyterians from the Parliament, abolished the H. of Lords, leaving a "rump" of about 70 members. This "Rump Parliament" created a high court to try Charles I and executed him in 1648, declaring England a republic in 1648. REGICIDE Charles was tried at Westminster Hall in January 1649, and found guilty that he had "traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament and the people therein represented." Charles was executed on January 30th, 1649.

Mughul Rulers

Babur (r. 1526-30) Akbar (r. 1556-1605): religiously tolerant; abolished jiyza; patron of arts Sulh-i kul Din-i-ilahi zamindar mansabdar Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658): built Taj Mahal for his wife (Mumtaz Mahal) Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707): devout Muslim; religiously intolerant; reinstated jiyza; frugal

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-91)

Began East-West cooperation Perestroika-restructuring the economy Glasnost-openness in society Independence movements allowed in Poland, Czechoslovakia Soviet Union Ended

VERSAILLES PEACE CONFERENCE, 1919

Big four (Br, FR, US, It) Versailles Peace Treaty Redrew map of Europe: alsace-Lorraine to france, w. Prussia to Poland, Czechoslovakia & Yugoslavia created German army limited; denied heavy artillery, submarines, air force "war guilt clause": Germany accepted responsibility for causing the war; forced to pay reparations for all civilian damage League of nations created

Bolsheviks v. Mensheviks

Bolsheviks[1]: Led by Lenin; Insisted on the necessity of a highly centralized political party constituted by professional revolutionaries; Members of the radical majority of the Russian Socialist party; Employed questionable methods to obtain revenues, including robbery; Advocated for an immediate seizure of power of the proletariat; and Believed that Russia could transition directly from a monarchy to a communist society. Indeed, Lenin was the mastermind and the undiscussed leader of the Bolsheviks. In 1902, in fact, he wrote "What has to be done": book in which he expressed his view of history and his revolutionary ideals. According to Lenin, polemics and debate were useless, and strong actions were needed to overthrow the Tsarist system; his critical words were particularly directed against the members of the then political environment, who believed that there was no other choice but to wait for history to take its "predetermined course". In "What has to be done", Lenin[2]: Rejected terrorism; Promoted the revolution; Suggested the creation of a supreme organizing body abroad and of a subordinated committee based in Russia; As members of the supreme body, he proposed Martov, Plekhanov and Vera Zasulich - all members of his newspaper Iskra's editorial board - and himself; and Insisted on the necessity of creating a strictly organized party. The radical ideas laid out by Lenin resulted extremely appealing to many and succeeded in obtaining the support of Russian soldiers and urban workers. However, Lenin's stance and ideas were the main reasons behind the split between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Mensheviks[3]: The more moderate faction of the Russian Socialist party had slightly different ideals than its Bolshevik counterpart. According to Mensheviks, and to their leader Martov, social changes had to be achieved through a cooperation with the bourgeoisie and an inclusive, gradual process. Furthermore, they believed that: The new party should be inclusive and open to all; The new party should work within the existing system; Change had to be gradual and lead to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy; The proletariat should not dominate the bourgeois revolution; and A socialist society should be preceded by a liberal capitalist system; therefore, there could be no direct transition from Tsarism to Communism. Moreover, the Mensheviks did not agree with Lenin's dictatorial tendencies nor with the questionable methods employed by the Bolsheviks to obtain revenues. Even if both factions had the common ultimate goal of overthrowing the Tsarist system, they did not agree over the means and actions needed to achieve it. Therefore, the main differences between the two can be summarized as follows: Bolsheviks (and Lenin) believed in the necessity of a revolution led and controlled by the proletariat only, whereas Mensheviks (and Martov) believed that a collaboration with the bourgeoisie was necessary; Bolsheviks strived for the creation of a strictly organized party controlled by few revolutionaries (the editing board of the Lenin's newspaper Iskra, whereas Mensheviks wanted to establish an inclusive party, open to proletariat and bourgeois; Bolsheviks wanted a direct change from Tsarism to Communism while Mensheviks felt that a transitionary period was necessary; and Bolsheviks were radical revolutionaries while Mensheviks were more moderate.

Count Camillo di Cavour -

Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri, generally known as Cavour, was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification.

WHAT DID ATATURK DO

Capital moved from Constantinople to Ankara. Secularism → Qur'an in Turkish translation. (the principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.) Republican constitution and a Swiss civil code. Westernization & nationalism: Compulsory, secular education. Banning the fez. Western [Roman] script. Western clothing. Women unveiled & given full citizenship and the right to vote.

English Civil War 1642-46

Cavaliers Named for being members of the Cavalry King's loyalists (supported divine right) Anglican Roundheads Named due to close-cut haircut Parliamentary forces/New Model Army Puritans (Presbyterians & Independents) English Civil War: 1642-46: govt. would alternate between republic & monarchy, but prospects for English absolutism were doomed forever. Bloody civil war; brothers fighting brothers, etc. King's army of royalists were known as Cavaliers and enjoyed the most support in northern and western England. Anglican Parliamentary forces, called Roundheads because they cut their hair short, had their stronghold in the southeast, including London. Puritans—but divided among themselves about the proper form of church government: Presbyterians wanted a Calvinist church with some central authority whereas Independents favored entirely autonomous congregations free from other church government (Congregationalist). Puritans put aside their differences for the sake of military unity and united under an obscure member of the House of Commons, Oliver Cromwell who sympathized with Independents. He reorganized Parliamentary troops into the New Model Army and defeated the Cavaliers at the Battle of Naseby in 1645. Charles I surrendered in 1646. Although the civil war between king and parliament ended in victory for Parliament, divisions within the Puritan ranks now came to the fore: Presbyterians dominated Parliament, but the Independents controlled the army. Political differences between Presbyterians and Independents sparked new political movements (Levellers) and the emergence of new religions doctrines (Baptists, Quakers).

Roman Empire

Cesar Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE) "The Revered" Dictatorship disguised in old institutions of republic Princeps/Principate Expansion of Empire into paterfamilias Bring back the values of Republic

Guy Fawkes

Catholics persecuted Gunpowder Plot Guy Fawkes' Night (Bonfire Night)- November 5th In 1605, thirteen young men planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament. Among them was Guy Fawkes, Britain's most notorious traitor. After Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603, English Catholics who had been persecuted under her rule had hoped that her successor, James I, would be more tolerant of their religion. James I had, after all, had a Catholic mother. Unfortunately, James did not turn out to be more tolerant than Elizabeth and a number of young men, 13 to be exact, decided that violent action was the answer. A small group took shape, under the leadership of Robert Catesby. Catesby felt that violent action was warranted. Indeed, the thing to do was to blow up the Houses of Parliament. In doing so, they would kill the King, maybe even the Prince of Wales, and the Members of Parliament who were making life difficult for the Catholics. Today these conspirators would be known as extremists, or terrorists. To carry out their plan, the conspirators got hold of 36 barrels of gunpowder - and stored them in a cellar, just under the House of Lords. But as the group worked on the plot, it became clear that innocent people would be hurt or killed in the attack, including some people who even fought for more rights for Catholics. Some of the plotters started having second thoughts. One of the group members even sent an anonymous letter warning his friend, Lord Monteagle, to stay away from the Parliament on November 5th. Was the letter real? The warning letter reached the King, and the King's forces made plans to stop the conspirators. Guy Fawkes, who was in the cellar of the parliament with the 36 barrels of gunpowder when the authorities stormed it in the early hours of November 5th, was caught, tortured and executed. It's unclear if the conspirators would ever have been able to pull off their plan to blow up the Parliament even if they had not been betrayed. Some have suggested that the gunpowder itself was so old as to be useless. Since Guy Fawkes and the other conspirators got caught before trying to ignite the powder, we'll never know for certain. Even for the period which was notoriously unstable, the Gunpowder Plot struck a very profound chord for the people of England. In fact, even today, the reigning monarch only enters the Parliament once a year, on what is called "the State Opening of Parliament". Prior to the Opening, and according to custom, the Yeomen of the Guard search the cellars of the Palace of Westminster. Nowadays, the Queen and Parliament still observe this tradition. On the very night that the Gunpowder Plot was foiled, on November 5th, 1605, bonfires were set alight to celebrate the safety of the King. Since then, November 5th has become known as Bonfire Night. The event is commemorated every year with fireworks and burning effigies of Guy Fawkes on a bonfire. Some of the English have been known to wonder, in a tongue in cheek kind of way, whether they are celebrating Fawkes' execution or honoring his attempt to do away with the government.

Christianity

Church gained strength during decline of Roman Empire. Why? Strong organization Church filled power vacuum Emperors (Constantine) gave church special rights and privileges. Monastic culture grew

Late 19th C. Imperialism

Competition for empires increased (industry) Scramble for Africa: GB & FR, Belgium, Germany, Portugal, and Italy: Berlin Conference 1884 1869: Suez Canal made ME important to Britain (route to India) Fostered rivalries: "Carving" Africa, Balkans, Latin Am. & E. Asia Imperialism promoted nationalism (both in imperialist nation and in territories)

HAMMURABI

Conquered and ruled Babylon. He was a great military and political leader. He wrote the Code of Hammurabi which was a law system explaining the punishments for many of the crimes committed. Punishments were different based on your economic status though he was the one who came up with the concept an eye for an eye Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750 BCE) & Law Code Hammurabi's Law Code 282 Laws Interest 20% Prices set minimum wage Debt slavery limited to 3 years Patrilineal Levirate Marriage The higher the guilty party on the social scale, the more severe the penalty

Differences Between Early & High Renaissance Works

Considered himself first and foremost a sculptor; He believed that the depiction of the human body in sculpture was the ultimate test of human expression. His glorification of human body, particularly the male nude, was his greatest achievement. David Comparison of Davids: Donatello's: depicted after the battle on the head of his foe Michelangelo's: tense, standing before battle Donatello's figure is thinner, much less muscular showing youthfulness and less developed man Michelangelo's David is a solid, muscular form glorifying the fully formed, muscular physique of man (Olympics!); hands are abnormally large; still connected to block of marble

Byzantine Empire

Constantine moves capital to Byzantium, 325 Constantinople capitol until 1453 Height under Justinian (527-565), who revised Roman Law—Code of Justinian Impact of Islam Helped create split of Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in 1054 (Great Schism)

Constantinople

Constantinople was one of the largest and richest urban centers in the Eastern Mediterranean during the late Roman Empire, mostly due to its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It also provided a land bridge between Europe and Asia.

The Main Problems:

Continued Hamas, Islamic Jihad and PFLP terrorist activism within the Autonomy and delay in crackdown on them. Spates of serious suicide bomb attacks on Israel by the above groups and public concern in Israel over personal security. Non-extradition by the PA of terrorists to Israel. Israeli concern over the viability of security provisions, permeability of patrol points and routes. Major donor countries find no infrastructure to channel their promised funds efficiently for the development of the Autonomy and refuse to honor them in full; others do not fulfil their pledge. Non-confirmation by documentation of the repeal of anti-Israel clauses in the Palestinian National Covenant. Security closures of Autonomy areas cause economic breakdown, generate further hostility. Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin(4 Nov. 1995) and subsequent change of government in Israel, May 1996, lead to: delay in implementation of Hebron redeployment as it stood; incidents of social conflict, with casualties; new government positions on the final settlement negotiations. Non-implementation of free passage routes between Gaza & Jericho for cases of abuse of privilege and because of closure regulations.

French Philosophes Denis Diderot

Created first encyclopedia Emphasized new science, human freedom, evils of slave trade

United Nations

Created in 1945 Goals: to promote peace and security, settle disputes, respect human rights, develop friendly relations among nations. Security Council: 5 permanent members - US, Russia, China, Britain, France (veto power) General Assembly: all members with 1 vote each One of the US's first step in ending isolationism, and it didn't make the same mistake as with the League of Nations.

American Revolution

Declaration of Independence Influence of Enlightenment on American Nationhood

Dome of Rock

Dome of the Rock, Arabic Qubbat al-Ṣakhrah , shrine in Jerusalem built by the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān in the late 7th century ce. It is the oldest extant Islamic monument. The rock over which the shrine was built is sacred to both Muslims and Jews. The Prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam, is traditionally believed to have ascended into heaven from the site. In Jewish tradition it is here that Abraham, the progenitor and first patriarch of the Hebrew people, is said to have prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. Both the Dome and Al-Aqṣā Mosque are located on the Temple Mount, the site of Solomon's Temple and its successors, an area known to Muslims as Al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf. The Dome'sstructure and ornamentation are rooted in the Byzantine architectural tradition, yet its construction in the 7th century represents an early stage in the emergence of a distinct Islamic visual style.

Effects in Russia

EFFECTS Peter's reforms brought Russia into mainstream Western civilization Strengthened Russia's position in foreign affairs Formed a sharp division between those who accepted the changes and those who clung to traditional values.

Economic Interdependence

EFTA (European Free Trade Association) NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) WTO (World Trade Organization) IMF (International Monetary Fund)

The Road to the "Great War (WWI) - Europe 1870 - 1914 European Society in Crisis

Each nation had internal issues Russia had anti Jewish programs French resented German control of Alsace-Lorraine Nationalism in Balkans Britain: 'Home Rule' for Ireland; Suffragettes Germany: Hollow "democracy"; Kaiser in control

The worst caste comes from the Portuguese word, castas, meaning "pure." The word varna, or "pure" denoted the fourfold division of Indian society.

Each of the four castes was assigned a color.

Nasser and US

Early in Nasser's regime, Egypt had applied for World Bank funding to build a second dam at Aswan on the Nile River. World Bank had approved a loan package with funding from the U.S. IN 1956, the US withdrew its loan offer and influenced World Bank to kill the entire loan. (Nasser hadn't joined the US in an alliance called the Baghdad Pact to contain the Soviets from spreading into the M.E. in the mid-1950s.) As a result, on July 26, 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal which meant the Suez Canal Company was now property of the Egyptian government, which would control and operate the canal. Nasser promised that all ships would be able to use the canal freely and Egypt would compensate the foreign owners of the company stock. He said he would use the money received to pay for the Aswan Dam and other projects. Because they did not want Nasser to control the canal, the British and French protested that an international authority should control the Suez Canal. There were several international conferences held to find a resolution. During those negotiations, Britain, France and Israel were secretly planning to invade Egypt, seize the canal and overthrow Nasser. October 1956, Br, Fr, Is began bombing and invading Egypt. Nov: UN organized ceasefire, but Israel refused to leave Gaza until 1957 after US intervened (keep Straits of Tirana open) Both U.S. and USSR had a rare instance of working together in that they both opposed the attack on Egypt—saw it as an act of imperialism US pressured allies to withdraw from Egypt, leaving Nasser in possession of the canal. USSR provided weapons and aid money to Egypt. Neither superpower happy with Nasser who played US and USSR off each other in his policy of non-alignment or Third Way—use strategic importance of his nation to get as much as he could from both sides in Cold War without committing Egypt to either side.

Imperialism

Economic and political domination of other nations or territories Europe believed in its racial and cultural superiority Social Darwinism = racism "Duty" of Europe = to spread "civilization" Imperialism had mass appeal: literature glorified imperialism

Yom Kippur (October, Ramadan) War- 1973

Egypt and Syria attack Israel on Yom Kippur Arabs are stronger, gain support of USSR Israel is losing, but US assists US mediates peace agreement, establishes terms in Sinai and Golan Heights After coming to power in Egypt in late 1970, President Anwar Sadat indicated he was willing to sign a peace agreement with Israel in exchange for the return of Egyptian territory lost in 1967 (Sinai Peninsula). When this overture was ignored by Israel and the U.S. shortly after midday on Saturday, October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a concerted military attack against Israel to break the political stalemate. They had chosen to attack on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish calendar, a day when most Israelis were in synagogues praying and fasting. Caught Israel off guard and Arabs got some early military victories. U.S. intervened politically and increased military aid to Israel. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wa able to secure partial Israeli withdrawals from Sinai and Golan Heights while avoiding negotiations on more difficult issues (West Bank and Gaza).

Eightfold Path:

Eightfold Path: 1. Right Understanding 2. Right Aspiration 3. Right Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Livelihood 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Absorption Karma, Reincarnation, Challenged Caste

Napoleonic Wars

Enclosure system = England has been using 3 field system, but farmers had property in long strips. Local villages determined what everyone would plant. Open-field system was not productive - landlords asked to "enclose" entire villages, Parliament passed 900 Enclosure Acts between 1750-1810. It helped agricultural production, but kicked peasants off the land and sent them to factories for work. England also had water for power (lots of rivers), overseas territories to help with resources and markets

WHY DID IT BEGIN IN ENGLAND?

England vs. Continent England had a central bank & credit system Population doubled in 18th century Enclosure = labor supply to factories Coal & Iron Harbors & rivers=government support for canals & roads

After Henry II

England was at war with France, heavily taxed to pay for fighting and Crusades Pope Innocent III fights with King John, places England under "interdict". John makes concessions, angers barons 1215- Barons force John to sign Magna Carta (Great Charter) that limits authority of the monarchy 1) Law is above the king 2) King can be compelled by force to obey the law 3) Guaranteed all persons a trial by jury King John (1199-1216), second son of Henry II Magna Carta, 1215: John was cruel ruler who alienated English barons. Barons had to pay for 3rd Crusade. Monks and John in dispute over next Archbishop. Pope elected his own and John upset with pope trying to control his kingdom—won't allow new Archbishop into England. Pope responds with "INTERDICT"—suspension of Christian services, administration of sacraments, and dead denied Christian burial. King also increases taxes on barons in order to pay off debts. Document bound king to observe all feudal rights and privileges. It contained 2 important principles: (1) Law is above the king; (2) King can be compelled by force to obey the law of the land. GUARRANTEED ALL PERSONS A TRIAL BY JURY SIGNIFICANCE: Although in later centuries, people looked back on the Magna Carta as one of the most important documents in the history of political freedom, to the English nobility of John's time, the Magna Carta did NOT break any new constitutional ground. It was essentially a FEUDAL agreement between the barons and the king.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762

Everyone is born free, but society puts them in chains. Social order is a sacred right. The only way for a society to operate is for people to work together. We give up our primal freedom in favour of social security and safer lives. By refusing the general will a person is forced to be free. In general an agreement with the public and the individual to work together. General will!

Importance of Jesus

Evidence of life = Gospels Jesus was a teacher/prophet Prophets promised a Messiah (redeemer) as triumph of Israel, kingdom of God on earth Jesus taught - abandon sin, follow moral code (Sermon on the Mount - love, charity, humility, belief in Jesus) Followers among the poor - seemed revolutionary Jesus crucified (probably 300 CE) (Good Friday) , believers believe he was resurrected on the third day (Ester Sunday)

Stuuffff

Exploration & Trade and its impact on the spread of Renaissance ideas; mercantilism—govt. directs the economy - belief in the benefits of profitable trading; commercialism. historical the economic theory that trade generates wealth and is stimulated by the accumulation of profitable balances, which a government should encourage by means of protectionism.

HUMAN COSTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Factory System Work v. profits (m.c. v. w.c./ haves v. have nots) Miserable & dangerous working conditions Low pay & no job security Long days (12-14 hours) Monotonous work

Early Roman Society

Family: most important unit of society Paterfamilias (male head of family) patria potestas: power of the father absolute Women under male guardianship in marriage Marriage in early Republic was a lifelong union Early Roman Society 1. Family: most important unit of society Paterfamilias (male head of family) & patria potestas: power of the father absolute; power of life & death over children (act as judge to settle legal matters within family) Men concerned with political & military concerns Women in charge of raising children & maintaining estates & farms & kept as permanent children under male guardianship in marriage (Arranged) Marriage in early Republic was a lifelong union (compared with divorce in later Republic)

Fascism

Fascism is anti-liberal, anti-conservative, anti-rational, charismatic, nationalist, sometimes racist, and totalitarian. It rejected all the middle-class values of the 19th century. Roots of Fascism Social Darwinism Eugenics Anti-Semitism (Dreyfus Affair) Nationalism

Berlin Blockade and Airlift, 1948 The Berlin Wall, 1961-1989

Federal Republic of Germany (BRD-West) - "German Federal Republic" (Deutsche Bundesrepublik, DBR) was one of the terms used by the communistGerman Democratic Republic to refer to the Federal Republic of Germany (inverting the word order of the official name Bundesrepublik Deutschland). After 1968, the GDR tended to use the initialism "BRD" instead. German Democratic Republic (GDR-East) - The German Democratic Republic (GDR) (German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)), commonly called East Germany(German: Ostdeutschland), was founded on October 7,1949, after World War II. It was formed from part of the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, including part of the city of Berlin.

THOMAS NEWCOMEN & JAMES WATT 'STEAM ENGINE," 1785

Finally, the textile industry became so large that it outgrew the possibilities of its power source: water power. Steam came to drive the machines of industrializing Britain. In 1785, the steam engine (invented by Thomas Newcomen & perfected by James Watt) was used to make cloth and drive ships & locomotives. The application of steam to weaving made it possible to expand the use of cloth-making machines to new areas, and after 1815, hand looms began to disappear from commercial textile making.

Muhammad - Founder of Islam (570-632 CE)

First Wife - Khadija 610 CE - Archangel Gabriel Quran - recitation Muhammad - seal of Prophets Other prophets - Adam, Abraham, Noah, Moses John the Babtist, Jesus Holy City - Mecca (Ka'ba in center) Jesus: Islam only sees him as a prophet, not divine (Christianity)

The Balfour Declaration

Foreign Office November 2nd, 1917 Dear Lord Rothschild, I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet. "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country." I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation. Yours sincerely, Arthur James Balfour The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a minority Jewish population.

Buddhism: The Basics

Founder, Siddhartha Gautama, b. 563 BCE in Nepal, prince Buddha "enlightened one" No gods Goal: nirvana (emancipation from suffering, ignorance, extinction of all attachments = enlightenment/happiness) Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is sorrow. 2. Sorrow is the result of selfish desire. 3. Selfish desire can be destroyed. 4. It can be destroyed by following the Eightfold Path (Middle way between desires and self-denial) Nirvana—resisting attachment, no suffering, self control, nonviolence, end of birth and rebirth when achieved) Material things and attachment is bad; meditation good.

Buddhism: "The Buddha's First Sermon"

Four noble truths, the eightfold path, and the middle way. The middle way is the course between the extremes of the pursuit of pleasure and pain. It is define by an eightfold path, eight steps to a peaceful mind. 4 noble truths - life is sorrow, sorrow is the result of selfishness, selfishness can be destroyed, it can be destroyed by the eightfold path Eightfold path - right views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration...this is the middle way Truth of sorry - everything is sorry Truth of arising sorrow - comes from craving Truth of stopping sorrow - stopping the craving

Carolingian Dynasty-

France

Conservatism

Freedom could be found only in order and be maintained solely by continual reference to ancient precedents. Metternich, Edmund Burke Found strength, not weakness in the church and monarchy of the Old Regime; danger, not liberation in the nationalistic movements Welfare & happiness of humanity resided in the slowly evolving institutions of the past.

The Age of Absolutism

From King to Tyrant 17th & 18th century Europe

The "Iron Curtain"

From Stettin in the Balkans, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Eastern Europe.

Hamas

Hamas (an acronym of Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamat al-Islāmiyyah, meaning "Islamic Resistance Movement") is a Palestinian Islamic socio-political organization which includes a paramilitary force, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades.[2][3] Since June 2007, after winning a large majority in the Palestinian Parliament and defeating rival Palestinian party Fatah in a series of violent clashes, described by some journalists, experts and publications as an attempted 'U.S.-backed coup'. Hamas has governed the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories. The European Union, the United States, and three other countries have classified Hamas as a terrorist organization.

Cardinal Richelieu (b.1585-d.1642) (card. 1622-42):

Henry IV's son, Louis XIII, is a weak ruler but empowers a strong prime minister—Cardinal Richelieu Was, in effect, the ruler of France Increased the power of the monarchy by weakening the Huguenots' rights and the nobles *orders that the nobles' castles be torn down Extended the power of governmental agents Involved France in the Thirty Years War in hopes of weakening the Hapsburg and extending French power

Hijab

Hijab is an Arabic word meaning barrier or partition. In Islam, however, it has a broader meaning. It is the principle of modesty and includes behaviour as well as dress for both males and females. It is a Muslim head covering that was meant to stop men from thinking "impure thoughts" or more plainly being lustful.

Striking differences between religions

Hinduism Several deities Hierarchical Priestly class as intermediary with Brahman Sati Sexual frankness of art Islam Monotheistic Egalitarian No one comes between believers and Allah Women own property; can divorce Purdah Eat beef

In 1937, Congress won a victory, gaining half of all seats in provincial legislature, including over 2 dozen Muslim seats.

IN 1942, during WWII, Gandhi told the British to "quit India" and began a non-violent protest movement. All Congress memebers of the provincial governments quit. Strikes and boycotts spread. Gandhi and other leaders jailed.

Restoring the Monarchies

In France=Bourbon heir Louis XVIII given the throne. Buffer states set up around French territory. Royal Dynasties reestablished in Spain, France, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia and Sicily

"White Paper" is key document- shows British trying to appease both Jews and Arabs. British were trapped between Zionist and Arab demands and wanted out. World War II and Zionism

In May 1939, the British published a White Paper that marked the end of its commitment to the Jews under the Balfour Declaration. It provided for the establishment of a Palestinian (Arab) state within ten years and the appointment of Palestinian ministers to begin taking over the government as soon as "peace and order" were restored to Palestine; 75,000 Jews would be allowed into Palestine over the next five years, after which all immigration would be subject to Arab consent; all further land sales would be severely restricted. The 1939 White Paper met a mixed Arab reception and was rejected by the AHC. The Jewish Agency rejected it emphatically, branding it as a total repudiation of Balfour and Mandate obligations. In September 1939, at the outset of World War II, Ben-Gurion, then chairman of the Jewish Agency, declared: "We shall fight the war against Hitler as if there were no White Paper, and we shall fight the White Paper as if there were no war." Ben-Gurion's statement of 1939 set the tone for Jewish Agency policy and operations during World War II. In May 1940, however, when Winston Churchill, a longtime Zionist sympathizer, became prime minister, it appeared that the 1939 White Paper might be rescinded. A brief period of close British-Jewish military cooperation ensued, and there was talk (which never came to fruition) of establishing a Jewish division within the British Army. The entry of Italy into the war in May 1940, which brought the war closer to the Middle East, convinced Churchill and his military advisers that the immigration provisions of the White Paper needed to be enforced so as not to antagonize the Arabs. Thus, the British strictly enforced the immigration limits at a time when European Jewry sought desperately to reach the shores of Palestine. The event that did the most to turn the Zionist movement against Churchill's Britain was the Struma affair. The Struma, a ship carrying Jewish refugees from Romania, was denied entry into Palestine, after which the ship sank in the Black Sea leaving all but two of its passengers dead. In the aftermath of the loss of the Struma in April 1942, young Menachem Begin, then a soldier in the Polish army-in-exile, first came to Palestine. Upon entering Palestine, Begin immediately set out to draw together the whole underground, including Lehi, in preparation for a Jewish war of liberation against the British. By 1943 as news regarding Nazi persecution of Jews in Europe increased, the Irgun and Stern Gang stepped up harassment of British forces in an attempt to obtain unrestricted Jewish immigration. In November 1944, Lord Moyne, the British ministerresident in Cairo and a close personal friend of Churchill, was assassinated by Lehi. Lord Moyne's assassination alienated the British prime minister, who until then had supported a Jewish national home in Palestine. Subsequently, no British government considered setting up a Jewish state in Palestine. The assassination also led the Jewish Agency's clandestine military arm, Haganah, to cooperate with the British against the Irgun. Another result of the anti-Zionist trend in British policy was the Yishuv's increasing reliance on the United States. In May 1942, Zionist policy and objectives were clarified at a conference of Zionist parties held at the Biltmore Hotel in New York City. This conference was called at the initiative of Ben-Gurion, who had come to solicit the support of American Jews. Ben-Gurion was determined to seek a resolution that Jewish immigration to Palestine and the establishment of a Jewish state would proceed despite British opposition. Weizmann, who objected to the idea of severing ties with Britain, was outflanked at the conference. The Biltmore Program adopted at the conference and approved by the Zionist General Council in November 1942 called for unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine and control of immigration by the Jewish commonwealth, the word commonwealth thus replacing homeland. Data as of December 1988

Religious Information Source

In the West the Latin church and especially the papacy took on many activities and powers in default of other authority, but this action was often regarded as usurpation by the East, where a different relationship existed between emperor and church. The heated disputes over such matters as the ecclesiastical calendar, the use of leavened or unleavened bread, or additions to the Creed (notably the filioque clause) reached a climax in 1054, when Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius excommunicated each other. Technically, only a few people were affected by this action, but the tone had been set and the direction fixed. Later attempts to reunite the churches foundered on local feeling, and mutual hatred grew through selfish acts on both sides during some parts of the Crusades; the low point was the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade. The schism continues to the present, but recently serious attempts at mutual understanding have offered the hope of reconciliation.

BRITISH INDIA IN THE 20TH CENTURY Nationalism and Independence Rise of Nationalism

Indian National Congress, 1885 → Congress Party; middle and upper class; constitutional reform within British Empire Mohandas Gandhi (1896-1948), lawyer; worked for Indian rights in South Africa through civil disobedience (passive, nonviolent resistance) or satyagraha Examples of satyagraha Work cease in favor of prayer and fasting against Rowlatt Bills; RESULT: Amristar Massacre Indian Congress voted a policy of non-cooperation with government: boycott BR goods; refuse to pay taxes, quit government jobs, remove children from govt. schools 1930: Swadeshi (self-reliance) campaign against salt tax—walked 240 miles of coastline

Palestinian Intifada 1987 - 1993 and 2000 - ???

Intifada = uprisings in occupied territories (generally demonstrations, strikes, stone throwing, etc.) Also terrorist actions- suicide bombings (2nd Intifada bloodier than first) Most Palestinian armies united under Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and Yassir Arafat Current fighting includes more militantly religious groups- Hamas, Hezbollah and Islamic Jihad Israel has responded harshly Recent attempts at peace have given Palestinian Authority (PLO & Israel coalition administrative body) more autonomy

A Lost Civ?

It is shown now that there was a mysterious unknown civilization to the area N of the Indus R.

Pacific Theater, 1941-45

It was the war between the allies (mostly the united states) against japan and its empire. Major strategy was island hopping.

Spread of the Renaissance

Italian vs. Northern Renaissance Christian humanism: revival of the ancient Christian Church (New Testament focus) Erasmus "lay piety" Sir Thomas More, Utopia Shakespeare Cervantes Don Quixote Of course Renaissance spread all over Europe, not just Italy, especially with the invention of the printing press. Sir Thomas More's Utopia (Christian humanism—critiquing abuses of Europe by showing ideal community without Christianity. If they can do so well, then those of us who are Christian should be able to do better!), Michel de Montaigne's essays, Cervante's Don Quixote, and Shakespeare's plays all were written during the Renaissance.

James I (r.1603-25)

James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) Believed in Divine Right Monarchy—absolutism 'No bishop, no king'—Scottish Presbyterian 'kirk' —if you have no bishop, you will get no protection from the king to a group of Scottish Presbyterians asking for freedom of worship in England King James version of Bible - was Anglican but "leaned" Catholic Puritans to VA (Jamestown) & MA (Plymouth) Had many enemies (Guy Fawkes) Tried to keep peace w/ Protestant & Catholic countries, was forced into war w/ Spain

Jihad

Jihad: a struggle of faith, an internal struggle within oneself Islamic Fundamentalists: terrorists, and they say Jihad is a holy war, which is inaccurate Jihad is an Islamic concept of spiritual (and sometimes physical) struggle. Though jihad is not considered to be a pillar of Islam, some scholars liken it to a sixth pillar of Islam after Shahadah, Salat, Zakaat, Sawm and Hajj.[1][2]. It is sometimes referred to as a duty or call and can be considered a form of worship. Jihad can be divided into four types: Jihad against one's self: this is directed against the evil side of one's self which is affected by Satan.[3] Jihad of the tongue: this is a form of jihad which involves spreading the message of Allah Jihad of the hand: this is the jihad of doing the right Jihad of the sword: this is form of jihad which involves a holy war and can be directed against the non-Muslims or unbelievers. Ironically, this is virtually the exact definition of "Crusade", which many Mujihadeen (people on Jihad) claim to be fighting against. Arguably the others can fall under the category of various forms of "moral crusades". In a religious sense, as described by the Quran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (s), "jihad" has many meanings. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslims or believer, as well as working to inform people about the faith of Islam.

John Locke

John Locke: Two Treatises of Government 1690 (written during Civil War). Justified Glorious Revolution. Government's purpose was to protect "life, liberty, property". A ruler who failed to uphold the social contract could be resisted and deposed. Subjects had the right to rebellion if their basic rights not protected. This idea would become crucial for leaders a century later and provide the foundational arguments for the American Revolution in 1776 English Civil War, 1642-46 Glorious Revolution, 1688 Second Treatise on Civil Government, 1690 Government's purpose to protect natural rights of "life, liberty, and property" Social contract: consent of people gave legitimacy to government Right of rebellion: if government abuses its authority, contract is broken, and people justified in forming a new government *Contradicts divine-right theory [absolutism] in favor of constitutionalism--limits to royal authority based on right and liberties

Christianity has its Origins in

Judaism

Comparison of views/place of women in Judaism, Christianity, Islam

Judaism: The role of women in traditional Judaism has been grossly misrepresented and misunderstood. The position of women is not nearly as lowly as many modern people think; in fact, the position of women in halakhah (Jewish Law) that dates back to the biblical period is in many ways better than the position of women under American civil law as recently as a century ago. Many of the important feminist leaders of the 20th century (Gloria Steinem, for example, and Betty Friedan) are Jewish women, and some commentators have suggested that this is no coincidence: the respect accorded to women in Jewish tradition was a part of their ethnic culture. In traditional Judaism, women are for the most part seen as separate but equal. Women's obligations and responsibilities are different from men's, but no less important (in fact, in some ways, women's responsibilities are considered more important, as we shall see). Christianity: Mother, child bearer, Mary the Mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany and her sister Martha have been among the women identified as having been key to the establishment of Christianity. Karen L. King, Harvard Professor of New Testament Studies and the History of Ancient Christianity, writes that the history of women in ancient Christianity has been almost completely revised in the last twenty years. Many more women are being added to the list of women who made very significant contributions in the early history of Christianity. The new history comes primarily from recent discoveries of biblical text that had been neglected through the ages Islam: At a time when female children were buried alive in Arabia and women were considered transferable property, Islam honored women in society by elevating them and protecting them with unprecedented rights. Islam gave women the right to education, to marry someone of their choice, to retain their identity after marriage, to divorce, to work, to own and sell property, to seek protection by the law, to vote, and to participate in civic and political engagement.

Suez Canal Crisis, 1956

July 1956: Nationalized Suez Canal Oct 1956: Britain, France, Israel invade Egypt US & USSR opposed attack Nov 1956: UN armistice

The Outbreak of War

June 28, 1914 - Gavrilo Princip (Bosnian Nationalist and member of the Black Hand) killed Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo Serbian officials were involved Austria wanted to attack Serbia, but needed German support Germany gave Austria a "blank check" to attack Austria gave Serbia an ultimatum: Serbia mostly accepted, but Austria still declared war on July 28th with German support Russia was angry: Austria mobilized, Russia mobilized back Germany mobilized using Schlieffen Plan- violating Belgian neutrality to attack France brought in England By August 4th, all major powers were at war

RESPONSES: COMMUNISM

Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto, 1848 Economic determinism: world driven by class conflict Bourgeoisie v. proletariat Exploitation & dehumanization of proletariat a result of industrialization Communism="classless society"; "each person would work according to his ability and receive according to his need" Labor Movement

Hinduism: From the Upanishads: Karma and Reincarnation; Brahman and Atman

Karma and Reincarnation As his desire, such is his resolve; as is his resolve, such the action he performs; what action (karma) he performs, that he producred himself - so the man who desires Now the man who does not desire - without desire and freed from desire whose desire is satisfied and whose desire is the soul - his breaths do not depart. Being very Brahman, he goes to Brahman. Pleasant conduct - pleasant womb - brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya Stinking conduct - stinking womb - dog swine outcaste Brahman and Atman All this universe is Brahman - beginning and end There is a spirit that is mind and life, light and truth, and cast spaces. He contains all works and desires and perfumes and tastes THis is the spirit in everyone An invisible subtle essence is the Spirit of the whole universe. Salt in water, you can't see it, but it is there everywhere

Rationalism

Key change: search for naturalistic explanations for things Led to Western philosophy and science Hippocrates in Medicine Thucydides- Historian This rationalism is start of new ways of thinking about the world

Khomeini

Khomeini was an Iranian religious and political leader, who in 1979 made Iran the world's first Islamic republic

England- The Stuarts

King James I Reigned 1603-1625 (Also King James VI of Scotland, 1567-1625) King Charles I Reigned 1625-1649; beheaded King Charles II Reigned 1660-1685 King James II (Also King James VII of Scotland) Reigned 1685-1688; deposed Queen Mary II and King William III Mary II reigned 1689-1694 William III reigned 1689-1702 Queen Anne Reigned 1702-1714

Tennis Court Oath

King Louis XVI was frustrated with the progress of the Estates General...ordered a meeting...locked the hall for preparation....3rd estate thought it was locked out...went to nearby tennis court....took an oath not to disband until a new constitution was written

FLOOD STORIES

Know em Gilgamesh: Utnapishtim, the survivor of the flood that almost wiped out humankind: Once upon a time, he was king of Shuruppak, a beautiful, prosperous city on the banks of the Euphrates. Then the gods met in secret council—Anu, the god of the firmament; Ninurta, the god of war and wells; Enlil, the god of earth, wind, and air; Ennugi, the god of irrigation; and Ea, the cleverest of the gods, the god of wisdom and crafts. Enlil ordered a flood to destroy humankind.Ea had been sworn to secrecy, but he cleverly betrayed the gods' plans to Utnapishtim. Speaking to the walls of his house, he described the plans, while Utnapishtim heard everything on the other side of the walls. Ea warned him that the gods would be sending a terrible flood. He told him to build a boat of immense dimensions, ten dozen cubits in height (approximately 180 feet) with six decks and one acre of floor space, and load it up with the seed of each living thing and with his family and possessions. When Utnapishtim asked what he would tell the people of Shuruppak, who would have to help him build it, Ea suggested an artful lie. Tell them, he said, that you are leaving the city because Enlil hates you. Tell them that when you leave, the city will be showered with good fortune, that all manner of bread and wheat will rain down upon it, and that they will have more fish to eat than they can imagine. So Utnapishtim butchered bulls and sheep for the workers and gave them rivers of beer and wine to drink. It was like a festival. In seven days the boat was ready. With great difficulty, they launched it in the Euphrates. After Puzuramurri the caulker had sealed them inside, Utnapishtim gave him his house and everything in it. When the storm came, the gods clambered up as high as they could go and cringed in terror. Ishtar wept to see her children being destroyed. Eventually, the boat ran aground on a mountain peak. After seven days, Utnapishtim released a dove. When it couldn't find a dry place to alight, it returned to the boat. Utnapishtim released a swallow. It too returned. Then he released a raven, and it never came back. Upon reaching shore, Utnapishtim prepared a sacrifice. The gods of heaven were famished and gathered around the altar. Ishtar came down wearing a necklace of lapis lazuli made of beads shaped like flies. She said she would forget neither her necklace nor this calamity—nor would she forgive Enlil, since the flood was his idea and he never discussed it with the other gods. When Enlil arrived to partake of the sacrifice, he saw the boat and lost his temper. He demanded to know how anyone escaped the flood, since he intended it to destroy everyone. After Ninurta named the culprit, Ea himself spoke up. He chastised Enlil for creating the flood and said that if he wanted to punish someone, he should have made the punishment fit the crime. Not everyone deserved to die. He said that plagues, wolves, and famine could be used to kill some people instead of all people at once. Noah: God saw how great wickedness had become and decided to wipe humankind off the face of the earth. But one righteous man among all the people of that time, Noah, found favor in God's eyes. With very specific instructions, God told Noah to build an ark for him and his family in preparation for a catastrophic flood that would destroy every living thing on earth. God also instructed Noah to bring into the ark two of all living creatures, both male and female, and seven pairs of all the clean animals, along with every kind of food to be stored for the animals and his family while on the ark. Noah obeyed everything God commanded him to do. After they had entered the ark, rain fell for a period of forty days and nights. The waters flooded the earth for a hundred and fifty days, and every living thing was wiped out. As the waters receded, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. Noah and his family continued to wait for almost eight more months while the surface of the earth dried out. Finally after an entire year, God invited Noah to come out of the ark. Immediately, Noah built an altar and offered burnt sacrifices with some of the clean animals to give thanks to God for deliverance. God was pleased with the offerings and promised never again to destroy all the living creatures as he had just done. Later God established a covenant with Noah: "Never again will there be a flood to destroy the earth." As a sign of this everlasting covenant, God set a rainbow in the clouds.

High Renaissance Artist: Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) La Gioconda (The Mona Lisa), 1503-17

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) A "renaissance man": brilliant in engineering, math, architecture, geology, botany, physiology, anatomy, sculpture, painting, music, poetry. Master of soft modeling in light and shade and of creating groups of figures perfectly balance in a given space. In addition to his technique, what makes Leonardo one of the great masters is his deep psychological insight into human nature. He said: "A good painter has 2 chief objects to paint, man and the intention of his soul." La Gioconda (The Mona Lisa): SHOW PICTURE Expresses the artist's feelings about the mystery of human existence

Levirate Marriage

Levirate marriage is the obligation of a surviving brother to marry the widow of his brother if he died without having sired children (Deuteronomy 25:5-6). The corollary is that the widow must marry a brother-in-law rather than anyone outside the family. The oldest of the surviving brothers had the first obligation to perform this commandment, which also allowed him to inherit all of his dead brother's property

Nationalistic spirit would not die

Liberals in Spain forced their monarch to agree to a constitutional government in 1820. French troops intervened & restored the Spanish king to full power. Spanish colonies in South America revolted against Spain. Greeks revolted against Ottoman Turkish rule in 1821-they were successful by 1829.

RESPONSES: GOVERNMENT

Liberals, utilitarians and socialists pushed for legislation Sadler Commission, 1832≈1833 Factory Act—child labor 1834 New Poor Law—workhouse 1847 Factory Act (10 Hour Bill)—textile mills 1878 Factory Act—women and children, all trades By 1914: clean running water, central heat, dependable sewage systems, urban & suburban transport Sadler Commission, 1832 1833 Factory Act: no child workers under nine years of age; employers must have an age certificate for their child workers' children of 9-13 years to work no more than nine hours a day; children of 13-18 years to work no more than 12 hours a day; children are not to work at night; two hours schooling each day for children; four factory inspectors appointed to enforce the law 1847 Factory Act (10 Hour Bill or 10 Hour Act): work in textile mills limited to 10 hours per day. BUT now that meant factories could run in shifts and be open 20 hours a day. 1878 Factory Act: applied to all trades. No child under 10 could be employed. Compulsory education for children up to 10 years old provided by the factory. 10-14 year olds only employed for half-days. Women could not work more than 56 hours per week. 1901 act: minimum age to work is 12.

Part of the reason why workers lived in such conditions was due to massive population growth and the inability of political leaders to handle the problems that resulted. Industrialization prompted massive growth of European cities in 19th century.

London 1800: 831,000 = 1910: 4,521,000 Paris 1800: 547,000 = 1910: 2,888,000 Berlin 1800: 173,000= 1910: 2,071,000 Vienna 1800: 247,000 = 1910: 2,030,000 St. Petersburg 1800: 220,000 = 1910: 1,907,000 New towns sprung up throughout the Continent and soon reached the level of more than 100,000 inhabitants. Even in agrarian Russia, where 70% of the population worked on the land, there were 17 cities of more than 100,000 by the end of the century. Not until the 1850s and early 1860s did the city get an adequate garbage, water, and sewage system. Police protection remained inadequate or corrupt. Other cities shared the same problems to a greater or lesser degree. By 1914, most major European cities, however, began to make clean running water, central heat, adequate street lighting, urban and suburban transport, dependable sewage systems, minimal medical care, and mass public education for people.

Indian independence and the creation of Pakistan Problem of Kashmir

Look at the partition packet and such

"I am the State."

Louis XIV assumes personal control of the government, appointing no chief minister—rebellion thus would be directly against the King "All power, all authority resides in the hands of the king, and there can be no other in his kingdom than that which he establishes. The nation does not form a body in France. It resides entirely in the person of the king." Louis never tried to abolish noble institutions and he did usually confer with regional parliaments and councils, but he did clash with the Parliament of Paris and began to curtail its power in 1673. Louis makes the growth of the nobility dependent upon the growth of his own rule Claimed authority over the French church Struggle with Pope over revenues. 1685, revoked Edict of Nantes Subjected Protestants (Huguenots) to torture or imprisonment.

Pomp and Ceremony

Louis XIV uses Versailles as a means of making himself the chief source of favors among the French nobility Court life becomes based on the daily routines of the king Etiquette and ceremony permeate the French court under Louis 1682—Louis permanently moved his court and the seat of government to Versailles; palace was designed to be a glittering reflection of its most regal inhabitant and everyone was welcome to come and observe him in his daily, unwavering routine.—Makes it a privilege for nobles to come and help him dress, eat, bathe, etc. Manners and etiquette become absurdly elaborate: ex. Louis mandated a 25-step itinerary to be followed by visitors to the gardens of Versailles

Absolutism in practice: The Divine Rule of Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)

Louis becomes king at the age of 5 Builds a French society constructed around the monarchy Believed himself to be a divine ruler Louis XIV in Majesty, 1701 , by H. Rigaud (Picture above)

Perception As Reality...

Louis manipulates the media to create propaganda and a political image of himself as a 'grand monarch' Builds Versailles as a Political statement & cultural icon of Absolute Power Picture of Louis as a Roman Emperor; he wore six-inch heels to make himself appear taller

Alliance between royal government & merchant-bankers

MERCANTILISM: a system of national economic regulations THEORY: A government should seek to direct the economy so as to maximize profits. WHY?: Money needed for the spectacle of court, war, etc. Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's Comptroller of Finance: created a system of tariffs and trade prohibitions; levied against foreign imports. French luxury industries—silk, lace, fine wool, glass—were subsidized or developed in government shops. Chartered overseas trading companies, granting them monopolies on commerce in N. America, W. Indies, India, SE Asia, Middle East

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

MID-18TH CENTURY-EARLY 20TH CENTURY Transition from EARLY MODERN to MODERN WORLD! Know the + & - effects and arguments for and against it

Roman Government

MONARCHY (753-509 BCE) Imperium Senate Patricians v. plebeians REPUBLIC (Aristocracy) 2 consuls Dictator in case of emergency Centuriate (popular) assembly Praetor System REPUBLIC (Democracy) Assembly of Tribes & Tribune Code of Twelve Tables

Hellenistic Civilization 338-100 BCE

Macedonians take control (Philip II and Alexander the Great)- they expand the Greek empire, defeat Persia Culture expanded upon Classical Greek culture- philosophy, literature, art, math and science.

Mecca

Mecca is a place that is holy to all Muslims. It is so holy that no non-Muslim is allowed to enter. For Muslims, the Hajj is the fifth and final pillar of Islam. It occurs in the month of Dhul Hijjah which is the twelfth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca: should be done at least once in your lifetime

MEHMET II ("THE CONQUEROR"), R. 1451-1481 1453: CONQUERED CONSTANTINOPLE

Mehmed II (1451-1481): conquered Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453. Brought vast new wealth that increase population of Ottoman Empire. Signaled a catastrophe: the end of the Eastern Roman Empire (Second Rome/Byzantium) and a disruption in established commercial patterns. Preachers and writers in Europe depicted the Ottoman victory(ies) as a type of divine punishment for the sins of Christendom. The Ottomans symbolized a new Muslim world emerging between eastern Mediterranean and Southeast Asia.

Hindu Texts Cont.

Memorized or remembered poetry and epics. Bhagavad Gita: most well known of Hindu scriptures, 2nd century BCE. 6th part of the Mahabharata. Theological lessons about the nature of God and of life Mahabharata-world's longest epic poem written about 9th century BCE and deals with power struggle between Pandava and Kaurava families Ramayana: most popular of Hindu epics, 4th or 2nd centuries BCE with later additions up to 300 CE. Depicts story of royal couple Ayodha-Ram and Sita

High Renaissance Artist: Michelangelo (1475-1564) The Fall of Man, 1508-12

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) Unrivaled genius for rendering the human form Painted entire ceiling of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel, an area of several thougsand square yards in 4 years. He devised his positions and attitudes for his figures in scenes from Genesis. Their physical splendor is pagan, but their spirit is Christian. SHOW PICTURE of The Fall of Man on Sistine Chapel

Renaissance Education

Middle Ages: Scholasticism Renaissance: Humanism (studia humanitatis) Recapture learning from Greece & Rome "perfect and adorn man": good citizenship Petrarch (1304-1374): "Father of Humanism" Virtue & Eloquence

Mohammad Reza Shah

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, (born October 26, 1919, Tehrān, Iran—died July 27, 1980, Cairo, Egypt), shah of Iran from 1941 to 1979, who maintained a pro-Western foreign policy and fostered economic development in Iran.

James II (r. 1685-88)

More absolutist & R.C.! Put R.C. in Parliament and the army Religious freedom to Protestant Dissenters, but also R.C.! Had a son who would be raised R.C. Many feared English Crown & England would revert back to Roman Catholicism! James II (1685-1688): Even more absolutist & R.C.! Began to put more R.C. in Parliament & army. Granted religious freedom to both Dissenters and R.C. When queen gave birth a son, many worried that the English Crown would now be given back to R.C. after almost 2 centuries of trying to maintain and solidify the Anglican Church of England. Ever since the persecution of Protestants under Mary I's reign and R.C. plots such as Gunpowder Plot in 1605 (blow up Parliament), the Prot. Succession of the English throne was seen as necessary.

Five Themes of Geography

More than just maps! 5 Themes Location Position on the Earth's surface Absolute: defined in relation to a grid (latitude and longitude) ∙ Different types of maps and globes, fx. thematic maps ∙ Map projections: often lead to distortion, Peterson projection ∙ Earth-Sun relations: determine climate, seasons, time zones Relative: defining a location in relation to another site ∙ Locations have geographical explanations ∙ Importance of a location can change with history Place Physical Characteristics (landforms, climate, soils, natural vegetation (flora), animal life (fauna), water, animals, etc.) Human Characteristics (religion, languages, population, settlement factors, economic activity, etc.) Human-Environment Interaction The Earth as an environmental system Humans and the Environment: Technology - role, problems hazards, limits of the environment Adaptation How have we adapted to our environment? Ethics and Values Cultural Attitudes about the environment and resources Environmental protection and management issues Examples of differences? Movement Humans interacting on the earth Why do people move? How do people move? Increasing global interdependence- examples? Regions How do they form and change? Uniform Region - An area in which everyone shares in one or more distinctive characteristics. Functional Region - An area organized around a node or focal point. Cultural Diversity- regions can help us to understand

Successors and Caliphates

Muhammad and the rightly guided caliphs - Abu Bakr (632-634 CE) - Umar (Omar) (634-644 CE) - Uthman (644-656 CE) - Ali (656-661 CE) Sunni and Shia Split

Origins of rome

Myth: Romulus & Remus Romulus first king, 753 BCE Etruscans Rome's Origins Founded by Romulus, first king, in 753 BCE Fable: He & his brother, Remus, were sons of a nearby king's daughter who had been raped by Mars, the god of war. Thrown into the Tiber by their wicked uncle who had seized the throne, they were rescued and suckled by a she-wolf. Fact: historians believe that in the 8th century BCE, the inhabitants of some small Latin settlements on hills of the Tiber valley united and established a common meeting place, the Forum, around which the city of Rome grew. Convenient for fording the river and protected from invaders by surrounding hills and marshes—offers excellent passes to both north and south for trade Etruscans conquered Rome in 625 BCE & became important city-state under their control Taught Romans the art of building (esp. the arch) Swamp drainage & marsh clearance Making statues for gods Staging of gladiator combats

What is nationalism?

Nationalism is the people's pride in their country, or a patriotic feeling or spirit for their country. It is an idea that everyone of similar backgrounds should be joined as a country. Sometimes, nationalism is marked by a feeling of superiority over other countries, which could lead to efforts to show this. All in all, it is loyalty and devotion to your nation, and doing whatever is in your power to show this. It can go from a small scale of brandishing your country's flag, to something like an international war to show your supremacy. Nationalism forms the overall heart of a country. The concept of Nationalism emerged in the French Revolution and was spread to the rest of Europe by Napoleon's conquests.

Hitler's "Final Solution"

Nazi Concentration & Extermination Camps 6,000,000 Jews killed by the Nazis [1/2 in the concentration camps.]

Parliament

Needed money from Parliament to fight Scots; had to call Parliament after 11 years of personal rule Would you be more unhappy if your king tried to tax you or if he tried to control what happened in your church? In 1642, King Charles I moved to arrest the leaders of Parliament, but they'd been tipped off and escaped War was now inevitable

Robert Owen (1771-1858): more practical Utopian socialist

New Lanark, Scotland: site of his textile mills. Rows of neat, well-kept workers' homes, a garbage collection system, schools for workers' children, clean factories where workers were treated kindly and no children under age 11 were employed. In 1825, Owen moved to Evansville, Indiana where he established a short-lived community, new Harmony, there.

Ancient Egyptian History

Nile Culture Begins - 3900 BCE Archaic - 3100 - 2650 BCE Old Kingdom - 2650 - 2134 BCE Middle Kingdom - 2040 - 1640 BCE New Kingdom - 1550 - 1070 BCE Late Period - 750 - 332 BCE Greek ptolemaic Era - 332 - 30 BCE Roman Period - 30 BCE - 395 CE menes - Unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt - 3100 BCE

Consequences of Plague

Nobility lost power as labor supply shrank Kings gained power (allied w/towns) Wages increased- many became artisans Guilds gained political & economic power Cities prospered after plague Church lost land, but gained $ (funerals,etc.) Depopulation = good

Nuremberg Trials, 1945-6

Nuremberg, Germany, was chosen as a site for trials that took place in 1945 and 1946. Judges from the Allied powers—Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States—presided over the hearings of twenty-two major Nazi criminals.

The Interregnum (1649-60)

Oliver Cromwell = Puritan (Independent), he and son Richard ruled as "Lord Protectors," not kings Parliament purged; 'Rump Parliament' of Independents England = Puritan Republic Republic=military state No theatre, no dancing, no fun! 1649-1660: Republic is really military state under Cromwell (brother took over in 1558, but republic in demise)

Iranian Hostage Crisis

On November 4, 1979, a group of Iranian students stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking more than 60 American hostages. The immediate cause of this action was President Jimmy Carter's decision to allow Iran's deposed Shah, a pro-Western autocrat who had been expelled from his country some months before, to come to the United States for cancer treatment. However, the hostage-taking was about more than the Shah's medical care: it was a dramatic way for the student revolutionaries to declare a break with Iran's past and an end to American interference in its affairs. It was also a way to raise the intra- and international profile of the revolution's leader, the anti-American cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The students set their hostages free on January 21, 1981, 444 days after the crisis began and just hours after President Ronald Reagan delivered his inaugural address. Many historians believe that hostage crisis cost Jimmy Carter a second term as president.

WOMEN & THE HAREM

Only women of elite classes could be fully veiled and secluded (Privileged honored position; "sacred space, protection/privacy of Islam/modesty) Hierarchy within harem and women had power Western literature has produced an exotic, erotic image of Ottoman sultan's harem, but this image is a myth produced by overactive imaginations or hostile attitudes of Europeans and their views of Ottomans. In fact, sexuality in the palace was strictly controlled. Most Ottoman women had to work in the fields and towns In palace, harem women often were from a slave origin, but were arranged in a rigid hierarchy much like that of men; each was paid according to her rank. Most of the women were not destined for the sultan's bed; instead they were married to the sultan's officers to create further ties of loyalty to the palace. A select few were chosen to bear the sultan's heirs. And so the harem women often were related to the Sultan's extended family. Harem women wielded power because of their wealth, connections, and proximity to the sultan. Most powerful among harem women was the sultan's mother (valide sultan) NOT his wife. She participated actively in court politics—many petitioners applied to her to intercede on their behalf with the sultan.

Alliance System

Origin: Congress of Vienna 'balance of power' Bismarck was architect - to maintain a new "balance of power" after creation of Italy and Germany Nations pledged to protect each other Bismarck wanted to isolate France and prevent a two front war Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, and A-H (1882) Triple Entente: France and Russia form alliance (1894), British join with both by 1907 Two armed camps in Europe = tension

OSMAN I, 1258-1324

Osman I, 1258-1324: tribal leader who consolidated power in Anatolia (Asia Minor)

Palestine Liberation Organization

Other pro-Palestinian Terrorist Groups: Hamas Hezbollah Islamic Jihad

THE CREATION OF ISRAEL - 1948 Palestine Was Part of the

Ottoman Empire

National Assembly

Paper

Late Middle Ages—Russia under Mongol rule (Muscovite princes/kings—Ivan's including Ivan IV the terrible—selected by khans initially and then hereditary) ROMANOV DYNASTY 1598-1613: "Time of Troubles" Period begins with the extinction of the Riurikid line in 1598 leaves no clear leader Elect—Boris Godunov as Russian sovereign or, czar His rule leads to social crisis: Famine, epidemic, peasant revolts Michael Romanov elected czar-Romanov dynasty brings stability; his line ruled until 1917

Peter the Great Jointly rules with brother Ivan in 1682-1696; Marries Catherine I: has 2 daughters, Elizabeth reigns from 1741-62; Catherine II reigns in 1762-96—Enlightened despot New class of nobles—dvorianie Believed his right to rule came from God. Controlled Russian Orthodox Church. Forced nobles (boyars) to serve in military or state government. Peasants and serfs were required to become soldiers or work on roads, canals, and other government projects. He improved technology, education and military, but tortured and executed thousands of people who challenged him and his rule.

Old Kingdom Pyramid Age 3rd - 6th dynasties (2700 - 2200 BCE)

Pharaoh - Considered a god - absolute devotion created security must maintain maat Pyramids - Mummification Act of fidelity Pharaoh Khufu, 4th dynasty

Wilfred Owen, "Dulce et decorum est"

Poem discussing the horrors of WWI. Describes the men as looking like old begging hags. They were forced to move through sledge barefoot and half asleep. He describes them as drunk with fatigue and deaf. He shows the terror that was mustard gas. How it filled the air and choked those who could not escape its grasp. We even see a glimpse in the mind of a soldier suffering from PTSD, he is haunted in his dreams. He mocks the idea that the war was good and correct

Military

Poleis often at war with each other Persian Wars: Greek victory at Marathon (490 BCE) kept Greek civ. strong Delian League- alliance of city states that defeated Persians (478 BCE) Peloponnesian Wars - Sparta v. Athens led to decline of Classical Greece

Social and Political Structure 750-500 BCE

Polis: "city-states"started as fortresses Athens and Sparta Later developed agora: "marketplace of ideas" Aristocratic republics

Greek Religion

Polytheistic- unpredictable Gods Pantheon of Gods lived on Mount Olympus Zeus and Hera Little moral teaching

The Church - Western Schism

Power of Pope to control kings was lost in LMA Avignon Papacy, 1305-1377 ('Babylonian Captivity')—Pope under influence of French king 1378-1417 Great Western Schism: Italian elected Pope- cardinals (mostly French) were upset and elected own Pope ("Dueling Popes"—one in France & one in Rome) Allegiances were political Council of Constance (1417) finally reunited church under Martin V Results: "Scandal" for Christianity, loss of power of the church

More on Islam

Qu'ran=the words of Allah Hadith= Prophet Muhammad's travels and teachings Recognizes Qu'ran, Hittite, Old and New Testaments, includes birth of Jesus at Bethlehem Place of worship= a mosque (Fridays most important in Islam) Has number of Sects= Sunni and Shi'a biggest two

Age of Absolutism: Russian Empire Peter the Great RUSSIA

ROMANOV DYNASTY (1613-1917) PETER I- "PETER THE GREAT (r. 1682/1696-1725) Sought to westernize Russia Toured Western Europe and learned various skills which he imparted on the Russian nobility Western dress, shave beards, include women in social gatherings St. Petersburg- "Window to the West" Central bureaucracy Controlled Eastern Orthodox Church Peasants lost freedom New class of nobles

What political philosophy did most of the diplomats follow?

Reactionary

Creation Stories in Genesis

Refer to Packet

Why Absolutism?

Religious Warfare=strong monarchies Absolutist Ideology: Roman Law: "The will of the prince has the force of the law." Ruler makes law according to his own will, but must abide by existing laws and amend bad laws. Sovereignty not shared with any nobility or representative assemblies Centralization of Power Divine Right Monarchy: ruler received complete authority to rule directly from God. Rulers are agents of God's will and thus only answerable to God for their actions Cardinal Richelieu (cardinal 1622-42): "What is done for the state is done for God, who is the basis and foundation of it." Reason of the State: Cardinal Richelieu: "Where interests of the state are concerned, God absolves actions which, if privately committed, would be a crime." Could rulers kill whomever they wanted? The means justify the end.

People in ISLAM AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Religious authorities subordinated to the state and the sultan Grand Mufti As in other Muslim lands, the religious authorities did not run the government, but were subordinated to the state and the sultan. The grand mufti, head of Islamic establishment, was chief religious and legal adviser to the sultan. Sultan approved religious appointments and could dismiss religious officers Corps of religious scholars represented sultan as judges, teachers, and dispensers of charities. Non-Muslim subjects were regarded as inferior but were granted a degree of legal and religious toleration through governmental arrangements with their religious leaders (rabbis and priests, etc.) who were responsible for their civil obedience. Non-Muslims lived under their own laws and customs within the limits imposed by Islamic law and Ottoman economic needs (millets).

The Great Schism- 1054

Roman Catholic Church=5 "patriarchates" Differences in language, culture & views grew over time & w/ invasions (fx. West was more Pope-oriented) Doctrinal disagreement about procession of Holy Spirit from Son Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated the Pope and vice versa West: Roman Catholic Church East: Orthodox Christian Church Many unfortunate circumstances coincided to cause the schism in the one Holy and Apostolic Church of the Roman Empire, which was established from the beginning by the Holy Apostles, and was formed of five patriarchates: four in the east and one in the west. Those circumstances were various, religious and secular. The growing differences in language, culture, ecclesiastical views, and political interests gradually increased over the years, especially after the invasion of the western Empire by barbaric Germanic tribes, and the invasion of three Eastern patriarchates by the Muslims. The struggle between Rome and Constantinople over the five dioceses in Southern Italy, the disagreements over the missions in Slavonic countries and Bulgaria, the different views over the Papal authority, and other canonical and liturgical disagreements widened the rift between the once sister churches. The climatic difference came with the dogmatic disagreement on the issue of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son, and the insertion of "and the Son (Filioque)" into the Creed. The statement: "and in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father and the Son" became the direct cause for the schism. It appears that this addition was brought to Europe in the sixth century from Spain, whose church had fought for a long time to defend the divinity of Christ against heretics who followed the teachings of Arius. In the year 809, in the days of Emperor Charlemagne, the Franks declared the Filioque as a doctrine, but they couldn't enforce the addition on Rome because the Roman Popes rejected it. The first Pope to fight the addition was Saint Leo III who ordered that the original creed, without the Filioque, be carved on two silver plates and hung in the Church of Saint Peter in Rome, with his own signature, saying: "This I, Leo III, have installed to preserve the Orthodox Faith." In 1009, after two centuries, the Germans took over Rome and assigned Pope Serguis IV, who supported their policies by announcing the Filioque, and sent the new creed to Constantinople. When the Patriarch of Constantinople, who was named Serguis as well, read the Pope's message he tried to bring the Pope to reverse his decision but failed. He then called for a council, which resulted in removing the Pope's name from the Church's diptycs (the list of legitimate Bishops in the Church). This event meant that Rome was cut from communion with the Church until it rejected the new teachings it had invented. But Rome went further in the year 1014, when Pope Benedict VIII, under the pressure of Emperor Henry II, declared this addition officially and enforced its insertion into the Divine Liturgy. All the patriarchates in the East supported the decision of the Patriarch of Constantinople Serguis by avoiding communion with Rome under such circumstances. This is affirmed in the letter of the Patriarch of Antioch Peter III to the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius, directly after the declaration of the excommunication in 1054, which shows that Rome had been cut from communion with the Church of Antioch as well for the last forty-five years (i.e. since 1009). The last Pope recorded in the Church's diptycs was John IX, who retired from his position in 1009, and left to a monastery. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, Simon II, also took the position of the Church of Antioch and rejected the addition in a letter he wrote on this issue. Even though communion was lost with Rome, and hostility increased between the East and the West, negotiations and cooperation continued for political reasons. Attempts to restore the unity of the Church continued between the Emperor of the Eastern Romans and the Patriarch of Constantinople on one hand, and Pope Leo IX on the other; this resulted in sending the Papal legates to Constantinople, headed by Cardinal Humbertus, who unfortunately acted in opposition to the spirit of reconciliation by placing a letter of Anathema on the Holy altar of Hagia Sophia in 1054. The Patriarch of Constantinople reacted by calling for a council, which decided to anathematize the letter, its authors, and all who approve of it. This was not the first time relations grew tense in the Church. In the past, the Church cut off people and churches with heretical positions from communion in the hope of bringing them to realize the damage they are inflicting, and to keep the faith pure; the will of love and peace won at numerous times. A great example involving Rome would be the overcoming of tensions that occurred at the time of Pope John VIII and the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius; the two succeeded in solving the problems between their churches by calling for a council that represented the East and the West (869-870), and one of the decisions made then was condemning every addition to the Creed. The year 1054 was not the year in which communion was suspended between Rome and the East, as many might think; it actually occurred in 1009. Thus the excommunication of 1054 was not the first cause for the schism, but has indeed deepened the dogmatic disagreement, which started with the Filioque, and grew with the West's insistence on the supreme authority of the Pope, and the addition of controversial dogmas and canons. This was accompanied by continuous accusations, amplified misunderstandings, and offensive writings from both sides.

Basic Concepts

Roots in Scientific Revolution 1. Human society is governed by natural laws 2. Belief in human progress (humans are rational) 3. Natural laws can be discovered by rational men 4. Human society and turn from traditional, authoritarian forms of government and progress toward a more perfect government through rational thought. *Education as a path toward future improvement*

WARTIME CASUALTIES

Russia, Germany, A-H, France, GB, Italy, Turkey, US (Most to Least)

Sardinia -

Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy.

Romans

Roman Peace for 200 years. Economic prosperity (good roads, no tolls, no piracy, reliable coinage) Society: Early on, Augustus Tries to make the Empire into a Paterfamilias. Actually installing monarchy, although he claims to be restoring old values Passes legislation to promote "virtue" and birth Attempts to reestablish the integrity of the family Legislates against adultery—the chief grounds for divorce during the Republic. Guilty wife had to divorce husband, surrender portion of dowry and lost 1/3 of property. Wife could not accuse husband of adultery, but could divorce him. Punished for homosexuality Must reproduce & punished if don't do so. Wives punished (banished) for abortion Rewards given for large families: if women had 3 kids, emancipated them from paternal authority—gave them legal adulthood 2. Could not vote or be represented in court 3. Could not initiate divorce unless husband was convicted of sorcery or murder 4. Women of very high social status were seen as valuable assets in creating marriage alliances between families or for political advantage LATER:As more empire expanded and more women from eastern empire traveled to Rome, women gained more independence and rights. a. In contrast to Greece, do see women in public spaces: merchants, borrowers b. Roman home is not separated into "gendered spaces" as in Greece. c. Production & reproduction in home; cloth weavers, raised children, authority over slaves and other workers who did housework (Kitchen not a gendered space) Leisure played a key role in Roman life for both rich and poor. Public baths (had same purpose as modern-day athletic clubs.) Larger baths contained enclosed gardens, promenades, gymnasiums, libraries, famous works of art, as well as cleansing rooms (sweat room, the warm room where sweat was scraped off by a slave (soap didn't exist), tepid room for cooling off, invigorating cold bath) and lavatories Sports footracing, boxing, wrestling Chariot-racing & gladiatorial contests main amusements. The most fascinating and repugnant of sports to us today (and the most popular in Rome) were the gladiator contests. They were not new, but were now presented in amphitheaters built to hold tens of thousands. The largest and most famous was the Colosseum. i. Everyone attended them including emperors and became increasingly bloody and brutal as people demanded more and more innovative violence. ii. Contests: ferocious animals from Africa pitted against armed combatants or occasionally even against unarmed men and women who had been condemned to death. Another contest was fight to the death between gladiators who fought with swords or other weapons from their homelands, but matched on equal terms. Other events could be recreations of historic battles where many would die in these organized slaughters. When a fighter went down with a wound, the crowd/emperor would be asked to decide whether to spare his life or kill him. Although the emperor had the final decision, it was common and wisest for him to follow the sentiments of the crowd. (thumbs up or thumbs sideways like laying of sword in surrender or asking for mercy; thumbs down didn't exist). Continued until the 5th century. Once Christianity was institutionalized within the empire, it forbade contests Roman calendar had as many as 100 days set aside as holidays which were given over to games furnished at public expense!

Sepoy Rebellion (Indian Mutiny), 1857

Sepoys (Indian, native soldiers) in Indian army Frustration over British insensitivity to religion and culture grew Immediate cause of Mutiny: Enfield rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat May 10, 1857 Mutiny, northern and central India 85 sepoys of 3rd Light Calvary refused to touch cartridges; court-martialed and sentenced to 10 years hard labor MUTINY: bloody on both sides

Klemens von Metternich

Served as host of the Congress-great social as well as political event Wanted three principles: 1. Compensation(repayment for expenses incurred fighting the French) 2. legitimacy (restoring to power the royal families) 3. balance of power May have faked his own death. Scorched earth: burn or destroy buildings, crops or other resources that may be useful to the enemy

American Revolution - readings

Seven years war - When the Seven Years' War (also known as the "French and Indian War") ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Britain began to impose taxes on its colonies in Americato help pay for the War and for the ongoing costs of defence. French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, 1754-63. The French and Indian War was the North Americanconflict in a larger imperial war between Great Britain and France known as the Seven Years' War. The French and Indian War began in 1754 and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

5 Pillars of Islam

Shahada: Profession of faith: There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his profit. Salat: ritual prayer 5 times daily Zakat: purification of intentions (almsgiving): they give 2.5 percent of their annual incoming to their Mosque. Sawm: fasting (during Ramadan which is the 9th month) during the day, but normal at night Hajj: pilgrimage to Mecca: should be done at least once in your lifetime

Sikhism

Sikhs ("Disciples") 16th century, Punjab, Guru Nanak Monotheistic: one route to Ultimate God (devotional) Attempted to integrate Hinduism & Islam Keep God in heart & mind Live honestly and work hard Treat everyone equally Be generous to less fortunate Serve others

Appetite of the new machines outran the supply of cotton.

Since most of the material came from the U.S., the demand exceeded the capability of the slave-based southern economy to create the supply (remember Atlantic slave trade). The best worker could not prepare more than 5 or 6 pounds of cotton per day because of the problems in removing the seeds.

Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, 1748

Social and political liberties are only found in small moderate governments if they are found at all. Every man will abuse power given to him. Checks need to be in place to protect liberty. Powers need to be seperate. In general checks and balances

Socrates 469-399 BCE

Socrates 469-399 BC Known for teaching through discussion of ideas, using questions to challenge students' assumptions about the world Learning how little we know is how we learn Never wrote anything down, so we have no written works by him; also no pictures (although they say he was quite ugly) Sentenced to death by hemlock for not recounting his atheist beliefs and for corrupting the young men he taught a. Socrates (470-399 BCE): what we know of Socrates comes from his pupil, Plato 1. SOPHIST: professional teacher; PHILSOPHER: lover of wisdom; Socrates NOT sophist 2. By asking meaningful questions and subjecting the answers to logical analysis, agreement could be reached about ethical standards and rules of conduct. 3. IDEAS IMPORTANT like GOODNESS: Objective existence that leads to "The Good" and "The Good Life"; JUSTICE: goodness in political order; LAWS: should embody goodness and lead to the good life 4. Socrates believes there are moral laws & truths that can & sometimes will take precedence over the laws of the state, and that the good life sometimes requires that we pursue these ideas even when it requires civil disobedience. Right and wrong are not decided by political authority nor relativistic rhetoric but open to us through REASON. "The most important thing is not life, but the good life." "The unexamined life is not worth living."

Zwingli and Calvin Protestant Reformation in Europe Protestant Reformation:

Splintering of Christianity and Reformation in Switzerland and France The Spread of the Lutheran Reformation Sola Scriptura Translation of Bible in German Cheap production of pamphlets The Peasants Revolt 1525 The Reformation in Switzerland: Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) Emphasized Scripture, simplified services, preached justification by faith. "Sacramentarian Controversy": Went beyond Luther: communion was only a symbol of Christ's real presence. This was the first major doctrinal dispute among Protestants. The Reformation in Switzerland: Anabaptists Anabaptist: "rebaptism" Only adults worthy of baptism Rejected the Trinity Refused to take civil oaths, pay taxes, hold public office or serve in army The Protestant Reformation in France: Jean Calvin (1506-64) Accepted Luther's belief in justification by faith Emphasized the sinfulness and depravity of humankind Predestination: Salvation predetermined by God Predestination called into question "good works." BUT if one's fate was predestined, then why lead a righteous life? Calvin argued good works were signs of having been chosen by God (the elect) for salvation. Calvinist Geneva Consistory: supervise morality

Postwar Germany

Split into two halves Western half controlled by England US a.nd France (later combined their pieces into one independent democratic nation). Eastern half controlled by Soviet union. Berlin also split, and this leads to the berlin wall Communist walls off the Eastern haf to prevent the people in east berlin from getting to the west Berlin airlift: Truman drops millions of dollars of supplies (food, medical aid, and other supplies) to the people of East Berlin Falls in 1989, signaling the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War as a whole.

The Dreyfus Case, 1894

Stirrings of Anti-Semitism Capt. Alfred Dreyfus and Emile Zola A scandal that rocked France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Dreyfus affair involved a Jewish artillery captain in the French army, Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), who was falsely convicted of passing military secrets to the Germans. Alfred Dreyfus, an obscure captain in the French army, came from a Jewish family that had left its native Alsace for Paris when Germany annexed that province in 1871. In 1894 papers discovered in a wastebasket in the office of a German military attaché made it appear that a French military officer was providing secret information to the German government. Dreyfus came under suspicion, probably because he was a Jew and also because he had access to the type of information that had been supplied to the German agent. The army authorities declared that Dreyfus' handwriting was similar to that on the papers. Despite his protestations of innocence he was found guilty of treason in a secret military court-martial, during which he was denied the right to examine the evidence against him. The army stripped him of his rank in a humiliating ceremony and shipped him off to [life imprisonment on] Devil's Island, a penal colony located off the coast of South America. The political right, whose strength was steadily increasing, cited Dreyfus' alleged espionage as further evidence of the failures of the Republic. Édouard Drumont's right-wing newspaper La Libre Parole intensified its attacks on the Jews, portraying this incident as further evidence of Jewish treachery. Dreyfus seemed destined to die in disgrace. He had few defenders, and anti-Semitism was rampant in the French army. An unlikely defender came to his rescue, motivated not by sympathy for Dreyfus but by the evidence that he had been "railroaded" and that the officer who had actually committed espionage remained in position to do further damage. Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart, an unapologetic anti-Semite, was appointed chief of army intelligence two years after Dreyfus was convicted. Picquart, after examining the evidence and investigating the affair in greater detail, concluded that the guilty officer was a Major named Walsin Esterhazy. Picquart soon discovered, however, that the army was more concerned about preserving its image than rectifying its error, and when he persisted in attempting to reopen the case the army transferred him to Tunisia. A military court then acquitted Esterhazy, ignoring the convincing evidence of his guilt. "The Affair" might have ended then but for the determined intervention of the novelist Émile Zola, who published his denunciation ("J'accuse!") of the army cover-up in a daily newspaper. At this point public passion became more aroused than ever, as the political right and the leadership of the Catholic Church — both of which were openly hostile to the Republic — declared the Dreyfus case to be a conspiracy of Jews and Freemasons designed to damage the prestige of the army and thereby destroy France. Sometime later another military officer discovered that additional documents had been added to the Dreyfus file. He determined that a lieutenant colonel (Hubert Henry) had forged the documents — which seemed to strengthen the case against Dreyfus — in anticipation that Dreyfus would be given a new trial. Immediately after an interrogation the lieutenant colonel committed suicide. In 1899 the army did in fact conduct a new court-martial which again found Dreyfus guilty and condenmed him to 10 years detention, although it observed that there were "extenuating circumstances." In September 1899, the president of France pardoned Dreyfus, thereby making it possible for him to return to Paris, but he had to wait until 1906 — twelve years after the case had begun — to be exonerated of the charges, after which he was restored to his former military rank. "The Affair" had inspired moderate republicans, Radicals, and socialists to work together, and the ultimate exoneration of Dreyfus strengthened the Republic, in no small part because of the conduct of its enemies, most notably the army and the Catholic hierarchy. In 1905 the Radical party, emphasizing the role of the Catholic leadership in the Dreyfus case, succeeded in passing legislation separating church and state.

Sunni and Shi'ite Split

Sunni and Shi'a Split Shi'a is 15 percent of Muslims today - 4th caliph only Ali was legit Sunni 85 percent of Muslims today - All caliphs The Shiites are concentrated in Iran, southern Iraq and southern Lebanon. But there are significant Shiite communities in Saudi Arabia and Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India as well. Although the origins of the Sunni-Shiite split were violent, over the centuries Shiites and Sunnis lived peacefully together for long periods of time. But that appears to be giving way to a new period of spreading conflict in the Middle East between Shiites and Sunnis. The original split between Sunnis and Shiites occurred soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, in the year 632.

NEW TECHNOLOGY:

THE MACHINE GUN POISON (MUSTARD) GAS (1915) TANKS (1916) AIRPLANES & SUBMARINES

World War II: 1939-45

TOTAL WAR WAR OF ATTRITION Same as WWI

WHAT WERE ITS VALUES & ROOTS?

Technology would liberate humankind Progress Science & Enlightenment Capitalism Negative = people became a commodity, relationships based on profit

Balfour Declaration (1917)

The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a minority Jewish population.

THE BLUE MOSQUE

The Blue Mosque, as it is popularly known, was constructed between 1609 and 1616 during the rule of Ahmed I. Its Külliye contains Ahmed's tomb, a madrasah and a hospice. Hand-painted blue tiles adorn the mosque's interior walls, and at night the mosque is bathed in blue as lights frame the mosque's five main domes, six minarets and eight secondary domes.[2] It sits next to the Hagia Sophia, another popular tourist site.

Enlightenment & the French Rev.

The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the High Enlightenment vision of throwing out the old authorities to remake society along rational lines, but it devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of its own ideas and led, a decade later, to the rise of Napoleon.

WWI - Impact on the Middle East Versaille Peace Conference - 1919 Social Darwinism

The Middle East and the West: WWI and Beyond. World War I transformed the Middle East in ways it had not seen for centuries. The Europeans, who had colonized much of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, completed the takeover with the territories of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine. The Paris Peace Conference, also known as Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the Allied victors, following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers. The term Social Darwinism is used to refer to various ways of thinking and theories that emerged in the second half of the 19th century and tried to apply the evolutionary concept of natural selection to human society.

Sinai Covenant and the Torah : A New covenant with Yahwek

The Mosaic Covenant is a conditional covenant made between God and the nation of Israel at Mount Sinai (Exodus 19-24). It is sometimes called the Sinai Covenant but is more often referred to as the Mosaic Covenant since Moses was God's chosen leader of Israel at that time. The pattern of the covenant is very similar to other ancient covenants of that time because it is between a sovereign king (God) and his people or subjects (Israel)

The Middle East in 1914

The Ottoman Empire is falling apart- "Sick Man of Europe". Armenian massacre 1915- first "Holocaust" of the 20th Century? 1916- British and French secretly plan to divide the Middle East after the war. British had a deal w/Hussein ibn Ali to gain Arab support. During WWI, British promised Arabs independence from Ottomans in return for support.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1280-1918

The Ottoman Empire: one of the Islamic gunpowder empires 1290-1918 Most powerful of the new Muslim empires; centered in Anatolia, by mid 16th century, Ottomans stretched from Hungary to Ethiopia and from Morocco to Arabia to Iraq.

Charles II (r. 1660-85)

The Restoration Required to rule with Parliament Catholic leanings; dismissed 4 Parliaments end of reign Restoration & "Glorious Revolution" The period from 1660-1688 would be marked by increasingly severe struggles between the Stuarts & Parliament. Charles II (1660-1685): initially everyone welcomed back new ruler, called back from exile in France & restored to throne Part of restoration was requirement to rule in cooperation with Parliament. Charles manipulated the system to get what he wanted in the first years of the Restoration. Although he never publicly proclaimed himself a Catholic, the Declaration of Indulgence 1673, suspended all laws against Catholic and Protestant dissenters. However, by 1681, political opposition began to harden against him. In last part of reign, he dismissed 4 Parliaments and governed without a legislative branch.

NEW INVENTIONS & NEW INDUSTRIES John Kay's "flying shuttle", 1733 James Hargreaves "the spinning jenny," 1764

The Revolution in the Making of Cloth 1733: John Kay: "the flying shuttle"; made it possible for one person to weave wide bolts of cloth by using a spring mechanism that set the shuttle across the loom. The invention upset the balance between weavers of cloth and the spinners of yarn: it now took 10 spinners to produce yarn for only 1 weaver (who had this machine) 1764: James Hargreaves: "the spinning jenny"; eliminated this imbalance with a mechanical spinning wheel that allowed spinners to keep up with weavers.

EXTENSION

The Roman Monarchy (753-509 BCE) Rome's political growth followed a similar line as that of the Greek city-states: (1) monarchy of the sort described by Homer; (2) oligarchy; (3) modified democracy; and (4) permanent dictatorship of the Roman emperors. (avoided tyranny) Imperium: executive power of both civil & military of Rome's 7 kings Symbolized by an ax bound in a bundle of rods (fasces). In the 20th century CE, the fasces provided both the symbol and the name for Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's political creed: fascism Imperium officially conferred upon the monarch by a popular assembly made up of male citizens Senate: King supposed to turn to Senate (council of nobles) for advice Senators held positions for life; they & their families belonged to the patrician class Plebeians: commoners included small farmers, artisans, etc. The Early Republic (509-133 BCE) In 509 BCE, the patricians & plebeians overthrew the Etruscan monarchy & established an aristocratic form of government, known as the Republic. The Roman Republic can be divided into 2 stages. In the first stage (509-133 BCE), 2 themes are dominant: (1) a change from aristocracy to a more democratic constitution, the result of the gradual extension of political and social equality to the plebeian lower class; and (2) the expansion of Roman military & political control, first in Italy, and then throughout the Mediterranean region. Republic (aristocracy) Imperium transferred to 2 new magistrates, consuls Consuls were from patrician class & elected annually; exercised the interest of their class In event of war or domestic emergency, dictator could be substituted for the 2 consuls, but was given absolute power for only 6 months. Popular assembly (Centuriate Assembly) retained because patricians could control it by means of their plebeian clients who, in return for a livelihood, voted as their patrons directed them. Praetor System: replaced role of families and fathers in legal system. Praetor in charge of civil law—govt official who took written complaints, investigated them and decided whether to authorize trial before judge. Could also lead armies and govern Rome when consuls were away. Plebeians Struggle for Equal Rights For more than 2 centuries following the establishment of the Republic, the plebeians struggled for political & social equality. Outright civil war was avoided by the willingness, however reluctant & delayed, of the patricians to accept the demands of the plebeians. Much of the plebeians success in this struggle was due to their right to organize themselves, which was granted to them by the Senate early in the 5th century BCE. Concilium Plebis ("gathering of the plebeians"): a state within a state. Presided over by plebeian leaders: tribunes Could pass Plebiscites ("plebeian decrees") that were binding only on the plebeian community Tribunes could also stop unjust or oppressive acts of the patrician consuls & Senate by a veto Code of the Twelve Tables: plebeians demanded that customary law be written down on 12 tablets of bronze & displayed in the Forum @ 450 BCE. (Up to this point, consuls often interpreted Rome's customary law to suit patrician interests) Gained right to appeal a death sentence imposed by a consul & be retried before the popular assembly Right to marriage between patricians & plebeians legalized Enslavement of citizens for debt abolished Plebeians' invaluable service in the Roman army increased their bargaining position in the state since Rome was constantly at war during these years. In addition, plebeians dominated trade and commerce in this early period since patricians avoided commercial activities in favor of concentrating their wealth on the acquisition of land. Democracy The Long Struggle for Equality ended in 287 BCE 1. Concilium Plebis: recognized as a constitutional body, which became known as the Tribal Assembly Pebiscites became laws binding on all citizens (patrician & plebeian)

Case Study: The English Reformation and Its Effects

The Tudors: 1485 - 1603 King Henry VII Reigned 1485-1509 King Henry VIII Reigned 1509-1547 King Edward VI Reigned 1547-1553 Lady Jane Grey Proclaimed queen in 1553 Deposed after nine days. Executed in 1554 Queen Mary I Reigned 1553-1558 Queen Elizabeth I Reigned 1558-1603 Henry VIII, 1509-1547 Devout Roman Catholic He was known as the Defender of the Faith 1520s: no male heir English Reformation=political reformation Henry's Wives #1 - Catherine of Aragon, Queen: 1509-1533 1520s: no male heir In 1527, Henry VIII appealed to pope for an annulment Problem: Catherine had been wife of Henry's brother Now, Henry claimed he was living in sin with Catherine Granting an annulment would have been admission of papal error

Hindu Texts

The Vedas Rig Veda (Royal Knowledge) Sama Veda (Knowledge of Chants) Yajur Veda (Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals) Atharva Veda (knowledge of Incarnations) Upanishads (108 total) The Bhagavad Gita The Mahabharata The Ramayana

Greek Astronomy

The art of astrology, the study of the stars in order to predict future events, and to interpret people's characters, was already very advanced before the Greeks began to interest themselves in the stars. The Egyptians and especially the Mesopotamians had done a lot of scientific observations and had named the constellations of stars, and many individual stars. The Greek contribution to astronomy was not so much in observation as it was in applying logical thinking and geometry to these observations. That is how Greek scientists figured out that the earth went around the sun, calculated the size of the earth, and understood that the moon went around the earth, so that they could understand what caused an eclipse.

Causes for fall of Constantinople to Ottomans

The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 was significant for a number of reasons. First, the capture of the city made the Ottomans the mostimportant power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean and began a long period of expansion for the Empire. It also ended the Eastern Roman Empire. The fall of Constantinople relates to the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks. The battle lasted from April 6 to May 29, 1453. This post recounts the causes which led to the war, as well as the effects on the rest of the European countries. The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinoplewas conquered by the Ottoman Army, under the command Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II on 29th May 1453. With this conquest Ottomans became an Empire and one of the most powerful empires, The Eastern Roman Empire fell and lasted. Army and the military ranks mehter Campaigns Conquest of Constantinople was the conquest the conquest preparations after the conquest Mehmed the conqueror

Ausgleich -

The compromise of 1867 which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

WOMEN & CHILD LABOR

The demand for plentiful and cheap labor led to the widespread employment of women and children. Girls as young as 6 years old were used to haul carts of coal in Lancashire mines Boys and girls of 4 and 5 years of age worked in textile mills, where their nimble little fingers could easily untangle jams in the machines.

King Frederick William IV -

The eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861.

People of the Book

The followers of Abrahamic religions, especially Jews and Christians, considered in Islamic theology and jurisprudence to practice monotheism, to share certain fundamental beliefs with Islam about life after death and the Day of Judgment, and to possess a revelation from God in a book. The People of the Book are usually entitled to the status of dhimmis in Muslim lands, and the term has at times been extended to include followers of non-Abrahamic religions, such as Zoroastrians and Sikhs.

The Hierarchy of Jatis (Sub-Castes)

The jatis perform the mayan specialized jobs that are considered essential to society Farming Metalworking Pottery making Carpentry Weaving Laundering Marketing Believed to inherit the acaste dharma necessary to carry out their role in society. In practice, however, each person becomes aware of all complicated rules regarding dharma during their childhood. Mobility of Castes In practice, there have always been more possibilities for downward movement within the caste system than the rules would suggest. To move up within castes, the Jatis usually place themselves in prestigious occupations Enter an occupation with less pollution Follow stricter rules of purity in daily life Learn Sanskrit (language of the holy scriptures)

Issues in Israel

The key issues are: mutual recognition, borders, security, water rights, control of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, Palestinian freedom of movement, and Palestinian right of return.

Key Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations

The only things we know that people had in 1750 that the Sumerians did not have in 2500 BCE were: paper, the magnetic compass, iron smelting (they had meteoric iron) and gunpowder. The Sumerians had: writing (and printing in the form of stamps we call seals), arithmetic, astronomy, kings, priests, fabrics, drains, metals, glass, sailing boats, mass-produced bowls and long trading routes over sea and land (at least 2,500 miles over land to get lapis lazuli).

Realpolitik -

The politics of reality.

Eastern Schism

The schism between the Eastern and Western churches is traditionally dated to 1054, although the precise point at which the split became a fixed and lasting reality is difficult to determine. Many causes contributed to the growing misunderstanding and alienation between the two groups. Partly these were differences of philosophical understanding, liturgical usage, language, and custom, but political rivalries and divisions were also involved. Occasions of friction, hostility, and open division on doctrinal questions as well as matters of discipline and daily practice had occurred long before 1054 - for example, the Photian schism of the 9th century.BELIEVE

Book of the Dead

The text consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife. REVIEW THE BOOK

Nuremberg Laws, 1935

The two Nuremberg Laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag on 15 September 1935. The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans, and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households.

Late Middle Ages (1300-1400s)

Themes: Famine Conflict- Hundred Years War, Church Schism, peasant revolts Disease- Black Plague Rising Nationalism Weakening of the Church Increasing power of the towns

Eastern Front: reasons why Hitler was delayed and effects

They had to fight in the winter...Soviets were better suited for that. France was falling, and he had to attend to other things before the USSR.

So, Muslim League formed in 1906.

They urged the British government to protect their rights as a minority and in response, the India Councils Act of 1909 recognized the right of Muslims to separate electorates, and where Muslims were in a minority, a guaranteed number of seats.

Oath of fidelity: An Anglo Saxon Promises "fealty" to the lord.

Thus shall one take the oath of fidelity: By the Lord before whom this sanctuary is holy, I will to N. be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will hold to me as I shall deserve it, and that he will perform everything as it was in our agreement when I submitted myself to him and chose his will.

Dynastic Crisis over James II

Tories Hereditary monarchy Anglican Church Favored succession of James II despite his Roman Catholicism Whigs Parliamentary supremacy Toleration of Protestant Dissenters (Presbyterians) Opposed James II because he was Roman Catholic Dynastic crisis over the succession of a Catholic gave rise to 2 distinct factions in Parliament Tories: supported a strong, hereditary monarchy and the restored ceremony of the Anglican church. Favored James II' succession despite his Catholicism Whigs: advocated parliamentary supremacy and toleration of Protestant dissenters such as Presbyterians. Opposed James II because R.C.

Nazi State & Society

Totalitarian State Religion Education Hitler Jugend (Youth) Roles for men/women

Truman Doctrine, 1947

US President Harry S. Truman promised to "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation," which resulted in US support of anti-communist leaders all over the world. Upsetted Soviet Union, they received the largest damage from the war, but the US refused to send help.

Underground vs. Insitutional Religion

Undergrounds is obscure and not definite Institutional religion in which belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established.

Causes of the Great War

Underlying: (MAIN) Nationalism Imperialism Militarism The Alliance System For USA Economic Immediate: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

RESPONSES: SOCIALISM

Utopian Society organized for cooperation, not competition Charles Fourier: "phalanstery", Brook Farm, MA Robert Owen: New Lanark, Scotland, New Harmony, IN

Otto von Bismarck -

Was appointed a new prime minister of Prussia.

Adam Smith

Wealth of Nations, 1776 Laissez-faire economics: free trade, critique of mercantilism Prosperity obtained by individual freedom

THE GREAT WAR: WORLD WAR I 1914-1918 TWO ARMED CAMPS

Western (Allied) Powers Britain France Russia Italy (1915) United States (1917) Central Powers Austria-Hungary Germany Ottoman Empire

European Geography

Western and Eastern Europe Greece- A Cultural Hearth Contributions to Western Civilization c. 1500-100 BCE

Philosophy- "love of wisdom"

What is wisdom? Why do we study philosophy? The Big Three Socrates Plato Aristotle

Additional Contributions

Writing- epics (Iliad, Odyssey), poetry, history Medicine- Hippocrates Astronomy Mathematics Architecture Art Theater The Olympics

Sans Culottes

a lower-class Parisian republican in the French Revolution. an extreme republican or revolutionary.

Hebrews

a member of an ancient people living in what is now Israel and Palestine and, according to biblical tradition, descended from the patriarch Jacob, grandson of Abraham. After the Exodus ( c. 1300 BC) they established the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and their scriptures and traditions form the basis of the Jewish religion.

How were/are nation-states defined?

a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors such as language or common descent.

Rowlatt Acts, 1919 based by Imperial Legislative Council (legis of Br. India):

allowed certain political cases to be tried without juries and allowed internment of suspects without trial. Object to replace temporary wartime law with permanent law. Opposed by Indian members of council.

Blitzkrieg: "Lightening War"

an intense military campaign intended to bring about a swift victory. Poland, 1939 Western Europe, 1940

TIME PERIOD AND DOCUMENTS RECORDING IT

c. 4 BCE-30 CE Jesus' Lifetime (NONE) c. 30-100 CE Jesus Movement (Epistles of Paul (c.50 CE), Gospels (c.70-100 CE), Act of the Apostles) c, 100-300 CE Definition of doctrine, persecution (Martyrdom testimonies, anti-gnostic texts) c. 300-500 Institutionalization (Jerome, Augustine)

Johann Gutenberg Printing Press, 1450

http://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages/videos/mankind-the-story-of-all-of-us-the-printing-press#

Epic of Gilgamesh

http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/gilgamesh/summary.html

Stages of the French Revolution

https://prezi.com/kqiyrkqwr8ig/4-stages-of-the-french-revolution/

Dharma

law/duty. Thought to be inherited, or inborn. Intermarriage were seen as a confusion to the dharma of the next generation of children.

Scholasticism

noun the system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities, based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early Church Fathers and having a strong emphasis on tradition and dogma. narrow-minded insistence on traditional doctrine.

1937 election:

of the 485 Muslim seats available, the League won only 108.

Indian National Congress:

one of goals was increased access to Indian Civil Service and gradual constitutional reform in British empire in the 19th century. By 1931, Gandhi claimed that the Congress alone represented the whole of India (not just one religion) and by 1930s, one objective of Congress was COMPLETE INDEPENDENCE FROM BRITAIN.

Provisional Government

provisional government, also called an interim or transitional government, is an emergency governmental authority set up to manage a political transition, generally in the cases of new nations or following the collapse of the previous governing administration. Soviets an elected local, district, or national council in the former Soviet Union. a citizen of the former Soviet Union.

Industrialization will

quicken the transition from rural to urban lifestyle which will produce a REVOLUTION in human life. Freedom from the productive limitations imposed by dependence on human and animal power is the great gift of industrialization!

Anschluss - Annexation of Sudetenland -

refers to the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany on 12 March 1938. The Sudetenland was relegated to Germany between 1 October and 10 October 1938. The Czech part of Czechoslovakia was subsequently invaded by Germany in March 1939, with a portion being annexedand the remainder turned into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.

Atatürk's Reforms

republicanism, nationalism, secularism, populism, statism, reformism

World War II: Lebensraum

the territory that a state or nation believes is needed for its natural development, especially associated with Nazi Germany.

Okinawa & Iwo Jima, 1945

two major japanese islands/ military bases that the US attacked and bombed also Okinawa was the largest amphibious battle in the Pacific theater

October Revolution & Lenin (Bolsheviks)—USSR

was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolsheviksand Vladimir Lenin that was instrumental in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917. It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on 25 October (7 November, New Style) 1917.

Yalta Conference, February 1945 Churchill, FDR, Stalin

was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union for the purpose of discussing Germany and Europe's postwar issues...

The Islamic Jihad Organization

was the name used by telephone callers demanding the departure of all Americans from Lebanon and taking responsibility for a number of kidnappings and of bombings in Lebanon which killed several hundred people. Their deadliest attacks were the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing of French and U.S. MNF peacekeeping troops, and the April 1983 United States Embassy bombing in Beirut. Whether this Islamic Jihad was a nom de guerre used for terrorist activities by the Lebanese Shia Islamist political movement/party/militia/social services organization known as Hezbollah or something more varied and nebulous, is disputed.

Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation in Europe:

Protestant Reformation in Continental Europe in the 16th Century Overview Protestant = protest Reformation = reform 3 Reformations Continental: Luther, Zwingli, Calvin (Theological reform) English: Henry VIII (Political reform) Catholic (Counter-Reformation): limited reform in Church, but also prevent spread of Protestant ideas. Roots of the Protestant Reformation Clerical abuses in the R.C. Church Indulgences: Church reduced time a soul would have to suffer punishment in the Purgatory Those seeking salvation of souls did NOT purchase God's forgiveness but most people believed they were. 1457, the Pope started indulgences could be applied to souls of family members/friends

Classical Greece 500-338 BCE

"Civilization" later than Egypt & Mesopotamia (geographic factors) Trading- led to cultural diffusion, colonies Heavily influenced Rome and later civilizations

Soviet Union: KHRUSHCHEV years (1958-64)

"Destalinization" - denouncing Stalin Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 (JFK) Map

Ganges river and significance

(The Ganges is the third largest river in the world by discharge. The Ganges is one of the most sacred rivers to Hindus. It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs. It is worshipped in Hinduism as the goddess Ganga.)

Basic Facts

- 2000 yrs old- began in the ME, by the followers of Jesus Christ Beliefs - God sent his Son to earth to save humanity for the conseqeunces of its sins - Jesus was fully human - Jesus was tortured and gave his life on the Cross (At the Crucifixion - Good Friday( - Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixtion (the Resurrection - Easter Sunday) - Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament - Only one God, bus consists of 3 persons - God the Father, God the Son, The Holy Spirit Worships and Practice - Worship in churches, leaders are called priests or ministers - Christian holy book = Old and New Testaments of the Bible - Christian Holidays: Easter (Resurrection) and Xmas (Jesus' Birth)

Harappan Civ. - A Fascinating Enigma

- Agricultural settlements dating back more than 6k yrs in the lower Indus R. Valley in modern Pakistan found in 1920s - Small mud brick villages gave rise to the more sophisticated Harappan civ. - Historically received more abundant rainfall (arid now) & its tributaries supported a thriving civ. (>600k mi^2) from Him. to Indian Ocean - >70 sites have been unearthed - 2 major = Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro nearly 400 mi S near the mouth of the Indus R.

Writing of the Harappans

- Beginning of 3rd millenium - only things left = pictographic symbols on clay seals - >400 charaters - no links ENIGMA

The Spread of Christianity

- Founder is a real person - Teachings preserved in written record - Shared Jewish belief in one God - Upheld equality of all people - Liberating for women in early church - God, loving father, sent only Son to atone for human sins - born again

What do Hebrew Scriptures tell us?

- Genesis 14:13: Abraham, patriarchal clan leader - @1900 BCE, Abraham leads Jews out of Sumer to Mesoptamia - Abraham moves Jews to Egypt - Abraham's grandsom Jacob leads a migration into Canaan (Palestine) - Sinai Covenant and Ten Commandments (Torah) - What is the evidence of such migrations?

Society in Ancient Israel

- Genesis 1:27-28 describes 2 sexes as equal - Dangers led to monarchy - Patrilocal and Patrilineal - Polygamy and concubines - Peak 1000-900 BCE - Fall to Assyrians - Babylonian Captivity - 70 and 132 CE Romans destroy temple in Jerusalem ; Diaspora

More on Harappan civs.

- Harappan writing has not yet been deciphered - so little is known about the state - Not a centralized monarchy with a theocratic base, but a collection of over 1500 towns and cities losely connected by ties of trade and alliance and rules by a coalition of landlords and rich merchants - No royal precincts/imposing burial monuments & few surviving stone terracotta images - Single fertility god/dess and priests pray for fertility and stuff - Agriculture (wheat, barley, rice, and peas) - cotton and rice maybe? - trading that extended to sumer and other civs in the west - textiles and foodstuffs imported from sumer in exchange for metals and luxury goods - Persian gulf and some by land

India - a land of diversity

- Has an array of languages - Reputation (w/ ME) as a cradle of religion - 2 of the world's major religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) originated here - A number of others (^^) including Sikhism and Islam continue to flourish there

Basic Beliefs

- Human nature is good - Sin=forgetting Allah - Salvation=remembering Allah - Judgement: All stand before Allah after death - Intention is important - Garden and Fire - Allah is a just and forgiving judge

Judaism

- Jewish Law: Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) - Talmud: Teachings of wise and learned scholars - Reform, conservative and orthodox branches - Shabbat (Sabbath) - Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) - Yom Kippur - Passover - Hanukkah

Geographical diversity of India

- Subcontinent shaped like a spade (S. of Asia) - Has core regions: N: Himalayan and Karakorum Mts (highest mts in the world) S of that: Ganges River Valley (holy river & core region in Indian culture) W of that: Indus River Valley (cradle of Indian civilization) S of Riv.Val.: Deccan (hills & upland plataeu extending from Ganges Valley to S tip of India) (Interior of the plat. is hilly & dry but E & W coasts are lush plains) (Historically most densly pop. regions of India) SE Coast: Sri Lanka (History, culture, politics, etc. related to India)

The Monotheistic Revolution

- Uniqueness of Judaism = uncompromising monotheism, moralistic understanding of human life and history - At Sinai, Moses received God's law - Torah - and promise of protection if obedient - Prophets - messengers of God - Prophets linked man's actions to the divine plan - The nature of God changed - a righteous God who demands righteousness - Only 1 God: transcendent, omnipotent, omnipresent, just

Arrival of the Aryans

- gradual decay and sudden destruction around 1500 (Harappan) - skeletons found hiding/running - maybe destroyed by the Aryans (nomads from the N...excellent at war) - doubtful that they are directly responsible for the final destruction on M-D - Harappan civ had already fallen on hard times, perhaps as a result of climatic change in the Indus R. Valley - There were clear signs of social decay (trash in the streets, neglect of public services, overcrowding urban neighborhoods) - M-D could have been destroyed by a natural phenomena, and the Aryans arrived in the area after Harappa had died out

Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro

- large walled neighborhoods with narrow lanes separating rows of houses - houses varied in size - bathrooms had a drainage and sewage out to beyond city walls - but these cities had an = of a modern slum - at Harappa tiny dwellings have been found near metal furnaces and the open areas used for pounding grain

More about the Aryans

- leader = chieftain called rajah who was assisted by a council of elders composed of other leading members of the community and all were a member normally of the warrior class (Kshatriya) - leader known for his ability to protect - chieftains soon turned into kings called maharajahs (followed dharma)

Early Aryans

- part of the extensive group of Indo-European speaking peoples that inhabited Siberia and steppes of Central Asia - Pastoral, migratory people - credited with many advancements in tech - Aryans moved S across the Hindu Kush into the plains of N India - between 1500 - 1000 gradually moved E from Indus R. Valley across Ganges and later S into the Deccan Plateau - culture remained a prominent element in the evolution of traditional Indian civ - adapted to their new homeland and abandoned pastoral life for agriculture (intro to iron) - iron helped transform the Ganges Valley to one of the richest agricultural regions in South Asia - Aryans also developed a writing system based on Aramaic script - oral traditions of the Rig Veda helped learn about the Aryans

The Greeks wrote a great deal, and a surprising amount of what they wrote is still available to us today, 2500 years later. Their writing is traditionally divided into types:

1) the epic (EH-pick): Around 700 BC, Homer wrote two connected epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Epics are long poems which tell the story of a hero. A kind of epic from Western Asia, written about 2500 BC, is the Epic of Gilgamesh. Another epic, from Rome in 19 BC, is Virgil's Aeneid. 2) the poem: Two early Greek examples are Hesiod's Theogony and Works and Days, both from around 700 BC. There are also a number of shorter poems by Archilochus (Are-KILL-oh-cuss) and Sappho (SA-foe) from the 600's BC, among others. Sappho's poems are the only surviving literature by a Greek woman. 3) the play: Plays are divided into tragedies and comedies. Tragedies are generally sad, while comedies are funny. The oldest tragedies that we still have were written by Aeschylus around 500 BC. We also have tragedies written by Sophocles (around 450 BC) and Euripides (around 400 BC). The oldest comedies that we still have are by Aristophanes, and were also written around 400 BC. Some later comedies were written by Menander around 350 BC. Plays are also written in verse, like poems. 4) the history: Two major histories that we still have are those by Herodotus and Thucydides. About 450 BC, Herodotus wrote a history of the Persian Wars. About 400 BC, Thucydides wrote a history of the Peloponnesian War. These are both written in prose (not in verse). 5) philosophical dialogues and treatises: The first written philosophy was written by Plato around 380 BC in the form of a kind of play, two or more people talking to each other. Later on both Plato and his student Aristotle wrote regular philosophical books, in prose without dialogues.

Turkish Genocide Against the Armenians

1.5 million: A Portent of Future Horrors! In 1915, leaders of the Turkish government set in motion a plan to expel and massacre Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. Though reports vary, most sources agree that there were about 2 million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire at the time of the massacre. By the early 1920s, when the massacres and deportations finally ended, some 1.5 million of Turkey's Armenians were dead, with many more forcibly removed from the country. Today, most historians call this event a genocide-a premeditated and systematic campaign to exterminate an entire people. However, the Turkish government does not acknowledge the enormity or scope of these events. Despite pressure from Armenians and social justice advocates throughout the world, it is still illegal in Turkey to talk about what happened to Armenians during this era. 3 Arguments made to justify the Armenian Massacre: The Armenians took up arms and joined the russians as soon as the latter crossed the Ottoman frontier. They battle usually cited is the Revolt of Vn. Deportations occurred only after this outbreak, is what the Ottomans said. All of this was, in reality, untrue. A group of revolutionary Armenians wanted to overthrow the Ottoman government and deliver them to the hands of the Allies. Disarming, imprisoning, executing, and deporting them was the only way to stop this movement is what the Ottomans said. Revenge is the main incentive here. The Armenians volunteering with the Russian army had no allegiance with the Turks, and Russia has taken over less than ½ of the Armenians by 1914. Turks disputing the term genocide: There were deaths on boths sides Armenians also revolted and sought revenge which caused the genocide It isn't important currently because it isn't going to helped Turkey become democratic. If they want to become democratic, they need to face their past and move on whether it was a genocide or not. IF WE DON'T FACE OUR PAST, NOTHING IS STOPPING IT FROM HAPPENING AGAIN Why has the US resisted calling this a genocide and resisted a Congressional resolution? Turkey is a key ally of the US and a member of NATO, so if they say no then no. They didn't recognise it until Turkey did, most likely to have stable relations.

Charles I (r. 1625-49)

Absolutist Petition of Right 1628 1629-40 "Personal Rule" Believed to be 'secret Catholic' Tried to force Anglican Prayer Book on Scottish Kirk Scots rebelled in 1639; invaded England 1640 Petition of Right (1628): Parliament forced Charles to accept this document which affirmed ancient English rights by securing parliamentary approval of taxes, abolishing arbitrary imprisonment, prohibiting martial law in peacetime. Cooperation did not last. Charles hoped to avoid further interference by simply refusing to call Parliament. Between 1629-1640 ("Personal Rule"), he ruled without Parliament, alienating much of English society, particularly the Puritan church reformers & gentry. Religious tensions brought conflicts over the king's authority to a head. Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, imposed increasingly elaborate ceremonies (in the style of R.C.) on the Anglican church. Puritans saw these changes as a move towards "popery." When the archbishop tried to force the Anglican prayer book on the Scottish Kirk (Calvinist), the Scots rebelled & invaded England in 1640. Charles forced into peace by paying the invaders to withdraw. After agreeing to buy off the Scots, Charles called Parliament to raise money and secure his future finances. Parl. insisted on debating other issues—wanting to undo what they saw as royal tyranny of the 1630s. They removed Laud from office, abolished the Court of Star Chamber, repealed recently levied taxes, provided for a parliamentary assembly at least once every 3 years, thus establishing a constitutional check on royal authority. In 1642, Charles and his soldiers invaded Parliament and tried to unsuccessfully arrest those leaders who had moved to curb his power. Faced with mounting opposition, Charles left London, and Parliament took the unprecedented action of declaring, without royal approval, its legal authority over national military forces.

Communism: Karl Marx (1818-1883) took socialism from its "utopian" to its "scientific" phase.

After meeting Friederich Engels, he witnessed first hand the conditions of the workers at Engels' factories. Argued the economic forces drove history. He did not deny the existence or importance of spiritual or philosophical values, but material aspects of life were more important for Marx. "It is not the consciousness of men which determines their existence, but on the contrary, it is the existence which determines their consciousness." Economic determinist: when the means of production of a given era changed, the whole social and ideological structure was transformed by the groups who controlled those means of production. The world is driven by class conflict between those who control the means of production and those who do not, whether master against slave in ancient Greece, patrician against plebeian in Rome, lord against serf in the Middle Ages, noble against bourgeois in early modern times, or capitalist against proletarian in the modern world. Not until the triumph against proletariat would this pattern stop: the workers controlling the means of production could not logically engage in class conflict, and hence communism would be achieved. When the workers recognized their true power, they would overthrow the bourgeoisie (those who owned the means of production). Out of this conflict would come the "classless society" in which "each person would work according to this ability and receive according to his need." [An interim dictatorship might have to occur because a number of features of the old order would remain and the proletariat would have to be protected. However, as the classless society evolved, the state would wither away.]

Alexander the Great

Alexander died at 33- was great general (never lost, even with small army). Debate rages about his political leadership and vision. Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE) 1. Seen as "Sacker of Cities" by Greeks; but to Romans who were impressed by his conquests, known as "Alexander the Great." 2. Ruled Macedonia, just to the north of Greece, persuaded his father's old generals and comrades to swear loyalty to him all of 20 years old. 3. When the Greek city of Thebes responded to a rumor that Alexander had been killed in battle in the north by rebelling against the Macedonians, Alexander marched his army and crushed the city, selling the remaining inhabitants into slavery. Sent a message to other areas, and a lesson to the Greeks. 4. Tutored by Aristotle and aware of the folklore of Greek culture, he saw himself as a new Achilles waging war against barbarians when he planned to complete his father's plans to avenge the Persian attacks (Persian Wars 540-479 BCE) on Greece by conquering the Persian Empire. 5. In 334 BCE, he set out an army of 35,000 soldiers to conquer Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, defeating the Persians. He marched into Egypt, where he was welcomed as a deliverer from their Persian masters and he was recognized as a pharaoh. He eventually extended the empire to present-day Afghanistan and India. 6. Puzzling figure for historians (so many legends that have sprung up about him and now interpretations by historians): some see him as a ruthless conqueror who never lost a battle and a despot; others see him as a farsighted visionary hoping to unite East and West in one world and seeking a "brotherhood of man" by establishing a universal equality through a common Greek culture (again patriarchal and not equal!)

Consequences of Neolithic Revolution

As people settled in they engaged in trade People began to specialize in certain crafts and a division of labor began to develop Change in roles with men and women Men primarily works outside the home and women tended to the kids at home This age was a turning point in human history Between 4000 and 300 BCE significant technology transformed Neolithic towns Invention of writing enabled people to keep records Use of metal gave a new level of human control Already before 4000 BCE artisans discovered they could melt metals in rocks to make molds, tools, and weapons along with other instruments After 4000 BCE metalworkers discovered combining tin and copper makes bronze. Its widespread use led historians to call the period after it from 3000 to 1200 BCE the Bronze Age After bronze was quickly replaced with iron

CONFLICT IN MIDDLE EAST Post-1948 1948-1949 Israeli War for Independence

As the date of British withdrawal approached, violence erupted as each side fought to extend their control. May 14, 1948 Israel becomes a nation and is recognized immediately by the US and USSR, but Arab states refuse to recognize Israel. The day after, forces from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon and Iraq invaded Israel Israel invaded by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq and Saudi Arabia Israel quickly establishes an army Israel wins- many experienced fighters UN arranges armistice, Israel gains land The Refugee Problem 1948 = Palestinian Diaspora begins! Approximately 720,000 Arabs, encouraged by their leaders to leave, fled from what is now Israel between April and December, 1948.(1) The Arab leaders promised them that they would soon be able to return following Israel's destruction. In some cases the Jews, including Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, urged the Arabs to remain, promising that they would not be harmed.(2) Those who remained became full and equal citizens of Israel, while those who chose to leave went to neighboring Arab states. Instead of welcoming their Arab brothers, and integrating them into the mainstream of their societies, the Arab states kept them in squalid refugee camps and used these Palestinians refugees as political pawns in their fight against Israel. In 1945 there were more than 870,000 Jews living in the various Arab states. Many of their communities dated back 2,500 years. Throughout 1947 and 1948 these Jews were persecuted. Their property and belongings were confiscated. There were anti-Jewish riots in Aden, Egypt, Lybia, Syria, and Iraq. In Iraq, Zionism was made a capital crime. Approximately 600,000 Jews sought refuge in the State of Israel.(1) They arrived destitute, but they were absorbed into the society and became an integral part of the state. In effect, then, a vertible exchange of populations took place between Arab and Jewish refugees. Thus the Jewish refugees became full Israeli citizens while the Arab refugees remained "refugees" according to the wishes of the Arab leaders. 1. Howe & Gershman, op. cit., p. 168.

Society Athens vs. Sparta

Athens Democracy but a "Man's World" Houses segregated by sex Arranged marriages Infanticide Hetaerae Homosexuality 1:4 people=slave Citizen - free male man adult Sparta Totalitarian State Military training Infanticide Boys trained to be soldiers Girls trained to be healthy mothers Spartans seen as uncultured and unsophisticated Citizen - not slave or serf owned land etc

RESPONSES The Luddites, 1811-1816

Attacks on the power looms Ned Ludd (mythical figure from Sherwood Forest)

Continuity of the caste system

Attempts to reform or abolish the caste system have had little effect. Today, the caste system continues to the main form of government in villages through india. Dharma is still considered to be divine law. In modern India, in practice, people put aside their caste ideals during the day, but at home the ancient traditions are still very much respected.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation

Augustinian monk; also studied law By 16th century, indulgences sold regularly as guarantees of early release from purgatory Johan Tetzle: sold indulgences to raise money for St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. "A penny in the box, a soul out of purgatory." "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from the purgatory springs." Luther's Revolt Against Rome Ninety-five Theses: 1517, Wittenburg Denied Pope's power to give salvation and declared indulgences not necessary Charles V and Imperial Diet at Worms, 1521 Luther denied infallibility of Pope and church councils Declared Scriptures to be sole authority Salvation gained only by faith Pope excommunicated him Basic Tenets of Lutheranism Sola fide: salvation by faith alone Sola scriptura: scriptures alone "Priesthood of All Believers": each person could receive God directly through Scriptures Catholic Mass (transubstantiation): through the priestly blessing a miracle occurred: the bread and wine were transformed into the body and blood of Christ) became Lutheran Communion: Consubstantiation: Christ's body and blood "coexisted" with water and wine (no miracle, no transformation) Church services in German Emphasis on preaching and limiting formal rituals Abolition of monasteries

Nationalism

Austria-Hungary, Russia, & Ottomans fought over Balkans Russia thought it should be "protector of the Slavs" Scramble for territories also fostered nationalism within imperialist nations and territories under their control India starts growing nationalist consciousness Germany unifies under Bismarck's lead France angry about loss of Alsace-Lorraine Ottomans were weakest major power

WOODROW WILSON'S 14 POINTS, 1918

Blueprint for world peace Reduce armaments Freedom of seas "self-determination" for oppressed minorities World organization to provide security for all nations (league of nations) *All points ignored by allies at Versailles except for the league of nations

The Arab Revolt: 1916-1918 The Allied Advance Against the Ottoman Turks

Br. General Edmund Allenby

Hindu Pantheon of Gods

Brahma (original creator), Shiva (creator-destroyer), Vishnu (preserver) Krishna (incarnation of Vishnu, love, joy, playfulness) Kali (goddess of death) Most do not worship Brhama as personal god. Choose either Shiva or Vishnu. Shiva, creator-destroyer keeps universe in balance with his cosmic dance. His consort (Parvati-Kali is a Great Mother, but also a destroyer) Vishnu, more kinly deity is the preserver of the universe. Consort Lakshmi is associated with lover an dmercy. When evil threatens the world, Vishnu appears as an incarnation or avatar. Has 9 different avatars. Krishna is one of the most popular known as for sense of humor, love, playfulness Kali known as a goddess of death, but probably more like goddess of time which will eventaually bring all mortals to death. Her 4 arms hold a sword, severed head, and wears a garland of schulls to remind worshippers that death is inescapable. Black color does not mean she's evil, but that she's beyond color.

THE BRITISH IN PALESTINE 1919-47

British take over control of Palestine after the war. Both Britain and L of Nations endorsed Jewish state in Palestine. 1920s and 1930s was a time of intense migration of Jews to Palestine- went from 10% to 30% of total pop. Arabs are upset- feel promises have been broken. Holocaust in 1940s- Jews wanted to migrate to Palestine, but British barred immigration after 1936. "White Paper" is key document- shows British trying to appease both Jews and Arabs. British were trapped between Zionist and Arab demands and wanted out. Menachem Begin (future PM of Israel) led a group that bombed British headquarters. Jewish terrorism occurs at this time. 1947- British turn Palestinian question over to new United Nations. The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. (anti-semitism, the hostility towards jews)

Protest against Rowlatt led to Amristar Massacre (Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre) on April 13, 1919.

British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in Amristar (Punjab region), killing several hundred and wounding many hundreds more. Turning point in British-Indian history/relations. Prelude to Gandhi's full committment to Indian nationalism.

TRANSPORTATION≈COMMUNICATION

Cheap & dependable mail 1840s: electric telegraph, undersea cable, telephone, wireless telegraph, typewriter Beginnings of globalization? Connected with the growth of transportation networks and technological innovation were major improvements in communications. Postal agreements made chap and dependable mail service possible. The introduction of the postage stamp and improved transportation systems brought increases in the number of letters and packages mailed after 1850. Starting in the 1840s, the electric telegraph, undersea cable, telephone, wireless telegraph, and typewriter expanded the ability to exchange ideas and information. After the industrial, transportation, and communication revolutions, distance was no longer an obstacle. The world became a smaller, if not more unified place. Early beginnings of globalization?

Government

Cleisthenes- "Founder of Democracy", Pericles expanded it greatly. Citizenship= must have citizen parents. Citizenship was a valuable commodity. Still was freest government up to this time. 1. After a failed oligarchy, an aristocrat Solon revised the constitution to avoid class conflict. Cancelled all debts & forbade future debt slavery Fathers were required to teach their sons a trade in order to increase employment Citizenship granted to foreign artisans and merchants to increase employment Increased production of wine & olive oil for export All citizens, including women, were encouraged to work (women worked at home-based small industries) Common people were granted political rights, but not equality Laws were made in the Council of 400, but had to be ratified by a popular assembly. But membership in the new council was based on wealth not birth. 2. After Solon died, Cleisthenes (508-502 BCE) reduced the remaining power of the nobility. Popular assembly acquired the right to initiate legislation & became the sovereign power of the state Council of 500 selected from 10 tribes advised the assembly Ostracism: annual referendum in which a quorum of citizens could vote to exile for 10 years any individual thought to be a threat to the new Athenian democracy. (A quorum consisted of 6000 of the 50,000 male citizens over the age of 18.) DIRECT DEMOCRACY

Cardinal Mazarin (b.1602-d.1643):

Continues Richelieu's policies and tries to impose direct royal administration on France The Response: Unsuccessful rebellions in 1649 & 1652 (known as the Fronde) among the nobles; these will convince Louis XIV of the necessity of heavy-handed tactics Fronde—slingshots, after those used by boys in the streets

What was the goal of the Catholic Reformation? The goal was to win people back to Catholicism and clarify its teachings and correcting abuses. FIX THE CORRUPTION. Catholic Reformation Or Counter Reformation 16th Century

Council of Trent (3 Sessions 1545 - 1563): Forbade absenteeism, false indulgences, selling church offices and secular pursuits of clergy More seminaries established for education priests Retained basic tenets of Catholic doctrine Necessity of good works and faith for salvation Authority of church law and traditions Sanctity of all 7 sacraments Use of Latin only for mass Interpretation of Mass: transubstantiation Spiritual value of indulgences, pilgrimages, veneration of saints and cult of the Virgin Strengthened power of the papacy Peace of Augsburg, 1555: Compromise in Holy Roman Empire: the religion of the ruler of each of the Holy Roman Empire's states would be the religion of the state. Legacies of the Protestant Reformations: In 1600, >50% of Europe remained R.C. (Spain, France, and Habsburg Austria) Council of Trent and Peace of Augsburg did NOT end religious conflict Wars of Religion (1562-1648)

Cuneiform and Lugal

Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia c. 3500-3000 BCE. It is considered the most significant among the many cultural contributions of the Sumerians and the greatest among those of the Sumerian city of Uruk which advanced the writing of cuneiform c. 3200 BCE. In Sumerian, lu is "man" and gal is "great," or "big." It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state could bear (alongside en and ensi, the exact difference being a subject of debate).

Iranian Government

Current - Iran is an Islamic republic on the Persian (Arabian) Gulf. It is a Theocracy, a Presidential System, a Parliamentary System, and a Unitary State. History - The Islamic Republic of Iran began with the Iranian Revolution. The first major demonstrations to overthrow Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi began in January 1978. The new theocratic Constitution — whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country — was approved in December 1979. Originally ruled by a Shah. Shah is a title given to the emperors, kings, princes and lords of Iran It was also adopted by the kings of Shirvan (a historical Iranian region in Transcaucasia). Issues With - The dictator was forcing them to change their ways that they were doing for centuries, and most people didn't like that which is why the Shah was overthrown and replaced. New guy couldn't make it democratic because they had first say.

Hellenistic Philosophers

Cynics → Diogenes ignore social conventions & avoid luxuries citizens of the world live a humble, simple life Epicurians → Epicurus avoid pain & seek pleasure all excess leads to pain! politics should be avoided Stoics → Zeno nature is the expansion of divine will concept of natural law get involved in politics, not for personal gain, but to perform virtuous acts for the good of all true happiness is found in great achievements

The Cold War 1945-89: Post WWII Problems:

Dealing with Nazi collaborators Resettling millions of labor slaves Reconstructing Europe and Japan Stalin wanted control of the Eastern European "buffer states" - totalitarian rule Potsdam conference, July 1945 Stalin's postwar policies Dealing with the rapid spread of Communism in Eastern Europe Russians developed the nuclear bomb We "lost" China to the spread of communism Korea becomes communist leading to Korean war Indochina eventually falls to communism

Legacies of the Glorious Revolution

Divine-right rule overturned for PROTESTANT succession of state church with king as head of church. 1688-9 marks a shift form absolute monarchy to the foundation of a limited, constitutional monarchy were Parliament is permanent & vital institution of government. CROWN-IN-PARLIAMENT CONSTITUTIONALISM Limits to royal authority by laws and liberties=constitution. Contract: Monarch swore to observe constitution in return for subjects' allegiance and obedience. Resistance: a monarch who ignored laws were tyrants, & forfeited authority Relatively non-violent, bloodless

Nazi Propaganda Packet—know all authors, dates, titles

Document 1 Joseph Goebbels, German Minister of Propaganda, 1934 Propagandist use language as their weapon, use media effectively Document 2 Nazi propaganda movie, "The Eternal Jew," 1937. Nazi movie, portrays jews like rats. Effective propaganda Document 3 Heinrich Himmler, 1943. Plays on the nationalistic attitudes of both boys and girls. Aimed at young kids to protect the white race Document 4 The Educational Principles of the New Germany, 1936 Indoctrinate young germans through teaching them the "aryan truth" Document 5 Pictures from elementary school textbooks and storybooks during the 1930 Sand castle with nazi symbols, kid hailing hitler Document 6 Pictures from elementary school textbooks and storybooks during the 1930s. Jewish mushroom, kids in a classroom Document 7 From a 1942 biology textbook the Nazis wrote for 5th-grade girls. Women exist to give birth, the highest honor for a german woman is to birth a new generation of aryans Document 8 Pictures from elementary school textbooks and storybooks during the 1930s. Aryans children next to ugly black hair jews i think Document 9 The "Law to Prevent the Perpetuation of Heritable Disorders," 1933 Describes the illness that lead to an individual being sterilized, laws stating how heritable diseases would not enter the gene pool Document 10 Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, Nuremberg, September 15, 1935. Limited and took away the rights of Jewish citizens Document 11 Nazi Poster, 1930s. Shows Hitler, the one leader of the German people Document 12 Map showing synagogues burned on the night of Kristallnacht [the "Night of Broken Glass"], November 9, 1938. Title says it, map of destroyed synagogues Document 13 Excerpts from the Wannsee Protocol, 1942. Plans for the final solution, decided how many would die Marriage laws for different levels of mixed races

Diverse Indian People

Dravidian language family (desc. from Indus R. culture that flourished at the dawn of Indian civ. over 4k yrs ago Aryans, descended from the pastoral peoples who flooded southward from central Asia in the second millennium BCE; and hill peoples, who may have lived in the region period to the rise of organized societies and hence may have been the earliest inhabitants of all

Home Fronts become Front Lines Saturation Bombing

Dresden, Germany Hamburg, Germany

Britain's dominance

Due to early governmental support of road improvements and canal construction, Britain had a better transportation network than any other country in Europe. The British also had master of the seas, excellent ports, and a large merchant fleet. They enjoyed the advantage of living safely on their island, away from the Napoleonic wars on the Continent. This gave them the chance to industrialize in stable conditions and to profit from war contracts between 1792-1815. Once the Napoleonic wars were over, Britain flooded the Continent and the Americas with high-quality, inexpensive goods. No nation could compete against British efficiency. Industrialized cotton textile production continued to increase in Britain and was supplemented by the arrival of the modern Iron Age. In 1800, Russia and Sweden had exported iron to Britain. By 1815, Britain exported more than 5 times as much iron as it imported. By 1848, the British produced more iron than the rest of the world combined. After 1850, Britain produce more than 2/3 of the world's coal and more than ½ of its iron and cloth. Industrial development encouraged urbanization, and by 1850, more than ½ of the population lived in cities and worked in industries.

Enlightened Absolutism

Eastern and Central European rulers who embraced reforms of philosophes Used rational ideas and reforms to strengthen monarchy Advocated better health, education, prosperity, and government reform Also strengthened militaries (anti-Enlightenment) in effort to join Western Europe as powerful states Federish the Great - Prussia (r. 1740-86) Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-90) Catherine the Great - Russia (r. 1762-96) *But the Age of Reason will instigate revolution (American colonies and France) and support constitutionalism, technology, and innovation (industrialization) as ways to progress of human civilization

Pax Romana (27 BCE-180 CE)

Economic prosperity Society Paterfamilias, virtue & birth Later, women given more rights Leisure Public baths Sports Gladiator contests

United Arab Republic

Egypt and Syria 1958 - 1961 "Pan-Arabism" (unify Arabs) vs. "Pan-Islamism" Attempts have been made to unite the Arab states—all have failed. Why? How do you define nationalism? Each country has distinct character, culture, etc. even though they share Muslim religion and Arabic language. Many Arab states deny that Israel has the right to exist—has been a point of commonality (common enemy). Nasser tried to create a pan-Arab Nationalism by uniting with Egypt to form one single country, the United Arab Republic (Egypt & Syria) between 1958-1961. Ultimately though, he was an Egyptian nationalist so the practical interests of the 2 countries never worked and union came to nothing. Pan-Arabism wasn't the same as Pan-Islamism. Islamism has developed in several Arab nations as an attempt to return to "fundamentals" of Islamic life (as a reaction/response to Western Ideas), but it's in varying degrees in Iran, Saudi Arabia. Islamic states have succeeded because they provide basic needs of the people that earlier governments failed to provide, but they vary in style and approach and political realities are often at odds with Islamist rhetoric—especially the focus on fundamentalist Islam.

Renaissance Europe, c. 1500

Emergence of Italian City-States Background During the 14th & 15th centuries, after recovering from effects of Black Plague, the city-states of northern and central Italy experience tremendous growth in population and expanded to become small territorial states. These included the Papal States, where the restored authority of the popes crushed the independence of many smaller city-states in central Italy. Feudalism had died out in Italy during the 12th & 13th centuries. Unlike the French nobility, who spent their time participating in court life, Italian nobles moved to the cities and joined with the rich merchants to form a patrician ruling class. The import-export trade in luxury goods from the East as well as the large export industries such as woolen cloth added great wealth to these cities and to the merchant-capitalists who turned to moneylending and banking. These economic & political successes made the Italian upper-classes strong and attached to their city-states. They displayed their wealth and boasted of their importance by patronizing artists and humanists (scholars), which gave rise to the intellectual and artistic flourishing or REBIRTH of culture in this period.

Jewish Settlements: The Kibbutz System

First one founded in 1908. Communal living. "Make the Desert Bloom!" Kibbutz is a collective community in Israel that was traditionally based on agriculture Zionism—send Jews to Palestine, so they tried to create self-sustaining agricultural rural communities. Many came from eastern Europe for a better life, but problem is that those who went were mostly poor. Did not have money. Well-off stayed where they were.

Battle of Britain, 1940: London Blitz Home Fronts become Front Lines

German bombers raided the east London docks area in two waves of devastating attacks.

VERDUN, FEB. 1916

German offensive Each side had 500,000 casualties

Niccoló Machiavelli (1469-1527) The Prince, 1512

Getting and keeping power Virtu: 'manly' traits (defeat fortuna: fortune) Strive to be loved and feared "ends justify the means" Controversial figure Niccolo Machiavelli From new Florentine Republic (in government, setting up diplomatic missions to other Italian city-states.) Medici overthrew republic and Machiavelli stripped of position. This book's aim is to get him a new job. Like humanist scholars who looked back to ancient thought and revived it, Machiavelli looked to revive ancient traditions of liberty & leadership of the ancient world. The Prince draws on humanist traditions in the sense that political institutions are for/by humans, not replicas of 'divine order' (Aquinas). Saw Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI) attempt to create principality as hope for revitalizing independence of Italians and make Italy ready for self-governance. The Prince, 1512 Purpose: getting and keeping power Advocates: "useful over ideal" Virtu: 'manly traits'—courage, vigor, foresight, shrewdness. Machiavelli attempts to defeat fortune (fate/destiny) by being prepared (virtu). Cruelty has its place; use early and all at once. Strive to be loved and feared, but if have to pick, be feared. "ends justify the means" Controversial figure. Some see him as rejecting morality only interested in the acquisition and exercise of power as an end itself. Others see him as an Italian patriot, who viewed princely tyranny as the only way to liberate Italy from its foreign conquerors. Others see him as influenced by Saint Augustine who argued that in a world of sinful people, a ruler's good intentions do not guarantee that his policies will have good results and Machiavelli insisted that a prince's actions must be judged by their consequences, not by their moral quality ('ends justify the means.')

Muslim League, 1906

Ghandi tried to bring Hindus and Muslims together, but he and the Congress Party seen as Hindu-based Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Imperial Legislative Council, 1909, lawyer Like Ghandi wanted to bring Hindus and Muslims together; part of both Congress Party & Muslim League Political rival with Ghandi—didn't like Ghandhi's Hindu mass movement 1937 Election: Congress Party overwhelming victory 1940 Muslim League Declaration: areas in NW and E India where Muslims were a majority "should be grouped to constitute Independent States in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign."

Glorious revolution and the bill of rights

Glorious Revolution 1688: As a result, Parliamentary leaders offered the crown to Mary Stuart, the Protestant daughter of James II. Mary accepted with the provision that her husband, the Dutch William of Orange be co-ruler. William did not want to be a consort & insistence on co-ruling. For him, he could keep England from turning Catholic & allying with France & use wealth of Britain onto Dutch side to defeat Louis XIV. William landed in 1688, "defeated" James & James fled into exile. It was agreed that James II "abdicated" the throne (when forced out) and William & Mary were offered the Crown jointly in 1689 (William II & Mary II). Bill of Rights, 1689: Agreed not to raise a standing army or to levy taxes without Parliament's consent. Agree to call Parliament at least every 3 years, guaranteed free elections to parliamentary seats, abide by Parliament's decisions and not suspend duly passed laws. This agreement gave England's constitutional government a written, legal basis by formally recognizing Parliament as a self-contained, independent body that shared power with the rulers.

Quadruple Alliance

Goal: preserve territorial boundaries, exclusion of Napoleon/heirs from French rule, & preventing revolutionary movements. Great Britain Austria Prussia Russia. *France was allowed to join 3 years later.

Palestine Arab Revolt: 1936-1939

Goals- An end to Jewish immigration to Palestine. An end to the transfer of lands to Jewish owners. A new "general representative government." The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, with Adolf Hitler.

"Red Shirts" -

Is the name given to the volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi in southern Italy during his Mille expedition to southern Italy, but sometimes extended to other campaigns of his.

Great Warriors The Library at Nineveh

Great Warriors The Assyrians were perhaps most famous for their fearsome army. They were a warrior society where fighting was a part of life. It was how they survived. They were known throughout the land as cruel and ruthless warriors. Two things that made the Assyrians great warriors were their deadly chariots and their iron weapons. They made iron weapons that were stronger than the copper or tin weapons of some of their enemies. They were also skilled with their chariots which could strike fear in the hearts of their enemies. The Library at Nineveh The last great Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, constructed a great library at the city of Nineveh. He collected clay tablets from all over Mesopotamia. These included the stories of Gilgamesh, the Code of Hammurabi, and more. Much of our knowledge of the Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia comes from the remains of this library. According to the British Museum in London, just over 30,000 tablets have been recovered. These tablets make up around 10,000 different texts.

Greece info

Greece, unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia, is not a place that is easy to live in. The soil is not very good for growing things, there are a lot of mountains that make it hard to walk from one place to another,and there is never enough fresh water. Because of this, people did not settle in Greece as early as they moved to Egypt and the Fertile Crescent. On the other hand, what Greece does have is a lot of coastline (beaches). No part of Greece is more than about forty miles from the sea: a couple of days walking. Plus there are a lot of small islands as well. So when people did come to live in Greece, they were sailors, and the Greeks have always spent a lot of time sailing on the ocean.The combination of good sailing and lousy farming tends to make Greeks try to get a living from the sea. This can take several forms. First, Greeks fish a good deal. Second, they sail trade routes from one city to another, both Greek cities and elsewhere, all over the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, and make a living buying and selling things. Third, Greeks will hire themselves out as soldiers to fight for other people around the Mediterranean, especially in Western Asia and Egypt (where there is money to pay them). And, less attractively, Greeks also often turn to piracy or raiding to make a living, as in the Trojan War. Another important aspect of the Greek environment is that it is very unstable. Greece is smack-dab in the middle of a very active volcanic zone, where the Europe tectonic plate meets the Africa tectonic plate. There are several active volcanoes, and earthquakes are also very common. There is a nervous feeling that there could be a natural disaster at any time. This got the Greeks interested in a particular kind of religion which we call oracles. Oracles are the gods speaking to people, often in the form of minor earthquakes, and the gods tell the people what is going to happen in the future. One final observation: the Greek landscape does not look the same today as it did in the Bronze Age. There used to be quite a lot of trees on the hillsides of Greece, but people cut most of them down, and now the hills of Greece are mostly bare, or have little bushes on them. We are not quite sure when exactly the trees were cut down, but very likely it has to do with the beginning of using iron in Greece, around 800 BC. You have to heat iron very hot (1537 degrees Centigrade) in order to melt it, and that takes a lot of wood fires. Colonies: S. Italy, Sicily, Black Sea, Asia Minor (Byzantium), S. France, etc.

Renaissance: Transforming Discoveries

Gunpowder Printing Press Johann Gutenberg in 1450 New professions Biggest contribution is spread of knowledge Exploration & Conquest of New World Gunpowder Invented in China, gunpowder was brought to Europe in the 13th century by Arabs. First used in battle in the early 14th century, gunpowder could propel arrows and lead bullets. Gunpowder soon became the explosive of a new weapon, the musket, which could be standardized in caliber and ammunition and clockmakers could produce a spring-driven wheel lock for a firing mechanism. Printing Press Invention and spread of printing in 15th century marked the end of medieval period. Before its invention, monks and scribes had copied books on parchment sheets; one copy of the Bible required about 170 calfskins or 300 sheepskins. The development of woodblock printing and paper had occurred in China in the 8th century; both reached Europe from the Arab world via Spain in the 13th century. The manufacture of paper facilitated the copy of manuscripts by replacing parchment, which was expensive. BUT the process of copying remained slow. 15th century: Flemish craftsmen invented a kind of oil-based ink Johann Gutenberg (among several others) in 1450: This ink along with invention of wooden hand-press made possible the invention of movable metal type. By the beginning of the 16teh century, more than 6 million books had been printed, with the average edition running between 200-1,000 copies—the latter figure about the average printing of a scholarly publication in the U.S. today! Led to new professions (librarian, bookseller, publisher, trades involved with the printing process like typesetters and editors, but biggest contribution is the overall dissemination of knowledge which eventually led to increase in literacy).

More henry

Henry's Wives #2 - Anne Boleyn, Queen: 1533-1536 Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury 1. In 1533, legalized union with Anne Boleyn 2. 1534: ACT OF SUPREMACY: the king is the supreme head of the Church of England.....significance? Was that originally the Pope had been the head and now it was the KING. Pope excommunicated Henry 1. Henry divided up monastic properties. Initially the English Reformation was a political reformation. Henry's Wives #3 - Jane Seymour, Queen: 1536-7 1st heir: Edward VI, R. 1547-53 Edward VI Campaign against Catholicism 2nd Heir: Queen Mary I, R. 1553-1558 (Wife 1 Catherine of Aragon) Roman Catholic Married King Philip II, Spain Bloody Mary Mary I (18 February 1516 - 17 November 1558) was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. She is best known for her aggressive attempt to reverse the English Reformation, which had begun during the reign of her father, Henry VIII. Persecuted protestants. 3rd Heir: Queen Elizabeth I R. 1558-1603 'Gloriana-Virgin Queen' (Wife 2 Anne Boleyn) Signed peace treaties Established trade Returned Anglican church to power: Elizabethan Settlement Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588) Patronized arts (Shakespeare) Catholics tolerated until Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart) conspired to gain the throne - Eliz. had her executed Elizabeth = one of the greatest English monarchs

More of henry and his wives

Henry's Wives #4 - Anne of Cleves Queen: Jan 6-July 9, 1540 Henry's Wives #5 - Catherine Howard Queen: 1540-1541 Henry's Wives #6 - Catherine Parr Queen:1543-1547 Summary: Henry VII's 6 Wives and English Reformation Catherine of Aragon - Divorced Anne Boleyn - Beheaded Jane Seymour - Died Anne of Cleves - Divorced Catherine Howard Beheaded Catherine Parr - Survived Henry VIII - Roman Catholic-political reformation for male heir Edward VI - Boy king, Protestant Church of England Mary I - Roman Catholic persecuted Protestants Elizabeth I - Protestant Church of England (Anglican Church) - religious toleration

Hezbollah

Hezbollah[1] (Arabic: حزب الله‎ ḥizbu-'llāh(i),[2] literally "party of God") is a Shi'a Islamist political and paramilitary organisation based in Lebanon.[3] Hezbollah is now also a major provider of social services, which operate schools, hospitals, and agricultural services for thousands of Lebanese Shiites, and plays a significant force in Lebanese politics.[4] It is regarded as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab and Muslim world.[3] Many governments, including Arab ones, have condemned actions by Hezbollah while others have praised the party.[5][6] Several western countries regard it in whole or in part as a terrorist organization.[7] Hezbollah first emerged as a militia in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, also known as Operation Peace for Galilee, in 1982, set on resisting the Israeli occupation of Lebanon during the Lebanese civil war.[3][8] Its leaders were inspired by Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of Iranian Revolutionary Guards.[9] Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto listed its three main goals as "putting an end to any colonialist entity" in Lebanon, bringing the Phalangists to justice for "the crimes they [had] perpetrated," and the establishment of an Islamic regime in Lebanon.[10][11] Hezbollah leaders have also made numerous statements calling for the destruction of Israel, which they refer to as a "Zionist entity... built on lands wrested from their owners."[10][11]

Hinduism is more than a religion, way of life or philosophy.

Highly diverse, 100s of sects (contrasts greater than those between Catholicism/Protestantism and Judaism). Doctrine is also diverse. No founder. There is also no point in time where it could have been said to begin. Dates back to 5000 ore more years.Hindu comes from river Indus. Ancient times called "Sindhu" but Persians who migrated to India called it "Hindu" and the land "Hindustan"." Basics brought by Aryans who settled on the banks of Indus river about 2000 BCE. One scholar says the evolution of Hindusim can be divided into 3 periods: ANCIENT (6500 BCE -1000 CE), MEDIEVAL (1000, 1800 CE), and MODERN (1800 CE to present). Thought to be the oldest religion in the history of human civilization.

September 11, 2001

Hijackers flew planes into both towers of the World Trade Center in NY, into the Pentagon in DC, and 4th plane was forced down into a field in Pennsylvania Terrorism - the unlawful use of intentionally indiscriminate violence, especially against civilians, as a means to create terror, or fear, to achieve a political, religious or ideological aim Background 1980s: Operations in the Persian Gulf (during Iran-Iraq War) 1990: Operation Desert Storm 1989: Soviet Union withdraws from Afghanistan 1996: Taliban comes to power in Afghanistan 1990s: Terrorism in the region

Atomic Bomb, August 1945

Hiroshima & Nagasaki

Hussein-McMahon Letters, 1915

Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif of Mecca ....Britain is prepared to recognize and uphold the independence of the Arabs in all regions lying within the frontiers proposed by the Sharif of Mecca.... The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, or the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, was a series of ten letters exchanged from July 1915 to March 1916,[2] during World War I, between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, and Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner to Egypt, concerning the political status of lands under the Ottoman Empire. In the letters Britain agreed to recognize Arab independence after World War I "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca", with the exception of "portions of Syria" lying to the west of "the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo", in exchange for launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans[3]as a quid pro quo.[4]

Palestine Population in 1946

IN 1947, the British announced they would leave Palestine within a year, turning over responsibility for the mandate to the newly formed United Nations. A plan to partition the mandate between Jews and Palestinian Arabs passed the UN General Assembly by 2 votes, thanks in large part to US lobbying. The Zionists viewed the UN partition plan as their best hope for Jewish state, and accepted it. The Arab world did not, fearing that Arabs, who were in the majority, would become subject to a minority immigrant population. Arabs also felt the creation of Israel would lead to instability in the region.

Christian Bible

IS THE NEW TESTAMENT and is written AFTER the events described

Reaction to "The Metternich Age"

Ideas of Nationalism & Liberalism continued to grow. In 1830 & 1831 serious uprisings broke out in France, Belgium, Poland & Italy. In France, the king fled the country. Revolts led to a series of uprisings across Europe in 1848 and Austrians forced Metternich to flee the country ending the Metternich System.

Fascist Italy

Il Duce Benito Mussolini Prime Minister, 1922 ~~ Dictator, 1925 Milder totalitarianism Statism Nationalism Militarism *No class destruction or genocide Integrated with R.C. church

Great Schism & Conciliar Movement:

In 1377, Pope Gregory XI was persuaded to make the move back to Rome, but he died. His cardinals (Frenchmen) struggled to interpret the wishes of the Romans and so elected Italian candidate, Urban VI. Pope Urban dismissed cardinals and they fled to France and elected a new pope, Frenchmen, Clement VII. Urban retaliated by naming a new, entirely Italian, College of Cardinals. Great Western Schism, 1378-1417: (Babylonian Captivity of the Church) Church divided between 2 papacy, each denouncing the other. Religious allegiances fractured along political lines drawn by the 100 Years War. France, Scotland, Castile, Aragon and Naples recognized pope in Avignon. England, Germany (HRE), northern Italy, Scandinavia, Bohemia (HRE), Poland, and Hungary recognized Roman pope. 1414-1418 Council of Constance: removed all rival claimants for papal office before agreeing on election of a new pope: Italian, Martin V. Council tried to reform church even more. Conciliarism: supreme authority within the Church rests with representative general council not the pope. Check on papal power. But movement does not triumph. Ends with Council of Basel in 1449. If it had triumphed, then perhaps the Protestant Reformations would not have occurred.

Revolutions of 1848 -

In 1846, the severity of decline of agriculture as well as industry became a problem for France and the government refused to provide suffrage to the affected lower class. The actual overthrowing of King Louis happened in February 1848, and was due to his (and his government's) refusal to make any changes. A provisional government was then to be taken over by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte to be converted into an authoritarian regime. This whole ordeal led to other revolts in other countries.

Jews & Arabs in Palestine, 1920

In 1920, there was 1 Jew to every 10 Arabs in Palestine. By 1947, the ratio was 2 Arabs for every Jew. The Arabs felt that they were losing control of their "country!" British Mandate in Palestine Created July, 1922

Munich, 1938: British P.M. Chamberlain Appeasement: "Peace in our time!"

In 1937 Stanley Baldwin resigned as Prime Minister and Neville Chamberlain took over. Chamberlainpursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament.Chamberlain's reputation for appeasement rests in large measure on his negotiations with Hitler over Czechoslovakia in 1938. Munich Agreement, (September 30, 1938), settlement reached by Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy that permitted German annexation of the Sudetenlandin western Czechoslovakia.

The Peel Commission Partition Plan, 1937

In light of the Arab Revolt and serious clashes between Arabs and Jews, the British Royal Commission of Inquiry, headed by Lord Peel, appointed in 1936 to investigate the causes of unrest in Mandatory Palestine, which was administered by Britain, following the six-month-long Arab general strike in Mandatory Palestine. On July 7, 1937, the commission published a report that, for the first time, stated that the League of Nations Mandate had become unworkable and recommended partition.[2] The British cabinet endorsed the Partition plan in principle, but requested more information.[3] Following the publication, in 1938 the Woodhead Commission was appointed to examine it in detail and recommend an actual partition plan. The Arabs opposed the partition plan and condemned it unanimously.[4] The Arab High Committee opposed the idea of a Jewish state[4] and called for an independent state of Palestine, "with protection of all legitimate Jewish and other minority rights and safeguarding of reasonable British interests".[5] They also demanded cessation of all Jewish immigration and land purchase.[4] They argued that the creation of a Jewish state and lack of independent Palestine was a betrayal of the word given by Britain.[3][6] The Zionist leadership was bitterly divided over the plan.[4] In a resolution adopted at the 1937 Zionist Congress, the delegates rejected the specific partition plan. Yet the principle of partition is generally thought to have been "accepted" or "not rejected outright" by any major faction: the delegates empowered the leadership to pursue future negotiations.[4][7][8][9]

Camp David - 1978

Israel: Menachem Begin Arab Republic of Egypt: Muhammed Anwar al-Sadat Jimmy Carter (US) Established peace between Israel and Egypt Leaders won Nobel Sadat assassinated 1981 Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin sign the Camp David Accords, laying the groundwork for a permanent peace agreement between Egypt and Israel after three decades of hostilities. When negotiations had been exhausted between Israel and Egypt brokered by the U.S. in late 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat decided to initiate a separate overture to Israel. His visit to Jerusalem on Nov. 19, 1977 led to the Camp David accords and the signing of an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in 1979. Frist time an Arab state recognized Israel.

Sinai Covenant

In the beginning, God did a whole bunch of stuff. That's the short version, at least. Basically, God created the world and then made an agreement with the people living in it: if they put their faith in him, he would be their God. It was a pretty sweet deal, but things weren't working out so well. The people didn't always trust in God...and God wasn't super psyched about that. Enter the New Testament. According to this collection of books, when God saw that his old covenant with the people was no good, he sent his one and only Son to Earth...where he was promptly put to death. On a cross. It was all part of God's plan, though: turns out that Jesus' death actually saved the world. Quick rewind: back in the day, people could make up for their sins and get right with God by offering animal sacrifices in the tabernacle. A high priest would go into the super special inner sanctuary of the tent and sprinkle animal blood on the Ark of the Covenant. (Yeah, the cleanup was a real pain.) But according to the New Testament, when Jesus came to Earth, he acted in the role of the high priest. He went into God's sanctuary (i.e., Heaven) to put in a good word for humanity. This time, he didn't bring any animal blood with him—he used his own blood because crucifixion is pretty darn gory. God was so thrilled that he totally forgave everyone's sins and decided to start over fresh. Now, says Hebrews, because of Jesus, human beings are living under a "new covenant" with God. Of course, that doesn't mean people are off the hook. Folks still need to put their faith in Jesus in order to get in good with God. That means keeping the faith even if it means being shunned, thrown in jail, or even killed.

After Plato and Aristotles

In the years after Plato and Aristotle died, in the 200's BC, three famous kinds of philosophy started up in the schools that Plato and Aristotle had started. These are the Stoics, the Skeptics, and the Epicureans. Each of these continued to be important ways of thinking about the world all the way through the Roman Empire, until people converted to Christianity in the 300's AD, and even after that Epicureanism: Epicurus (342-270 BCE) Resist attachment to anything; seek contentment. Epicurus was a materialist who wanted to eliminate fear of death by denying any possibility of survival and possible punishment after death. He claimed gods had no active role in human affairs (but did not deny their existence). Personal philosophy of life that helped individuals make sense out of life. Egoistic Hedonism: highest good is the individuals lasting pleasure or happiness. In philosophical discourse, "egoism" simply means related to the individual rather than the group, without a connection to conceit or selfishness (egotism). "Hedonism" refers to the moral theories which argue that pleasure or happiness is the essential or the highest good. The various form of ethical hedonism interpreted this in terms of lasting rather than momentary pleasures; pleasures of the mind were more enduring and ultimately more pleasurable than those of the body. THIS IS DIFFERENT FROM "HEDONISM" TODAY which refers to persons indulging themselves in temporary and fleeting physical pleasures and "epicureanism" that has come to mean people who are devoted to luxurious living and sensual pleasures. VERY DIFFERENT FROM TEACHING SO EPICURUS. Epicureans argued that cultivating friendships and leading a quiet life of good conversation and study were the most conducive to lasting happiness. An Epicurean would thus be a person who lived his life with a community of like-minded friends in the private sphere, detaching himself from public and political affairs, and unafraid of death.

D-Day, June 6, 1944:

Invasion of Normandy

"blood and iron"-

Is the name given to a speech made by Otto von Bismarck given on 30 September 1862, at the time when he was Minister President of Prussia, about the unification of the German territories.

Primary Source Readings to Review

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762 Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, 1748 Know the differences between English Bill of Rights, 1689, Declaration of Independence, 1776; and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789. Wilfred Owen, "Dulce et decorum est" Nazi Propaganda Packet—know all authors, dates, titles Hinduism: From the Upanishads: Karma and Reincarnation; Brahman and Atman Buddhism: "The Buddha's First Sermon"

1933-39: PERSECUTION OF GERMAN JEWS

Jewish businesses boycotted 1936 Olympics, Berlin Kristallnacht, Nov. 9, 1938 - The name refers to the wave of violent anti-Jewish pogroms which took place on November 9 and 10, 1938. Unprovoked."Not commanded"

Until 1815, most roads were muddy, rutted paths that were impassable during spring thaws and autumn rains.

John McAdam, Scotsman, created the all-weather road by placing small stones in compact layers directly on the road bed. The pressure from traffic moving over the highway packed the stones together to give a fairly smooth surface. This cut the stagecoach time for the 160 miles from London to Sheffield from 4 days in the 1750s to 28 hours in 1820.

Soviets Challenged

Josip Tito (1953-80) gained control of Yugoslavia & set up his own brand of communism 1956 - Hungarian Revolution suppressed by Soviet tanks sent by Khrushchev 1968 - "Prague Spring" - Czechoslovakia tried liberal policies under Alexander Dubcek. "Communism with a Human Face." Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (1964-82) sent in Warsaw pact troops: Brezhnev Doctrine Brezhnev invaded Afghanistan in 1979 - Russians pushed out ten years later = Russian Vietnam

Feudal hierarchy: subinfeudation

King at top: all land in his kingdom belonged to him; In return for military service of specific # of knights, invested highest nobles with remainder of his land (not used for personal or royal use). These nobles or lords (dukes, counts, earls), in turn, would parcel out large portions of their fiefs to lesser nobles in order to obtain the services of the required # of knights owed to the king. These lords constructed dominions: lordships within which they exercised the rights to mint money, judge legal cases, collect taxes, impose tolls, raise troops, and wage war. Process continued until the lowest in the scale of vassals was reached—a single knight whose fief was sufficient to support one knight. SHOW CHART Landowners gave peasants land and home in return for part of the crops Peasants farmed demesne on behalf of lords. (Demesne=land retained by the lord, which might consist of 1/3 or ½ of the cultivated lands scattered throughout the manor. The rest would be used by the peasants for themselves.) Peasants free sort of. Sometimes owned land or their own business, but were uneducated and mostly unskilled Serfs—persons bound to the land and required to provide labor, pay rent and be subject to lord. 9th century, 60% of Europe serfs. Legally bound to lord's lands and cannot leave without permission. Serfs bound to the land. Like slaves BUT they could not be bought or sold. BUT at same time could not leave land (lord's manor) without permission. The land they lived on could be bought and sold. All land and food belonged to lord. Did any job lord told them to do. Mostly uneducated and unskilled. New Technology—plow/3 field system

Maat

Maat, also known as Ma'at or Mayet, was a female goddess in the ancient Egyptian religion who represented truth, justice, balance and morality. The daughter of the Egyptian sun deity Ra and wife of the moon god Thoth, she served a kind of spirit of justice to the Egyptians. She decided whether a person would successfully reach the afterlife, by weighing their soul against her feather of truth, and was the personification of the cosmic order and a representation of the stability of the universe. The earliest writings where she is mentioned date back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt more than 2,300 years ago. Maat or Ma'at (Egyptian m3ˤt)[1] refers to both the ancient Egyptian concepts of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice, and the personification of these concepts as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities, who set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her ideological counterpart was Isfet. http://www.egyptianmyths.net/maat.htm

Geography of India

Map

NATO vs Warsaw Pact

NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance of European and North American democracies founded after World War II to strengthen international ties between member states—especially the United States and Europe—and to serve as a counter-balance to the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. Warsaw Pact definition. A military alliance of communist nations in eastern Europe. Organized in 1955 in answer to NATO, the Warsaw Pact included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.

THE HOLOCAUST 1933-45 NAZI PROPAGANDA

NAZI PROPAGANDA

Napoleon's Empire: legal and education system

Napoleon consolidated his rule by suppressing rebellions in France, normalizing relations with the Church in the Concordat of 1801, and streamlining the French law system in the Napoleonic Code. By 1804, Napoleon was so powerful that he declared himself Emperor. ... In 1812, Napoleon moved his Grand Army into Russia. Education was high on Napoleon's list of priorities, which were in large part those of the middle class. Napoleon believed in a system of merit, and for such a system to be effective there must be some form of widespread education, especially at the secondary level. Besides, the state of French education was not all that it could have been when Napoleon began to rule. This fact was made abundantly clear by the results of a survey of all prefects in the nation conducted in March of 1801, under the direction of Minister for Home Affairs Chaptal. Numerous complaints were heard regarding the lack of schools in many areas, lack of professionalism among teachers, lack of discipline and attendance by the students and, in a few areas, the lack of religious education.

Napoleon's Empire: Napoleonic Code

Napoleon consolidated his rule by suppressing rebellions in France, normalizing relations with the Church in the Concordat of 1801, and streamlining the French lawsystem in the Napoleonic Code. By 1804, Napoleon was so powerful that he declared himself Emperor. ... In 1812, Napoleon moved his Grand Army into Russia.

German Area

Napoleon had ended the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Vienna set up the German Confederation of 39 states.

Six Days War- 1967

Nasser formed Arab military Israel attacked Egypt, Jordan and Syria with air force Israel won- 6 days MOST IMPORTANT: Israel took Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, East Jerusalem and West Bank, Golan Heights Israel 4 times bigger than in 1949, and has 1.5 million Arabs in "occupied territories." During the early months of 1966, it became clear that Israel's neighbors were escalating activities against her. More and more Israeli civilians were killed in the Syrian and Jordanian borders. The Syrians, from atop the Golan Heights, shelled Israeli towns indiscriminately. On May 15, 1967, Egyptian forces moved into the Sinai. On May 18, Egypt expelled the U.N. Peacekeeping forces from Israel's borders. On the 22nd, the Egyptians closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. On the 25th, encouraged by Egypt - Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia moved their troops to Israel's borders. Two days later, on the 26th of May, President Nasser of Egypt declared, "Our basic goal is the destruction of Israel. The Arab people want to fight.... The mining of Sharm El Sheik is a confrontation with Israel".(1) Modelled after the November 1966 Egyptian-Syrian "defence" pact, other pacts were signed by Egypt with Jordan and Iraq on May 30th and June 4th, thereby completing the encirclement of Israel. (2) On June 5th, Israel decided to launch a pre-emptive attack on Egypt. Israel issued an appeal to Jordan to stay out of the war. (1) Jordan refused and opened a heavy artillery barrage on both west Jerusalem and the Tel-Aviv area which forced Israel to counterattack. By June 8th the Israel Defence Forces defeated the Jordanian forces and captured the whole of Judea and Samaria. On the morning of June 9th, Israel attacked the Syrians on the Golan Heights. From these heights, Syria had shelled and destroyed 205 houses, 175 acres of orchards and 75 acres of grain. Within six days, Israel had captured the entire Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza strip, Judea and Samaria, and the Golan Heights. This time, however, Israel did not withdrawl to the 1949 armitice lines. International gauarantees had proved meaningless in the past, and could not provide the security Israel's civilians needed to live their lives free of terrorist attacks. The cease-fire lines of 1967, shown on this map, remained Israel's borders until 1973. Terrorist raids from Egypt ended, and other raids, from Jordan and Syria, greatly diminished. Although Israel's security forces were able to prevent many of the terrorists' raids, the terrorists were able to keep secure bases in Jordan and Lebanon, eventually leading to internal conflicts in both countries. East Jersualem was captured by Israel from Jordan and annexed. This annexation was reaffirmed in 1981.

Medieval Politics Philip IV of France (1285-1314):

Needed money, tried to tax French clergy, but Pope Boniface VII refused to allow Philip to do that. Philip also tried to arraign a French bishop on the charge of treason, but crossed line of King's powers. Pope issued a papal bull in 1302 declaring that "subjection to the Roman pontiff is absolutely necessary to salvation for every human creature." King Philip accused pope of heresy and demanded that the pope be brought to trial by a general church council. In 1303, Philip's henchmen broke into the Pope's summer home to arrest him and take him to France to stand trial. The kidnapping plot was foiled when the pope's friends rescued him, but the pope was humiliated and weak from the whole debacle and died a month later. Avignon Papacy (1305-1377): But Philip's success was as complete as if Boniface had actually stood trial. Philip forced new pope, Clement V, to thank him publically for his zealous defence of the faith and in 1309, moved the entire papal court to Avignon, southern France. 2 years after Boniface's death, a French archbishop was chosen pope; he never went to Rome but instead stayed Avignon, where the papacy remained under French influence from 1305-1377. During this period, papal prestige suffered enormously. Most Europeans believed that Rome was the only suitable capital for the church and the French popes and cardinals were accused of being instruments of the French king.

The Oslo Agreements (1994-99)

Negotiations between PLO and Israel Creation of Palestinian Authority (1994) Yitzhak Rabin assassinated 1995 Palestinian Elections 1996- Yasser Arafat elected 1998: Clinton Administration tried to restart peace process

Neolithic

Neolithic (Greek for new stone) - (10000-4000 BCE) Began at the end of the last ice age Made new types of polished axes, though this was not the most significant change Shift towards producing food and agriculture and raising animals Known as an agricultural revolution Gave them greater control over their environment and helped them give up their nomadic ways to settle into a community Shift wasn't sudden, and the Mesolithic (middle stone age 10000-7000) was the gradual transition Systematic agriculture developed independently between 8000 to 5000 BCE From the ME, farming spread to the Balkan region of Europe by 6500 BCE. By 4000 BCE, it was established in the south of France, central Europe, and the coastal region of the Mediterranean. Cultivation of wheat and barley spread from western Asia to the Nile valley of Egypt by 6000 BCE and soon spread up the Nile to other areas of Africa like Sudan and Ethiopia. It moved eastward into the highlands of northwestern and central India between 7000 and 5000 BCE. By then rice was being cultivated. Neolithic farming villages - the growing of crops regularly gave rise to permanent settlements Oldest villages located in ME Jericho, in Palestine near the Dead Sea, was in existence by 8000 BCE and covered several acres by 7000 BCE Had houses made of mud bricks several feet thick

Conservatism:

Opposed change, liked the way things have been done in the past, wanted to return to the Old Order; traditional strong monarchies. Paul Schroeder, a popular historian, argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium.[1] The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.

The Golan Heights

Overlook and control Israel's villages and cities in the plains and elevations in the north. Roughly the size of the borough of Queens in New York. The width of the whole area is about 15 1/2 miles The Heights control the Kinneret, Israel's only lake

The Black Death, 1347

Overpopulation = famines Pop. doubled between 1000 and 1300 Bad health, economic depression, city conditions led to bubonic plague Plague followed trade routes 50% of Europe died No one knew where it came from Led to: obsession with death, Jews became scapegoats, flagellants were common The Black Death 12th & 13th centuries had been era of growth, but 14th & 15th centuries, economy leveled off and then stagnated. By 1350, the Continent was in the grips of economic depression due to arrival in Europe of the Black Death, a bubonic plague, carried by fleas on rats. First seen in China in 1330s. Plague worked its way to India, over the Silk Road, and into the Middle East Effects were devastating: population of Damascus dropped from 80,000 to less than 50,000 and Cairo from 500,000 to 300,000. Black Death struck Europe in 1347 and intermittently thereafter for next 2 centuries! About 1/2 of European population wiped out. Hardest hit were towns; within 5 years, the population of Florence, for example, fell from 114,000 to 50,000. From the Toggenburg Bible, 1411

1940:

Pakistan not used and not clear if the Muslim league meant 1 Muslim nation or 2 (note plural of "states"). Not all Muslims supported the Muslim League. Shia (minority) feared a Pakistan or region like it dominated by the majority sect of Sunnis. Some religious scholars believed that national unity offered a better atmosphere to protect the rights of Muslims and to maintain the presence of Islam in India.

Paleolithic

Paleolithic (Greek for old stone) - (2500000-10000 BCE) Basic distinguishing feature of humans was the ability to make tools Earliest tools were made of stone, which is how this period got its name Composed of Hunter/Gatherers who had a close relationship with the environment around them They didn't know how to grow crops or raise animals, so they gathered and hunted from around the world Nomadic people that lived in small bands of 20-30 people that traveled with animal migrations and vegetation cycles Tools became more refined over the years: bow, arrows, spears, harpoons, fish-hooks Equality existed between men and women Some people lived in caves, while others used wooden poles and sticks covered with animal hides, or bones covered with animal hides Used fire for heat and light and cooking food 2 MAIN ADVANCEMENTS: making of tools and fire Changing physical conditions posed a threat and their "technology" helped them survive Also had cultural activity because of paintings

Paterfamilias and Patria Potestas

Paterfamilias - Male head of the family Patria Potestas - Roman law. Patria potestas, (Latin: "power of a father"), in Roman family law, power that the male head of a family exercised over his children and his more remote descendants in the male line, whatever their age, as well as over those brought into the family by adoption.

Patriarchal, Patrilineal

Patrilineal: When the family property and name/hereditary position is transferred from the father to the son. The daughter takes her father's last name and the wife takes the husband's. Patriarchy: Following from patrilineal society - since the father owns the property/land - he is the head of the house. Generally, the males play a dominant role in such a society and the women are considered to be secondary. Patriarchy is a characteristic of society that emerges from having a patrilineal structure. There are matrilineal structures too - such societies are matriarchal.

Problems in early 20th century Russia

People living in early 20th century Russia faced great hardship across political, social and economic paradigms, leading to great discontent and eventually revolt from the Russian society which significantly impacted the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty. Politically, Russia was rapidly becoming a declining world power due to the unwillingness of the Russian government to keep up with other nations in terms of development. The people also felt unhappy and supressed beneath the autocratic system, and Russia's self imposed isolation from Europe resulted in complicated foreign relations. This also led to economic hardships; Russia had almost no trade with Europe, while ironically being financially dependant on France for loans at the same time. Furthermore, due to the changing nature of life in the country and industrialisation, poverty was widespread and thus was the basis for many of the social grievances in Russia. Some consequences of the poverty included an increase in theft and crime, terrible hygiene and malnourishment among the people. In the city, the living conditions were poor and overcrowded, and the working conditions were as bad and people in the country felt similar repercussions. In addition to this, outside the cities the rural peasants felt neglected and ignored as they'd missed out on much of the new technology, and began to protest. Thus, the severity of the people's grievances themselves and the reactions to these issues were a major contributing factor in the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty.

The New Kingdom or Empire 18th dynasty (1570-1090 BCE)

Pharaohs - Hatshepsut - female ruler - Amenhotep IV (akhenaton) - monotheist -Tutankhamun (king tut) Shortly after coming to power, the new pharaoh changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning "He who is of service to the Aten", in honor of what he believed to be the one true god. Although he initially allowed the continued worship of traditional Egyptian gods, he eventually forbade worship of any deity other than the Aten. Akhenaten is believed to be the world's first monotheist by putting his faith in a single god (although other gods were still mentioned in inscriptions). His belief was so powerful that he moved his capitol city from Thebes, one of the largest cities in Egypt at the time, to the city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna). This city was to be a tribute to the sun disc god and roughly translates as "Horizon of Aten". Akhenaten began removing depictions of other gods as he pushed his people to follow his monotheistic view. Statues, carvings, and paintings of other deities were defaced or destroyed. Any tribute or economic gains offered to other gods were absorbed into the new belief system. During the first five years of Akhenaten's seventeen-year reign, he constructed a Temple to Aten in the Karnak Temple Complex. During the 18th dynasty, Karnak was a religious gathering place where most of the pharaohs contributed to the glories of Egypt. It stood as a beacon of religious expression and a historical database of sorts. Ordinary people were not permitted to worship the Aten directly. Instead they were obliged to worship their pharaoh who claimed to be the sole intermediary between the Aten and the people. The new directive gave the king absolute power over his people. His motives may have been political as it meant he was able to dispense with the services of his once overly powerful priests. A daughter of King Thutmose I, Hatshepsut became queen of Egypt when she married her half-brother, Thutmose II, around the age of 12. Upon his death, she began acting as regent for her stepson, the infant Thutmose III, but later took on the full powers of a pharaoh, becoming co-ruler of Egypt around 1473 B.C.

Why do you think we study philosophy? There are many reasons to study philosophy and humanities.

Philosophy: CITIZENSHIP TRAINING The unexamined life is not worth living. (Socrates 400 BC) Vocational training is the training of animals or slaves. It fits them to become cogs in the industrial machine. Free men need liberal education to prepare them to make a good use of their freedom. (John Dewey, 1916 AD) Know yourself. (Plato, 387 BC) Today we're learning about Ancient Greek philosophy. Three famous men in Ancient Greek philosophy were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All three lived in Athens most of their lives, and they knew one another. Ancient Greek philosophy is dominated by three very famous men: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All three of these lived in Athens for most of their lives, and they knew each other. Socrates came first, and Plato was his student, around 400 BC. Socrates was killed in 399 BC, and Plato began his work by writing down what Socrates had taught, and then continued by writing down his own ideas and opening a school. Aristotle, who was younger, came to study at Plato's school, and ended up starting his own school as well. In the years after Plato and Aristotle died, in the 200's BC, three famous kinds of philosophy started up in the schools that Plato and Aristotle had started. These are the Stoics, the Skeptics, and the Epicureans. Each of these continued to be important ways of thinking about the world all the way through the Roman Empire, until people converted to Christianity in the 300's AD, and even after that

Plato 429-347 BCE

Plato 428-348 or 347 BC Socrates student Wealthy family Started out with career in politics, but left when he realized that politicians weren't truthful -- didn't think clearly Started his own university, "The Academy," in 387 BC Was all about "ideas" as truth -- ideas exist in perfect truthful state in our minds Physical world is misleading, and therefore not what you should base truth upon Constant struggle for humans is discovering the reality of the world while balancing what you know to be true, and what the physical world is showing you to be true People born with knowledge in their heads; knowledge gathered as moved from life to life Recalling knowledge from previous life called anamnesis -- it's how you can know something without having first hand experience of it Point of education is to draw out the knowledge that's already in your head; use dialogues to do this Prolific writer - approximately 24 books; wrote in dialogues so it's easy to read, and he had a sense of humor, too Today we're looking at Plato's work, "The Allegory of the Cave," from his book, The Republic Plato (427-347 BCE): Disciple of Socrates; Develops Socrates' IDEAS into IDEALS! Believed that absolute truth existed, but only in the realm of thought, the spiritual world of ideas or forms. Universal truths like beauty, good, justice exist apart from the material world, what we encounter through our senses are only imperfect reflections of eternal and changeless ideas (mirror image). We are to know the eternal ideas (true reality) behind these imperfect reflections. Republic (concept of the ideal state: goal was the satisfaction of the common good) IDEALIST. Lays out his ideal government: meritocracy

Major Areas

Polis developed for protection- retreat for farmers. Started about 800 BC. Commercial interests came later, and they were not based around religious temples. Were located inland for protection. Towns grew gradually and without planning. Nobles dominated the political life through the council of nobles. Polis: political unit comprising the city and its people (not in the Greek Dark Ages) Acropolis: nucleus of every polis was high fortified site Agora: trading center below acropolis Political development of polis was varied giving rise to monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy. Middle of 8th century BCE, nobles wished to share in the authority of the monarchs and took over the government. Aristocracy or oligarchy (government by the few) Tyrants will then seize power before becoming a democracy

Characteristics of High Middle Ages (1000 - 1300-ish)

Political expansion Intellectual flowering Rise of towns and merchants Conflicts between church, state, and nobility Order out of chaos

Reforms for Women

Polygamy banned Divorce & inherit property Vote & run for office in 1934 Education *Men still legal heads of households Nationalism - PATRIOTIC FEELING, PRINCIPLES, OR EFFORTS

monotheism vs. polytheism theocracy

Polytheistic - Polytheistic was the belief in multiple gods. The thought being that each thing had it's own god. The Egyptians and Indians were famous for their polytheistic beliefs Monotheism - has been defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world. THEOCRACY - a form of government in which God or a deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler, the God's or deity's laws being interpreted by the ecclesiastical authorities. a system of government by priests claiming a divine commission. a commonwealth or state under such a form or system of government.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

Prime Minister of Austria Reactionary One of the "Big Four" at the Congress of Vienna Wanted to restore Europe to pre-revolutionary period. Ideas known as the Metternich System. Austria: Metternich Britain: Castlereagh & Duke of Wellington Russia: Alexander I Prussia: Prince Karl August von Hardenberg (King Fredrick William III also there ) France (5th player): Talleyrand (Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg) but Louis XVIII negotiation with Metternich secretly

Reign of Terror, Robespierre

Prior to the flight to Varennes, many in France had retained some affection for the king. The discovery of the letter changed that. Radicals in the Jacobin Club, led by Maximilian Robespierre began to call for a republics...a representative gov. without a king. Robespierre in February 1794 in a speech explained the necessity of terror: If the basis of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the basis of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; terror, without which virtue is powerless

Iran-Iraq War 1980-88

Prolonged military conflict between Iran and Iraq during the 1980s. Open warfare began on Sept. 22, 1980, when Iraqi armed forces invaded western Iran along the countries' joint border, though Iraq claimed that the war had begun earlier that month, on September 4, when Iran shelled a number of border posts. Fighting was ended by a 1988 cease-fire, though the resumption of normal diplomatic relations and the withdrawal of troops did not take place until the signing of a formal peace agreement on Aug. 16, 1990. Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980, triggering a bitter eight-year war which destabilised the region and devastated both countries. The then Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein claimed as areason for the invasion a territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab, the waterway which forms the boundary between the two countries.Sep 22, 2005

War in Iraq 2003 - 2011

Reasons - A look at the rationales for going to war in Iraq, from WMD and terrorism to democracy in the Middle East. Americans were told by President Bush and his administration that the U.S. was going to war with Iraq because of the imminent threat of Saddam's weapons of mass destruction and ties to terrorism. History - Iraq War, also called Second Persian Gulf War, (2003-11), conflict in Iraq that consisted of two phases. The first of these was a brief, conventionally fought war in March-April 2003, in which a combined force of troops from the United States and Great Britain (with smaller contingents from several other countries) invaded Iraq and rapidly defeated Iraqi military and paramilitary forces. It was followed by a longer second phase in which a U.S.-led occupation of Iraq was opposed by an insurgency. After violence began to decline in 2007, the United States gradually reduced its military presence in Iraq, formally completing its withdrawal in December 2011. Lessons - Have a clear mission Make sure resources are adequate to achieve the mission, and be prepared to adjust these as this war will go as all wars go (not according to plan) Be honest with the American people about the cost in lives and treasure NOT TAKE AWAY = We can retreat into an era of isolation.

SECOND PHASE: BRITISH IN INDIA Direct Control, 1858-1947 British Raj (Direct Control), 1857-1947

Rebellion put end to Dual Control and EIC's political control Government of India Act, 1858 Viceroy replaced governor-general British had direct control of highest positions in government—DIRECT RULE Indians carried out administrative functions in provincial systems British reorganized courts, law codes, army and public services English official administrative language *India was governed by and for the British who saw themselves as superior and the only ones fit to rule.*

Guy Fawkes song/poem

Remember, Remember the fifth of November The gunpowder treason and plot We see no reason why gunpowder treason should ever be forgot Guy Fawkes, guy, 'twas his intent to blow up king and parliament Three score barrels were laid below to prove old England's overthrow By God's mercy he was catched with a dark lantern and lighted match Holler boys, Holler boys, let the bells ring Holler boys, Holler boys, God save the King And what shall we do with him? Burn him!

Reza Shah

Reza Shah - Iranian army officer who rose through army ranks to become shah of Iran (1925-41) and began the regeneration of his country. His foreign policy, consisted essentially of playing the Soviet Union off against Great Britain, failed when those two powers joined in 1941 to fight the Germans. To supply the Soviet forces with war material through Iran, the two allies jointly occupied the country in August 1941. After his coronation in April 1926, Reza Shah continued the radical reforms he had embarked on while prime minister. He broke the power of the tribes, which had been a turbulent element in the nation, disarming and partly settling them. In 1928 he put an end to the one-sided agreements and treaties with foreign powers, abolishing all special privileges. He built the Trans-Iranian Railway and started branch lines toward the principal cities (1927-38). He emancipated women and required them to discard their veils (1935). He took control of the country's finances and communications, which up to then had been virtually in foreign hands. He built roads, schools, and hospitals and opened the first university (1934). His measures were directed at the same time toward the democratization of the country and its emancipation from foreign interference.

The 8fold path in depth

Right Understanding: resulting from a conviction in the 4 Noble Truths Right Aspiration: Intense desire to follow the path to eradicate suffering Right Speech: abstention from telling lies, backbiting, slander, and from talk that may bring about hatred, enmity, disunity, and disharmony among indviduals. It also includes abstention from idle, useless, and foolish gossip, and from the use of harsh and abusive langage. Right Action: that which avoids destruction of, or injury to life and property, and promotes honorable and peaceful living. It means avoidance of dishonest dealings with others and illegitimate sexual intercourse. Right livelihood: one should adopt an occupation which is honorable an blameless and involves no harm or injurty to others. Selling of intoxicating drinks and trade in lethal weapons and killing animals for food, are banned under this rule Right Effort: we should direct our energies towards preventing evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, and to get rid of them if they have arisen, and to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states already present. Right Mindfulness: diligently aware, mindful and attentive with regard to activities of the body, sensations and feelings, the activities of the mind, ideas, thoughts, conceptions and things Right Absorption: there are various excercises for concentration to develop meditation, culminating in absorption This I the middle way—being moral and by focusing on thoughts and actions and developing wisdom and compassion do you seek nirvana. May take many lifetimes to achieve.

Medieval Art & thePlague

Ring around the rosy A pocketful of posies "Ashes, Ashes" We all fall down "Leeching" Flagellanti: Self-inflicted "penance" for our sins! Programs against the Jews "Golden Circle" obligatory badge

The Ottoman Empire Summary

Rise - The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in c. 1299, and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29, 1453. Height - During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling most of Southeast Europe, parts of Central Europe, Western Asia, parts of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of ... Reasons for the Decline of the Empire - Conquering of Istanbul Loss of the Empire's central position in Afro-Eurasian trade. Invasion of mongols Age of exploration and colonialism Loss of empire to Europe Loss of Wars Arab Revolt Losing resources and land Overpopulation

Characteristics of River Valley Civilizations

River Valley Civilizations were the earliest civilizations located in the Fertile Crescent surrounding Mesopotamia. All these were close to rivers. Rivers helped cultivation and navigation. There was surplus production, trade and contact with civilizations around. These were examples of large body of people living together and their problems led to organisation of civic administration and specialization of functions. In many of these, there were flood problems causing partial destruction or total destruction leading to rebuilding of houses etc.

Legacies: Engineering & Architecture

Roads—Appian Way Bridges & Aqueducts Domes: Pantheon Basilica PLACES: Bath, England Colosseum Gladiator Contests Roman Engineering & Architecture: empire's needs for a communication system required paved roads, bridges, buildings and aqueducts. Romans surpassed all previous peoples when it came to Road building. Constructed of layers of stone & gravel, their roads were planned for the use of armies, messengers and were constantly repaired. Earliest known is Appian Way: running from Rome to Bay of Naples, built @ 300 BCE. It has been argued that the speed of travel possible on Roman highways was not surpassed until the early 19th century! Bridges & Aqueducts: series of stone arches next to eachother 14 aqueducts stretching a total of 265 miles supplied 50 gallons of water daily for each inhabitant in Rome Interior Roman architecture Barrel vaults: a series of connected arches resembling a tunnel Domes: Largest Roman domed structure is the Pantheon, the oldest important roofed building in the world that is still intact! Dedicated to "all the gods" by emperor Hadrian as a symbol of the union of Greeks & Romans. The size of the dome remained unsurpassed until the 20th century. Basilica: served as a social and commercial center and as a law court. NOT domed or vaulted. Rectangular structure with a light wooden ceiling held up by rows of columns that divided the interior into a central nave and side aisles. The roof over the nave was raised to admit light. The Roman basilica would eventually evolve into the Christian church. (Go to St. Louis)

Legacies: Roman Law

Roman Law: 1 of 2 legal systems in Western world today! Civil Law Law of Nations Natural Law Effects: Paterfamilias weakened Women gained control of property Principle established: accused person innocent until proven guilty Legacy of Rome Unlike the Greeks, the Romans were not interested in abstract thought. They constructed no original system of philosophy, invented no new major literary forms, nor made outstanding scientific discoveries. (Borrowed/influcenced from Greeks in sculpture, writing) They excelled in the Art of Government. They created a workable world-state and developed a skill in administration, law, and practical affairs. Evolution of Roman Law: one of the most significant contributions. 2 great legal systems, Roman Law & English Common Law remain as the foundation of legal systems in most modern Western nations today. Roman Law is the basis for the law codes of Italy, France, Scotland, countries in Latin America. English common Law is used in England and the United States. Evolved slowly. First, was unwritten custom, handed down from a remote past. In 5th century BCE, written down in the Law of the 12 Tablets as a result of plebeian demand During the remainder of the Republic, Roman law was enlarged by legislation passed by the Senate, popular assembly, and by judicial interpretation of existing law. By 2nd century CE, the emperor had become the sole source of law, a responsibility he entrusted to jurisprudentes (scholars "skilled in the law"). These scholars held to the principle of equity and the philosophy of a "law of nature" that was common to all people and accessible by human reason. Taken together, their legal opinions constitute the first philosophy of law and the foundation for all subsequent jurisprudence ("legal wisdom"). 3 branches: 1. Civil Law: law of Rome and its citizens both written and unwritten (decrees of emperor, ancient customs) 2. Law of Nations: extended to all people in empire; precursor of international law. Authorized slavery, private property, contracts, business transactions 3. Natural Law: (comes from Stoicism); all men are by nature equal and entitled to certain basic rights. Law supersedes any state or ruler so a ruler who transgresses it is a tyrant. i. As a result, the power of the father over the family was weakened ii. Women gained control of their property iii. Principle that an accused person was innocent until proven guilty was established. By 6th century CE, Roman law was codified and preserved for the future

Tsar Alexander I

Russian Tsar from 1801-1825 Liberal at start of his reign; influence of early tutors-made some reforms Reactionary after Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812=used "scorched earth" policy against the French Considered hero at Congress of Vienna and also "odd", he favored uniforms and wanted a Holy Alliance, became increasingly religious.

Salt tax affected all Indians.

Salt was a British monopoly—since 1804 Indians had been prohibited from making their own. In defiance, Gandhi and followers walked 240 miles where he lifted a handful of salt from sea. Others marched throughout the country and in many places rents and taxes were not paid and some more violent protests. As a result, between 60,000-90,000 protestors were jailed including Gandhi.

Effect of Geography on Regional Development

Several factors affect regional development . Some factors affect directly while others influence indirectly but still they have an impact .Regional development is a complex situation and should be viewed with a multi- dimensional approach. Firstly , the strategic location has a big advantage , in terms of connectivity land ,air and water . Politicians at local , regional and national levels could play an important role in decisions related to regional development. Availability of natural resources could be a deciding factor , sometimes in terms of productivity and sustainability. Human resource availability depending on the skill level may influence the regional development . Industrial Clusters are widely known for certain region development . In 1990s , the success of Silicon Valley in California is a good example for IT cluster . Promotion of Industrial parks and Export Processing Zones with generous subsidies and tax exemptions could lead to regional development.

DEVSHIRME SYSTEM (SLAVE SYSTEM)

Slaves were non-Muslim (functioned as a type of "human tax" on the Balkan provinces) Converted to Islam and taught Turkish Most went to the janissaries, the famed elite Ottoman infantry corps that was armed with gunpowder weapons. They formed the backbone of the formidable Ottoman armies Some worked for palace--government positions based on merit Slaves were loyal to the sultan Controlled wealth & power in society When system ended in the mid-1600s, government and military declined The smartest & most talented were sent to the palace to be educated in literature, science, the arts, religion, and military skills. When mature, they were given the highest military and administrative posts in the state. Ideally, the devshirme system provided the state with a group of expert administrators who, because they had been separated from their families and homes, would remain loyal to the sultan, to whom they owed everything. These "slaves", rather than occupying the lowest level of the social order, controlled much of the wealth and power in Ottoman society. (more common domestic & agricultural slave also did exist) Until the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was one of the greatest empires in the world. It has left a lasting legacy in the Balkans and the Middle East.

Socialism: the working classes of Europe, heartened by the French Revolution's call for equality & the hardships inflicted upon them by the first phase of industrialization found socialism best expressed their goals.

Socialists attacked the system of laissez-faire capitalism as unplanned and unjust They condemned the increasing concentration of wealth and called for public or worker ownership of business The nature of the industrial system, dividing worker & owner, also raised serious problems, and socialists insisted that harmony cooperation, not competition, should prevail. Believed that human beings are essentially good, and with proper organization of society there would be a happy future with no wars, crimes, administration of justice, or government. In this perfect world, there would be perfect health & happiness. "utopia"

Christianity in Middle Ages- strength, importance, relationship of church and state

State and Church were interconnected, the religion of the leader of the state was the religion of the church. Church had religious authority and state had governmental authority. Only could work in balance, but there was often an imbalance. Strength of Christianity - Very Powerful Importance of Christianity - The Christianity that was spread across Europe during the middle ages was based on the scriptures that recounted the life of the Christ and his disciples. The rise ofChristianity during the Roman Empire was seen as a threat against the Empire. ... The Christian Church had its own lands, laws and taxes.

TRANSPORTATION

Steamships Locomotives: Railroad & urban rail Steam-powered vessels replaced the sailing ships in ocean commerce. Sturdy steamships carried larger cargo with greater regularity thereby revolutionizing world trade. The price of American wheat on the European market dropped by ¾ in the late 19th century due to steamships. Most important element built was RAILROAD. Between 1830 and 1860, rails linked every major market in Europe and in the U.S. By 1903, the Russians had pushed the Trans-Siberian Railroad to the Pacific Ocean. Railroads cheaply and efficiently carried people and large amounts of material long distances and knit countries and continents closer together. Within cities, urban rail lines and trolley were widespread by the end of the century. By permitting a wider diffusion of workers, these had an impressive effect on housing and business patterns. In the 1860s London was the first city to establish subways, followed by Budapest in 1896, and Paris in 1900.

Aristotle 384-322 BCE

Studied at Plato's Academy. Tutored Alexander the Great. Opened the Lyceum in Athens to compete with The Academy. Very interested in science- wanted to use Socrates' logical methods to figure out how the real world worked. Called the father of "scientific method." Was very interested in biology. Also created a classification system of governments that is still in use today. (monarchies, tyrannies, democracies, republics, etc.) Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Disciple of Plato; Ideas have no separate existence apart from the material world; knowledge of universal ideas is the result of painstaking collection and organization of particular facts. Good Life/Common Good for the individual & state. Ethics and Politics ("philosophy of human affairs" whose goal is to acquire and maintain human happiness) REALIST. Have to investigate real phenomena—not abstract ideals to understand the world in which we live. *So whereas Plato conceived of politics as a means toward living a good life, Aristotle saw politics as an end in itself.* Plato's most renowned student was Aristotle. Aristotle joined Plato's school, the Academy, shortly before Plato's second visit to Dionysus II. After Plato's death, Aristotle became the teacher of the then young Alexander the Great. The results were more successful than Plato's attempts with Dionysus, although the extent of Aristotle's influence on Alexander is unknown. After his return to Athens, Aristotle founded his own school, 'The Lyceum'. Both the lyceum and the Academy remained open until the second century A.D. In 323, Alexander died and Aristotle was charged with impiety. Remebering Socrates' case, he fled Athens and died in exile in 322 b.c.

Suez Canal Crisis

Suez Canal completed in 1869 1883: 80% of ships were British 1884: British occupy and control Egypt 1924: Egypt independent, but British control Suez Canal 1854: Egypt a semi-autonomous province in Ottoman Empire. Egypt had its own ruler and wanted to make Egypt more like a European country so established good relationships with European businessmen with Britain and France. As a result, they had tremendous political and economic influence over Said Pasha, Egypt's ruler. They encourage the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez with the promises that it would increase trade and make Egypt wealthy. Once complete, the canal became a major international waterway because it make ship journeys from Europe to south and east Asia so much faster (don't' have to sail around Africa). It saved the British half the time of sailing from London to Bombay (Mumbai) for their colony in India. By 1883, 80% of ships that passed through the canal were British. In 1888, Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and other countries signed a treaty, called a convention, for the international company called the Canal Company to govern Suez Canal. Said's successor, Ismail spent more than he received and Egypt went into debt. He sold his government's interest in the Suez Canal Company to the British. When Egypt's debts grew too large, the British seized control of Egypt's finances and took over the Canal in 1879. In 1884, the British army occupied Egypt, and for the next 54 years, the British controlled Egypt as its protectorate. Egypt rebelled against British in 1919. IN 1924, Britain granted Egypt independence, but kept control of the Suez Canal and stationed troops in the country to deved the canal zone.

SULEYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT ("THE LAW GIVER") R. 1520-1566 "CIRCLE OF JUSTICE"

Suleyman (1520-1566): extended all his borders, particularly those touching Habsburg lands in Europe in former Yugoslavia and Hungary. Although many were killed in war, Suleiman continued the Ottoman practice of integrating nobles and military men from the conquered territories into his own administration. If a governor submitted, he was allowed to retain his post, which helped to ensure the success of Ottoman conquests. Aspired to conquer more territory especially in Eastern Europe (for agricultural lands, timber, mines) and the Mediterranean (for rich commerce). Built the great wall around Jerusalem that is still standing today. He claimed to be "Lord of the two lands and two seas." His conquests provoked conflicts with the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean because the Portuguese hoped to chastise the "heathen" Ottomans (as I alluded to last time). Was the most feared ruler of a generation of monarchs including Henry VIII of Eng. And Charles V of Spain. Suleiman's court was renown for its intimidating aura where thousands of massed troops would stand for hours in absolute silence.

ISLAM AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Sultan = caliph (head of Islam); Vezir=chief executive in Istanbul Divided the empire into Millets (religious communities or "nations" within the empire) Administered empire through pashas Divided the world into "the House of Islam" and the "House of War": where other meanings of "jihad" came from. Basically the part of the world ruled by Islam and Islamic Law and the part that wasn't (often substituted as the West). Sultan administered conquered regions through tribal leaders and delegated authority to local governors and top military-administrative officials (pashas), who collected taxes, maintained law and order and paid an annual tribute to the government. They were dependent on the sultan, who might suddenly change their assignments or revoked their land holdings. Conquered lands close to the capital were given Ottoman "fief" holders who were expected to bring cavalry contingents for military campaigns. At other times, they lived on their lands administering local affairs, collecting taxes, etc. They were different from European feudal lords in that they were not usually local residents and were often away fighting in wars. Conquered lands in distant provinces like Egypt were ruled flexibly.

Sumer, Cuneiform, Lugal

Sumer was the southernmost region of ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq and Kuwait) which is generally considered the cradle of civilization. The name comes from Akkadian, the language of the north of Mesopotamia, and means "land of the civilized kings". The Sumerians called themselves "the black headed people" and their land, in cuneiform script, was simply "the land" or "the land of the black headed people". In the biblical Book of Genesis Sumer is known as Shinar. According to the Sumerian King List, when the gods first gave human beings the gifts necessary for cultivating society, they did so by establishing the city of Eridu in the region of Sumer. While the Sumerian city of Uruk is held to be the oldest city in the world, the ancient Mesopotamians believed that it was Eridu and that it was here that order was established and civilization began. The Sumerian civilization is the oldest form of civilization in Mesopotamia. They were the first that we know of to develop a complicated form of government, as well as a powerful city states full of professional trades with an agricultural society that supported this city state constituting a civilization. They created the first known writing system that has been discovered to date, and many of their Cuneiform Tablets still exist today to be studied and deciphered. They influenced the entire region in religion, law and government. Many civilizations after Sumer adopted their culture and way of life. There are many comparisons in the Bible and Genesis that I believed were influenced by the Sumerian Civilization. The Code of Hammurabi which is widely recognized for its archaeological importance was also influenced by the Sumerians.

HAREM HALL, TOPKAPI PALACE

THE GATE OF THE TOPKAPI PALACE, THE OLDEST AND LARGEST OF THE REMAINING PALACES IN THE WORLD. The Topkapı Palace, or the Seraglio, is a large museum in Istanbul, Turkey. In the 15th century, it served as the main residence and administrative headquarters of the Ottoman sultans. It was built in between 1466 and 1478 by the sultan Mehmet II on top of a hill in a small peninsula, dominating the Golden Horn to the north, the Sea of Marmara to the south, and the Bosphorus strait to the north east, with great views of the Asian side as well. The palace was the political center of the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th centuries, until they built Dolmabahce Palace by the waterside.

Baron de Montesquieu

The Spirit of the Laws, 1748 3 forms of government Republics: government by many/rule in common good Monarchies: government of one/subjects loyal to monarch Despotism: government of one unchecked/rule by fear Separation of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial Checks and balances English Constitutional monarchy

Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916

The Sykes-Picot Agreement /ˈsaɪks piˈkoʊ/, officially known as the Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret 1916 agreement between the United Kingdom and France,[1] to which the Russian Empire assented. The agreement defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in Southwestern Asia.

Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War (1618-48) began when Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Bohemia attempted to curtail the religious activities of his subjects, sparking rebellion among Protestants. The war came to involve the major powers of Europe, with Sweden, France, Spain and Austria all waging campaigns primarily on German soil. Known in part for the atrocities committed by mercenary soldiers, the war ended with a series of treaties that made up the Peace of Westphalia. The fallout reshaped the religious and political map of central Europe, setting the stage for the old centralized Roman Catholic empire to give way to a community of sovereign states.

The Glorious Revolution 1688 William III & Mary II (1689-94/1702)

Whigs (Protestants) ask Mary (Protestant daughter of James II) to rule Mary will only rule if husband, William of Orange (Dutch Prot.) is co-regent. James II "abdicates" throne Mary II and William III are offered Crown Bill of Rights, 1689: constitutional monarchy

Places of Worship

Temple/Synagogue (Jewish) Church - Christian Mosque - muslim - Dome of the rock where muhammad rose to heaven

Assyrian Empire

The Assyrians were one of the major peoples to live in Mesopotamia during ancient times. They lived in northern Mesopotamia near the start of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Assyrian Empire rose and fell several times throughout history. Map of the growth of the neo-Assyrian Empire by Ningyou. Interesting Facts About the Assyrians The great cities of the Assyrian Empire included Ashur, Nimrud, and Nineveh. Ashur was the capital of the original empire and also their main god. Tiglath-Pileser III built roads throughout the empire to enable his armies and messengers to travel quickly. The Assyrians were experts at siege warfare. They used battering rams, siege towers, and other tactics such as diverting water supplies in order to take a city. Their cities were strong and impressive. They had huge walls built to withstand a siege, many canals and aqueducts for water, and extravagant palaces for their kings

Augustus Age

The Augustan Age (27 BCE-14 CE) After defeating Antony & Cleopatra, Octavian announced that he would "restore the Republic." But he did so only outwardly by blending republican institutions with his own strong personal leadership. Senate: retained control over Italy & ½ of provinces; and had legislative functions of the nearly unused Tribal Assembly In return, the Senate bestowed on Octavian, the title, Augustus ("The Revered", a title previously used for gods) For 45 year rule, Augustus never again held office of dictator and seldom held the consulship. Where did Augustus' strength lie? Kept powers of tribune, which gave him the right to initiate legislation and to veto the legislative and administrative acts of others. Courts directly controlled by emperor Kept the governorship of the frontier provinces, where the armies were stationed. His near total control of army meant his power could not be challenged. Created a constitution in which his power was unlimited, yet disguised through his use of institutions of the old republic. Preferred title of princeps ("first citizen" or "leader"), which he felt best described his position, and his form of virtual dictatorship is therefore known as the Principate. At beginning of empire, political power was divided between the princeps and the senatorial aristocrats. This arrangement continued by most of Augustus's successors during the next 2 centuries. Annexed Egypt & extended Roman frontier to the Danube as a defense against barbarian invasions; failed, however, to conquer Germany up to the Elbe River. As a result of this failure, the Germans were never Romanized, like the Celts of Gaul and Spain, and the boundary between Germanic language(s) and Roman-based Romance languages of France & Spain is still the Rhine river. Established permanent standing army, stationed in the frontier provinces and kept out of politics Blamed the decline of the Republic as a demise in the old-fashioned values and morals of the Republic, and tries to revive this. Tries to make the Empire into a Paterfamilias. Actually installing monarchy, although he claims to be restoring old values Passes legislation to promote "virtue" and birth Attempts to reestablish the integrity of the family

Austro-Prussian War -

The Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks' War was a war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies on the other, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

Total war and war of attrition

TOTAL WAR - a war that is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved, or the objectives pursued, especially one in which the laws of war are disregarded. War of Attrition - a prolonged war or period of conflict during which each side seeks to gradually wear out the other by a series of small-scale actions.

The Four Varna

The Brahmans Assigned the highest statues of the four varnas, but also must live by the strictest rules. Identified with the supreme being and must uphold high honor by their conduct. Must observe detailed rules concerning ritual purity in their personal lives. Because of this, they cannot perform many of the tasks necessary to everyday life. Thus, they must depend on the other castes to perform them. First duty is to study the Vedas Ancient scriptures of India. Life of a Brahman Life as a boy begins with studying after going through a special ceremony marking his spiritual rebirth. After about 10 years of study, they may become a priest of a temple or a teacher. The Kshatriyas This caste includes: Soldiers Generals Kings Their traditional role is to defend the society from invaders and robbers. They also have to study the Hindus scriptures and are held to many of the same rules concerning purity as the Brahmans. The Vaishyas The job specialites of this class are agriculture and cattle raising, as well as trading activities. Like the two above them, they are a twice-born caste. The Sudras Had only one occupation: to serve the members of the twice born castes. Servants to the other three castes Thus, they performed many of the tasks that involved "pollution" to a degree too high for the other castes. Agricultural labor Leather working Disposing of garbage Laundering Eventually, many became wealthy farmers or artisans in the own right. When a sudrajat or subcaste improved its status in this way, it was able to adopt many of the rituals and habits of the twice-born castes. Some of the tasks got pushed down to the untouchables. The Untouchables (Harijans) Believed to have failed to live up to their caste dharma or violated the rules concerning marriage between astes. Considered outcasts from society. Had to live apart from the other castes and were given the jobs that no one else wanted to perform. Given the name of "untouchable" because they had to come into contacts deemed deeply impure. While initially they were complete outcasts from Indian society and not permitted even to enter temples, after INdia became an independent nation in 1947, its new constitution outlawed the use of "untouchability." Yet to this day, the discrimination continues.

Ghandi's strategies were seen as Hindu-based (even though he tried to bring all people together) because of his use of fasting and non-violent protest.

The Congress Party was not just seen as pro-Hindu but anti-Muslim. Some believed that a representative democracy like in Great Briain, would not work in India. They believed the Hindu majority would overwhelm the Muslim minority. Some also felt that Muslims had fallen behind Hindus in formal education, which was now based upon English instead of Persian. Muslims also participated far less in commerce, industry, and local government.

Crimean War -

The Crimean War was another episode in the story of the Eastern Question. In 1853, war had erupted again between the Russians and Turks over Russian demands for the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a privilege that had already been extended to the French. When the Turks refused, Russians invaded Turkish Moldavia and Wallachia/ Failure to resolve the problem by negotiations led the Turks to declare war on Russia October 4, 1853.

The Issues:

The DOP created a framework of areas of negotiation and outlines for a rapid hand-over of Gaza and Jericho to the Autonomy. The Cairo Agreement detailed arrangements for "Gaza & Jericho First" and set out a step-by-step program for extension of autonomy within a specified time-frame, without this being conditional on bilateral implementation or objectives. Major fundamental and controversial areas, such as: Jerusalem; the future of Israeli settlements on the West Bank/Judea & Samaria; the Palestinian refugees [from '48 and '67] were deferred to the permanent status negotiations.

Edict and Peace

The Edict of Nantes (French: édit de Nantes), signed in April1598 by King Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in the nation, which was still considered essentially Catholic at the time. Peace of Westphalia, European settlements of 1648, which brought to an end the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch and the German phase of the Thirty Years' War. The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648.

Know this

The English and Spanish Revolt in Netherlands against Spanish rule (William of Orange - 1564-1648) 1570s - English ships prey on Spanish shipping in New World Rising English navy poses threat to Spanish Supremacy Elizabeth I - commits English troops to the Netherlands (1585) Execution of Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots - final straw Philip II orders his Spanish Armada to set sail for England Swifter English and Dutch ships defeat the Spanish fleet in inclement weather News of the Defeat gives heart to Protestant resistance Spain never fully recovers Elizabeth I's Speech to Troops at Tilbury, 1588 My loving people, we have been persuaded by some, that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear; I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good will of my subjects. And therefore I am come amongst you at this time, not as for my recreation or sport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die amongst you all; to lay down, for my God, and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honor and my blood, even the dust. I know I have but the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too; and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms: to which, rather than any dishonor should grow by me, I myself will take up arms; I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, by your forwardness, that you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the mean my lieutenant general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble and worthy subject; not doubting by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and by your valor in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over the enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people.

RISING

The First Rise The Assyrians first rose to power when the Akkadian Empire fell. The Babylonians had control of southern Mesopotamia and the Assyrians had the north. One of their strongest leaders during this time was King Shamshi-Adad. Under Shamshi-Adad the empire expanded to control much of the north and the Assyrians grew wealthy. However, after Shamshi-Adad's death in 1781 BC, the Assyrians grew weak and soon fell under control of the Babylonian Empire. Second Rise The Assyrians once again rose to power from 1360 BC to 1074 BC. This time they conquered all of Mesopotamia and expanded the empire to include much of the Middle East including Egypt, Babylonia, Israel, and Cypress. They reached their peak under the rule of King Tiglath-Pileser I. The neo-Assyrian Empire The final, and perhaps strongest, of the Assyrian Empires ruled from 744 BC to 612 BC. During this time Assyria had a string of powerful and capable rulers such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal. These leaders built the empire into one of the most powerful empires in the world. They conquered much of the Middle East and Egypt. Once again, it was the Babylonians who brought down the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC.

Second Republic -

The French Second Republic was a short-lived republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire.

French Wars of Religion

The French Wars of Religion refers to a prolonged period of war and popular unrest between Roman Catholics and Huguenots (Reformed / Calvinist Protestants) in the Kingdom of France between 1562 and 1598.

Fall of Roman Empire (476?)

The Germanic Tribes ("Barbarians") During 2 centuries after Rome's decline after 180, diverse Germanic tribes were drawn into power vacuum. Westernmost Germanic tribes (Franks, Angles, Saxons) achieved settled agricultural life in 3rd & 4th centuries Goths, Vandals, and Lombards were nomadic Economic practices set them apart from Rome Hardly any commerce so cattle rather than money was the measure of value and exchange. Germanic restlessness was a result of "land hunger." #s increasing, much of land was forest & swamp, and agricultural methods inefficient. Population pressure Legal practices set them apart from Rome To eliminate blood feuds, tribal law codes of the Germans encouraged the payment of compensation, wergeld, as an alternative for an aggrieved kin or family seeking vengeance. For the infliction of specific injuries, a stipulated payment, bot, was required. The amount of compensation varied according to the severity of the crime and the social position of the victim. The end of the Roman Empire in the West took place between 395-568 CE. Increasing invasions from the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes coupled with the death of Theodosius I and weak successors contributed to its decline and complete conquest by the Germanic tribes. Theodosius was last emperor to rule a unified Rome. Split up the empire among sons (so more than one leader). Leads to civil and political unrest and Barbarian invasion. Last Roman emperor (Romulus Augustulus, "Little Augustus" was deposed in 476 by barbarians and Ostrogoths take over Rome.

PLO

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is a political and paramilitary organization founded in 1964. Recognized as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people," by over 100 states with which it holds diplomatic relations, and has enjoyed observer status at the United Nations since 1974.[1][2] In 1993 Israel also officially recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.[3] U.S classified it as terrorist 2 years before signing of Oslo Accords 1994. FATAH is the former PLO. PLO more political; Arafat dies in 2004 and Abbas takes over. Other radical groups HAMAS: Gaza, Palestinian Islamic socio-political organization, also classified as terrorist by US and EU. HEZBOLLAH: Shia Islamic political and paramilitary organization, Lebanon—seen as Resistance movement in Arab/Muslim world The PLO was considered a terrorist organization by the US Government until the Madrid Conference in 1991, two years before the signing of the Oslo accords. In 1988, the PLO officially endorsed a two-state solution, contingent on terms such as making East Jerusalem capital of the Palestinian state and giving Palestinians the right of return to land occupied by Palestinians prior to 1948, as well as the right to continue armed struggle until the end of "The Zionist Entity."[9] Though Arafat promised on multiple occasions in letters and in speeches to remove the parts of the PLO's charter which called for the destruction of "The Zionist Entity," the version which contains those articles is the version displayed to the UN, and to other Palestinian bodies. In 1993, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat recognized the State of Israel in an official letter to its prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin. In response to Arafat's letter, Israel recognized the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Arafat was the Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee from 1969 until his death in 2004. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen)

Greek Medicine

The Greeks were very interested in using scientific observation and logic to figure out what caused diseases and what you could do about them. In the 300's BC and afterward, in the Hellenistic period, Greek doctors worked out a logical system for understanding disease. Their writings about this have been collected in the Hippocratic Writings, named after the first and most famous of these doctors, Hippocrates (hih-POH-krat-ees). This logical system began with the idea of humors. The doctors believed that people were made out of four substances: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. If you were healthy, that was because your four humors were balanced. You had the right amount of each one. But if you had too much of one humor, you would be unbalanced and you would feel ill. For instance, if you had too much blood, that would give you a fever. So your medical treatment should be to reduce the amount of blood in your body. Greek doctors did this by cutting your arm until blood ran out. This was supposed to help bring down your fever. Or they put leeches on your arm to suck the extra blood out. They did this so often that doctors were sometimes called "leeches". And they thought it was such a good idea that doctors were still letting blood about 150 years ago! Greek doctors also believed that some climates tended to increase the amount of some humors in your body. If you lived in a wet, cold climate, that would tend to increase the amount of phlegm, for instance. One treatment might be to move to a drier, warmer climate to balance out your humors again. These ideas are all wrong, but the idea that Hippocrates had, that you could learn to understand and treat diseases by using careful observation and logical thought, is the beginning of modern medicine.

Michelangelo, The Last Judgement, 1535-41

The Last Judgement: SHOW PICTURE Renaissance painting influenced the depiction of religious themes, incorporating images drawn from pagan Rome. Here Christ is modeled on a classical portrayal of the god Apollo.OSHO

Leonardo Da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498

The Last Supper: SHOW PICTURE In early Renaissance art, architecture sometimes overpowered the figures, but here the architectural details are subordinate—the main opening on the rear wall, acts as a halo for Christ's head. PERSEPCTIVE

New Economic Policy Lenin (NEP)

The New Economic Policy (NEP, Russian новая экономическая политика, НЭП) was an economic policy of Soviet Russia proposed by Vladimir Lenin. Lenin characterized the NEP in 1922 as an economic system that would include "a free market and capitalism, both subject to state control" while socialized state enterprises were to operate on "a profit basis".[1] The NEP represented a more market-oriented economic policy, deemed necessary after the Russian Civil War of 1918 to 1922, to foster the economy of the country, which was almost ruined. The complete nationalization of industry, established during the period of War Communism, was partially revoked and a system of mixed economy was introduced, which allowed private individuals to own small enterprises,[2] while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries.[3] In addition, the NEP abolished prodrazvyorstka (forced grain requisition)[2] and introduced prodnalog: a tax on farmers, payable in the form of raw agricultural product.[4] The Bolshevik government adopted the NEP in the course of the 10th Congress of the All-Russian Communist Party (March 1921) and promulgated it by a decree on 21 March 1921 "On the Replacement of Prodrazvyorstka by Prodnalog". Further decrees refined the policy. Other policies included the monetary reform (1922-1924) and the attraction of foreign capital. The NEP policy created a new category of people called NEPmen (нэпманы), nouveau richesdue to NEP. Joseph Stalin abolished the New Economic Policy in 1928.

PNA

The Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA; Arabic: السلطة الوطنية الفلسطينية‎ As-Sulṭa Al-Waṭaniyyah Al-Filasṭīniyyah) is the administrative organization established to govern parts of the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The Palestinian National Authority was formed in 1994, pursuant to the Oslo Accords between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the government of Israel, as a 5-year interim body during which final status negotiations between the two parties were to take place but never did. According to the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority was designated to have control over both security-related and civilian issues in Palestinian urban areas (referred to as "Area A"), and only civilian control over Palestinian rural areas ("Area B"). The remainder of the territories, including Israeli settlements, the Jordan Valley region, and bypass roads between Palestinian communities, were to remain under exclusive Israeli control ("Area C"). East Jerusalem was excluded from the Accords.

French Philosophes Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract, 1762 "Man is born free, but today he is everywhere in chain." Social critic and rebel of established institutions (Old Regime) Absolute authority should be transferred from king to people

Turkish war of independence

The Turkish War of Independence was fought between the Turkish National Movement and the proxies of the Allies- namely Greece on the Western front, Armenia on the Eastern, France on the Southern and with them, the United Kingdom and Italy in Constantinople (now Istanbul)- after parts of the Ottoman Empire were occupied and partitioned following the Ottomans' defeat in World War I.[34][35][36] Few of the occupying British, French, and Italian troops had been deployed or engaged in combat. The Turkish National Movement in Anatolia culminated in the formation of a new Grand National Assembly by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues. After the end of the Turkish-Armenian , Franco-Turkish , Greco-Turkish fronts (often referred to as the Eastern Front, the Southern Front, and the Western Front of the war, respectively), the Treaty of Sèvres was abandoned and the Treaties of Kars (October 1921) and Lausanne (July 1923) were signed. The Allies left Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey decided on the establishment of a Republic in Turkey, which was declared on October 29, 1923. With the establishment of the Turkish National Movement, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolition of the sultanate, the Ottoman era and the Empire came to an end, and with Atatürk's reforms, the Turks created the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey on the political front. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled.

Babylon

The city of Babylon makes its first appearance in our sources after the fall of the Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which had ruled the city states of the alluvial plain between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris for more than a century (2112-2004?). An agricultural crisis meant the end of this centralized state, and several more or less nomadic tribes settled in southern Mesopotamia. One of these was the nation of the Amorites ("westerners"), which took over Isin, Larsa, and Babylon. Their kings are known as the First Dynasty of Babylon (1894-1595?). The area was reunited by Hammurabi, a king of Babylon of Amorite descent (1792-1750?). From his reign on, the alluvial plain of southern Iraq was called, with a deliberate archaism, Mât Akkadî, "the country of Akkad", after the city that had united the region centuries before. We call it Babylonia. It is one of the most fertile and rich parts of the ancient world.

Charles 1 of France

The grandson of Charles Martel (see below), Charles I of France (April 2, 742-814 C.E.), the last of the Frankish Barbarian kings, conquered much of Continental Europe, including the areas of France, Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, some of the Balkan states, and parts of Italy. He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 C.E. by Pope Leo III, and was supposedly surprised at the Coronation; Pope Leo having devised it on the sly. He never learned to read or write, although was very learned by listening to visiting scholars and monks read to him from the ancient works. Although the Carolingian dynasty lasted only one generation after Charlemagne, the Empire lasted 1,118 years until the year 1918 C.E., when the last Holy Roman (Hapsburg) Emperor, Karl, was defeated at the end of World War I. Among other cultural reforms, Charlemagne was the first to establish the idea of the Divine Right of succession, in which the King was considered to be an avatar of the Christian God, as was his heir apparent. Most of the constitutional traditions of continental European kingdoms were derived from the reign of Charlemagne.

Akbar vs. Aurangzeb

They both are famous Mughal emperors of India and even important in Indian History. But they both are of opposing nature . Akbar the great was humble and favorable for hindus but Aurangzeb oppose hindus. He again started jajiya tax on hindus , removed hindu courtesans from his durbar. Akbar was not greedy for kingdom but Aurangzeb was very much greedy that he put his Father behind bars and killed his brothers. They both are strict in ruling the empire but Aurangzeb was very cruel for mistakes.He even give death sentence for small issues. Aurangzeb even tried to copy Taj Mahal but was never successful in doing so. Akbar ruled by laws but Aurangzeb ruled by his will. Aurangzeb was so strict that even his sons always try to stay away from him.

Anti-Semitic/Nazi propaganda, censorship, education & effects Arguments against Jews (Versailles/dolchstoss)

They displayed jews and inferior, and they said they needed to protect the aryan race and aryan supremacy......jews and regular germans and people were taught separately....Jews were accused of backstabbing the country and they were the reason the treaty of Versaille was so harsh....jews were put in a very tough position

Consequences of 9/11 Latin Impacts of 9/11

War in Afghanistan Oct. 7, 2001: Operation Enduring Freedom 2004: New government of Afghanistan Dec. 2014: combat operations end Aid/assist mission continues today War in Iraq WMD's March 20, 2003: US leads invasion 2004: Elections held 2007: Surge 2010: Combat operations end 2011: Final withdrawal ISIS? SUMMARY: Ongoing Wars (Afghanistan & Iraq) Immigration and deportation Airline flights (TSA) Big surveillance (Patriot Act) Sadaam Hussein captured in Dec. 2003 Key players: Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Al Qaeda (ISIL/ISIS), US

KNOW

War w/ Persia- Marathon victory allowed Greek civ. to continue. Delian League (led by Athens, no Sparta). Peloponnesian wars - Great Peloponnesian War (started 435) shook Greece and led to decline of Greek civilization. (Collapse of Athenian Empire)

Charlemagne (747-814) "Let my armies be the rocks and the trees and the birds in the sky."

Warrior-ruler, both intelligent and crude Expanded to the biggest empire in Europe until Napoleon Created the "Holy Roman Empire" (neither "holy" nor "Roman"?)

King William I -

Was King of Prussia from 2 January 1861 and the first German Emperor from 18 January 1871 to his death, the first Head of State of a united Germany.

Lajos Kossuth -

Was a Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician, statesman and Governor-President of the Kingdom of Hungary during the revolution of 1848-49.

The Labor Movement

Well before Marx conceived his theories, the British economy suffered through a difficult time after the end of the Napoleonic wars. High unemployment struck skilled workers, especially non-mechanized loom weavers. In frustration, some of them fought back and destroyed textile machines, the symbol of the forces oppressing them. Marx's ideas about the exploitation & dehumanization of the working class (proletariat) by middle-class (bourgeoisie) profits are based on factories in Britain. Efforts to form labor unions received a boost in England when the Combination Acts in 1799, which prohibited the formation of workers' associations, were repealed in 1825. The first unions, such as the ½ million strong Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, were weak and disorganized. As industry became more sophisticated though, labor unions became more powerful and organized. In addition, the Labor Movement became more sophisticated across Europe. Workers could choose anarchist, socialist, or conservative paths to follow. Although by 1914, workers could still not negotiate on an equal basis with their owners, they had improved their position. The British movement had 4 million members; working hours were shortened, living conditions improved; real wages of workers increased by 50% during the late 19th century German unions obtained benefits for their members in a broad number of areas, from life insurance to travel.

URBAN CRISES: THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

When they were not laboring, the working families lived in horrid conditions: No sanitary, water, or medical services for workers Working families were crammed 12 and 15 individuals to a room in damp, dark cellars. Bad diet, alcoholism, cholera, and typhus reduced life spans in the industrial cities (Lille, France & Manchester, England) Simultaneously & perhaps an effect of industrialization, dramatic increased in illegitimate births and prostitution. Up to 1850, 1/3 of all births in Europe were out of wedlock. Political leaders faced serious problems dealing with mushrooming city growth. They failed to meet their responsibility to maintain a clean environment, provide social and sanitation services, enforce the law, furnish transportation, and build housing, as we have seen with the squalor in which factory families lived. Until 1850, human waste disposal in some parts of Paris was taken care of by dumping excrement into the street gutters or the Seine River. Later generations profited from the sacrifices made by the first workers in industrialization. Factory owners began to realize that they could profit more from an efficient factory staffed by contented and health workers.

England and France

William the Conqueror from Normandy defeated Anglo-Saxons at Battle of Hastings in 1066 (Norman Conquest)- took control of England and established strong monarchy Henry II (1154-1189): founder of Plantagenet or Angevin dynasty; monarchy strengthened under him as result of his inheritance (Normandy & Anjou regions) & marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, richest heiress in France, his possessions extended from Scotland to Pyrenees. Chief contribution to English monarchy: increase jurisdiction of royal courts at expense of feudal courts Henry's courts used jury system to settle private lawsuits Stimulated growth of common law: decisions of royal justices became basis for future decisions made in king's courts and became law common to all English people Henry II & Eleanor of Aquitaine created English-French empire.

With an increased food supply and demanding markets, Europeans built the most complete and far-reaching transportation and communication networks ever known throughout the 19th century.

Without rapid and dependable transport and contact, the Industrial Revolution could not have occurred, cities would not have grown, factories could not have functioned, and millions of Europeans would not have been fed. 1759, Duke of Bridgewater: built a 7 ½ mile long canal from his mines to the city of Manchester. Water transport cut the price of his coal in half and gave Britain a vivid lesson in the benefits of canals. By the 1830s, nearly 4000 miles of improved rivers and canals were built with strong government support. Following the British, canal building spread through Europe, N. America, Egypt (Suez), and to L. America (Panama).

Women in Israel

Women have held positions of respect in Judaism since biblical times. Their opinion is very important in traditional Judaism; women and men are equal. Women's obligations and responsabilities are different for men's, but not less important. According to Isaraeli people women are endowed with a greater degree of "BINAH" (intuition, understanding and intelligent). Althought there are many fields in which women are absent. One of them is politics. In Israel women's representation in politics is lower than their overall proportion in the population. Politics is perceived as a male domain while the domestics sphere is perceived as the natural province of women. Other field is education. Women in Isarel are discouraged from pursuing higher education , but this seems not to be effective because women give more priority to their duties as wives and mothers. Women's rigths are very similar to men's in their culture. Israeli women have the right to vote. Israeli women have the rigth to buy, sell and own property. Make their own contracts.They have the right to be consulted with regard to their marriage.Marital sex is regarded as the woman's right and no the man's. Women are protected by law from discrimination. In conclusion the primary role of a Israeli women is as wife and mother, "keeper of the household". But in this culture this role is not despise, however Judaism has great respect for the importance of that position and the spiritual influence that a woman has over her family.

Women in Egypt

Women's Roles. In general, men and women had different roles in the society of Ancient Egypt. However, unlike in many ancient civilizations, women were considered men's equals under the law. Just like men, women could run businesses, borrow money, and own property.

Factory System

Workers worked; owners made profits. Owners wanted to make the most they could from their investment and to get the most work they could from their employees; workers wanted more of the profits because they felt their labor had made such production possible (sound like Marx?). Early factories: miserable: bad lighting, lack of ventilation, dangerous machines, frequent breakdowns. Safety standards were practically nonexistent, and workers in various industries could expect to contract serious diseases. In some factories, workers who suffered accidents were deemed to be at fault; since there was little job security, a worker could be fired for almost any reason. For example, labors working with lead paint developed lung problems, pewter workers fell ill to palsy, miners suffered black lung disease, and operators of primitive machines lost fingers, hands, and even lives. Not until the late 19th century did health and disability insurance come into effect.

WWI 1914 - 1918 WWII 1939 - 1945

World War I began in 1914, after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and lasted until 1918. During the conflict, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire (the Central Powers) fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan and the United States (the Allied Powers). World War I began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This seemingly small conflict between two countries spread rapidly: soon, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, and France were all drawn into the war, largely because they were involved in treaties that obligated them to defend certain other nations. Western and eastern fronts quickly opened along the borders of Germany and Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the Archduke. The war in Europe began in September 1939, when Germany, under Chancellor Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland. Britain and France responded by declaring war on Germany but took little action over the following months. THE HOLOCAUST

French Philosophes Voltaire

Writer Freedom of religion Freedom of press Abolition of torture Limits on slave trade *BUT only a monarchy could implement reforms!*

1941-45: FINAL SOLUTION - Wannsee Conference, Jan. 1942 -

the Nazi policy of exterminating European Jews. Introduced by Heinrich Himmler and administered by Adolf Eichmann, the policy resulted in the murder of 6 million Jews in concentration camps between 1941 and 1945. On January 20, 1942, 15 high-ranking Nazi Party and German government officials gathered at a villa in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee to discuss and coordinate the implementation of what they called the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question."

Women in Mesopotamia

women who came from a sector of society that could afford to have statues made, placed their likenesses in temple shrines. This was done so that their images would stand in constant prayer while they continued to go about their daily chores. This female worshipper statue wears a standard fashion of the time, a simple draped dress with her right shoulder bare and hair done up in elaborate braided coils. The Mesopotamian woman's role was strictly defined. She was the daughter of her father or the wife of her husband. Women rarely acted as individuals outside the context of their families. Those who did so were usually royalty or the wives of men who had power and status. Most girls were trained from childhood for the traditional roles of wife, mother, and housekeeper. They learned how to grind grain, how to cook and make beverages, especially beer, and how to spin and weave cloth for clothing. If a woman worked outside of her home, her job usually grew out of her household tasks. She might sell the beer she brewed, or even become a tavern keeper. Childbearing and childcare roles led women to become midwives and also to create medicines that prevented pregnancy or produced abortions. Soon after puberty, a young girl was considered ready for marriage. The families of the future bride and groom arranged marriages. Ceremonies have been described where the future husband poured perfume on the head of the bride. He also gave her family money and other presents. Once a woman was engaged, she was considered part of her fiancé's family. If her husband-to-be died before the wedding, she was then married to one of his brothers or another male relative.

The United Nations- formation of Israel (Partitioning) 1947

· UN "partitions" Palestine- divides it into 2 states. (Israel and Jordan) · Palestinians and all Arab states opposed partition- Jews were taking land that was not theirs. Jews would have a huge Arab minority in their state. · Jews argued that all the Jews of the world would head to Israel and population figures would change dramatically. · 1948- Israel is officially in existence. · 1st war is in 1948- Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia attack- lose even more land. · Israel is here to stay, but right to exist is not universally acknowledged. Since 1948, it has been in a constant struggle to survive. Why? 1. Palestinian Arabs were longtime Ottomans (enemy). 2. Racism? 3. Jewish Zionism was influential (Chaim Weizmann would become 1st Israeli President & had moved to England) 4. British wanted support of Jews in Russia- pogroms led to need for migration (British were also worried about Russia pulling out of the war). 5. Importance of Suez canal (started in 1869)- big economic significance. British wanted friendly neighbors to help control Suez. Israel Becomes a Nation: May 14, 1948 Chaim Weizmann, 1st President David Ben-Gurion, 1st Prime Minister

Renaissance Artistic Characteristics

•Perspective- What is your definition after completing this activity? •Individualism- Each person looked unique •Humanity- People looked like everyday real people, even if they were supposed to be figures from the Bible or Greek Mythology, they were doing everyday activities •Classicism- Contained Greek or Roman elements like Greek Columns, Roman Arches or dealt with Greek/Roman myths •Anatomy- Showed the human body realistically Common Themes The rediscover of antiquity, nature and humankind transformed European painting. Renaissance artists reflected the influence of the Neo-Platonists. In the late 15th & 16th centuries, the Neo-Platonists, appropriated Plato's belief that eternal ideas—such as beauty, truth, and goodness—existed beyond the realm of everyday life. (Republic) Humanists believed that the mind could transcend human nature and come to understand these eternal ideas. Religious themes continued to dominate painting, accounting for perhaps 9 of every 10 paintings. The visualization of certain episodes in the life of Christ were intended to stimulate piety and encourage morality. Classical symbolism abounded in renaissance painting and influenced the depiction of religious themes, incorporating images drawn from pagan Rome. Artists used details about history or mythology in their canvasses. Some of the classical gods stood as Renaissance symbols of moral or physical qualities. Botticelli, Birth of Venus (1485): Christian/pagan setting