gov final

What are the delegated powers of Congress? What are the implied powers (think Necessary and Proper Clause)?

-A way of defining power based on which branch of government holds that power. For example, executive power is given to the President and Vice President. Legislative power is given to the Congress.(Tax,Provide for Common Defense and General Welfare,Coin Money,Regulate Interstate and International Commerce,Declare War,Create Tribunals Inferior to the Supreme Court,Raise Armies) -Powers which are not directly stated in the Constitution, but are inferred from other language, or directly through the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution. An example would be the power to institute the draft in order to raise a military.

What are the main roles of the media? Why is media (especially a free and fair media)important to a democracy?

1. Informing the Public: Providing accurate and timely information on events, issues, and developments. 2. Watchdog Function: Holding those in power accountable by investigating and exposing potential wrongdoing or abuse. 3. Facilitating Public Debate: Creating a platform for discussion and debate on various topics, fostering informed citizenry. 4. Entertainment: Offering entertainment and cultural content to engage and connect with audiences. 5. Agenda-Setting: Influencing public perception by highlighting specific issues and shaping the public agenda. Importance to Democracy: A free and fair media is crucial for democracy because: 1. Informed Citizenship: Media helps citizens make informed decisions by providing diverse and accurate information. 2. Accountability: It holds government officials and institutions accountable, ensuring transparency and preventing abuse of power. 3. Public Discourse: Media facilitates open discussions, promoting the exchange of ideas and opinions essential for a thriving democracy. 4. Checks and Balances: Acting as a check on government actions, media complements the system of checks and balances within democratic governance.

What are the three main purposes of elections, and how does this connect to publicopinion?

1. Selection of government officials who is going to represent your interests 2. Inform government officials Measure public opinion: what do the people want, what do they expect,and what do they think about government 3. Hold government accountable part of system of checks and balances

What are the three theories of representations?

1. Trustee: act in best interest of voters 2. Delegate: act according to public opinion 3. Politico: representatives are rational actors whose voting behavior reflects the delegate or trustee theory of representation depending on the situation.

Amendments dealing with expansion of right to vote: 15th, 17th, 19th, 24th, 26th 12th

15th Amendment (1870):Provision: Prohibits the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.Impact: Aimed to protect the voting rights of African American men.17th Amendment (1913):Provision: Establishes the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people of the state, replacing their election by state legislatures.Impact: Expanded the democratic process by allowing citizens to directly vote for their Senators.19th Amendment (1920):Provision: Prohibits the denial of voting rights based on gender.Impact: Gave women the constitutional right to vote.24th Amendment (1964):Provision: Prohibits the imposition of poll taxes as a condition for voting in federal elections.Impact: Aimed to eliminate a barrier that disproportionately affected African American voters.26th Amendment (1971):Provision: Lowers the voting age to 18.Impact: Ensured that individuals 18 and older have the right to vote, particularly addressing concerns related to the military draft during the Vietnam War.

How does a bill become a law? (make sure you know all the steps) What are the three options available to the president? How can Congress override a presidential veto?

A bill is introduced in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. The bill is referred to the relevant committee, where it undergoes review, amendments, and hearings. In some cases, the bill might be sent to a subcommittee for further examination. The committee debates and votes on the bill. If approved, it moves to the full chamber.The bill is debated and voted on by the full chamber. If it passes, it moves to the other chamber (House or Senate).:If the other chamber makes changes to the bill, a conference committee may be formed to reconcile the differences. Both chambers must approve the final version of the bill. The bill is sent to the President. The President has three options:- Sign the Bill: The bill becomes law.- Veto the Bill: The President rejects the bill and returns it to Congress.- Take No Action: If the President takes no action within ten days (excluding Sundays), the bill becomes law. However, if Congress adjourns before the ten days are up, and the President hasn't signed the bill, it is a "pocket veto," and the bill does not become law.Override Veto:If the President vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations.

Filibuster/Cloture

A filibuster is a tactic used in the U.S. Senate to delay or block a vote on a proposed piece of legislation. It involves a senator or a group of senators speaking for an extended period, often with the intention of running out the clock on the legislative session. Cloture is a procedure used to end a filibuster and force a vote on the proposed legislation. If three-fifths senators vote for cloture, it limits further debate and allows the Senate to move to a final vote on the bill. Cloture is a mechanism to overcome a filibuster and make sure that the legislative process can move forward.

What is the difference between direct and indirect lobbying/ grassroots lobbying? Can you give examples?

A thriving democracy necessitates an engaged citizenry, robust social connections, and responsive governance. Fiorina underscores the importance of elected officials aligning with public opinion, while Rothstein/Stolle emphasize social trust. Putnam highlights the role of media and social capital, crucial for informed citizens and a cohesive society. Interest articulation through citizen action and groups, as discussed by Fiorina and Rothstein/Stolle, ensures diverse voices are heard. Effective interest aggregation, advocated by Fiorina and Putnam, is achieved through well-functioning political parties and electoral systems that accurately represent citizen preferences. In essence, a healthy democracy requires informed citizens, social cohesion, responsive governance, and effective mechanisms for expressing and aggregating diverse interests.

U.S. v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation (sole organ theory)

Appellant: United StatesAppellee: Curtiss-Wright Export CorporationLocation: Curtiss-Wright Export Corporate HeadquartersDocket No.: 98Decided by: Hughes CourtLower Court: Federal district courtCitation: 299 US 304 (1936)Argued: Nov 19-20, 1936Decided: Dec 21, 1936Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation sold weapons to Bolivia during the Chaco War, violating a Joint Resolution of Congress and a proclamation by President Roosevelt.Curtiss-Wright challenged its indictment, arguing that Congress violated the non-delegation doctrine by allowing the executive branch to make decisions meant for the legislature.Did Congress unconstitutionally delegate legislative power to the President in the Joint Resolution?Decision: 7-1 in favor of the United States.Majority Opinion by George Sutherland:The President has broad power in foreign affairs and possesses plenary powers beyond those listed in Article II.The federal government has a broader scope of discretion in foreign affairs compared to internal issues.The Court reasoned that the President, as the representative of the nation in foreign matters, could be given a special degree of discretion by Congress.Roosevelt had the authority to determine the impact of a certain policy on foreign affairs and make decisions accordingly, even without specific authorization from Congress.Dissenting Opinion by James C. McReynolds: (The dissenting opinion was authored by Justice McReynolds.) 43

What are the three aspects of Congress' organization?

Bicameral Structure:Congress is bicameral, consisting of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Each chamber has different rules, functions, and responsibilities .Leadership:Both the House of Representatives and the Senate have leadership structures. In the House, the Speaker of the House is a prominent leadership position, while the Senate has leaders such as the Senate Majority Leader. These leaders play crucial roles in setting the legislative agenda, organizing debates, and guiding legislation through the chambers. Committee System:Congress relies heavily on a committee system. Committees are specialized groups that focus on specific policy areas, and they play a key role in reviewing legislation, conducting hearings, and recommending bills for consideration by the full chamber. The committee system allows for more in-depth examination of issues and helps manage the legislative workload

How, and why, has bureaucracy evolved over time? What is the power problem withbureaucracy?

Bureaucracy has evolved over time due to changing societal needs, technological advancements, and shifts in governance. Initially developed for efficiency and organization, bureaucracies adapt to new challenges, adopting modern technologies and adjusting structures to meet evolving demands. Power Problem with Bureaucracy: The power problem in bureaucracy refers to concerns about the concentration of authority in unelected officials. While bureaucracies aim for efficiency, there's a risk of too much power being concentrated in the hands of administrators.

How is the bureaucracy organized?

Bureaucracy is organized in a hierarchical structure with clear levels of authority. 1. Top Level (Leadership): At the top are leaders like directors, commissioners, or secretaries who oversee the entire organization or department. 2. Middle Management: Below them are middle managers who supervise specific areas or divisions. They ensure tasks align with the organization's goals. 3. Specialized Units: Departments or divisions focus on specific functions like finance, human resources, or operations. Each unit has its own tasks and responsibilities. 4. Frontline Workers: At the bottom are frontline workers who directly carry out tasks related to the organization's mission. They may include clerks, analysts, or fieldworkers. 5. Chain of Command: The structure follows a chain of command, where orders and information flow from the top down, and feedback moves upward.

What is the definition, and what are the characteristics, of bureaucracy?

Bureaucracy refers to a system of government or management in which decisions are made by state officials and administrators rather than by elected representatives. It's an organizational structure designed to efficiently implement laws, policies, and public services. Characteristics of Bureaucracy: 1. Hierarchical Structure: Bureaucracies have a clear chain of command with levels of authority, from top-level administrators to lower-level employees. 2. Specialization: Tasks are divided among specialized units or individuals based on their skills and expertise, contributing to efficiency. 3. Formal Rules and Procedures: Bureaucracies operate according to established rules and procedures, providing consistency and predictability. 4. Impersonality: Decision-making is based on rules and job responsibilities rather than personal preferences or relationships. 5. Merit-Based Employment: Positions are filled based on qualifications and competence rather than personal connections or favoritism. 6. Clear Lines of Authority: There's a well-defined hierarchy, and each level has specific responsibilities and authority. 7. Permanent and Professional Staff: Bureaucracies often consist of career professionals rather than political appointees, promoting stability and expertise. 8. Record-Keeping: Bureaucracies maintain thorough records to track decisions, actions, and outcomes for accountability and transparency.

What are examples of citizen action in terms of political participation/ interest articulation

Citizen action in political participation involves various forms of engagement to articulate their interests and influence decision-making. Examples include voting in elections, attending town hall meetings, and participating in protests or demonstrations. Writing letters to elected officials, engaging in community organizing, and joining advocacy groups are also forms of citizen action. Social media platforms provide a modern avenue for expressing opinions and mobilizing support for causes. By participating in these activities, citizens actively contribute to the democratic process, ensuring their voices are heard and advocating for the issues that matter to them.

What are the definitions of civil society and social capital? Why are they important to a well-functioning democratic system? What can weaken civil society and social capital?

Civil Society: Civil society refers to the space where individuals voluntarily organize and engage in activities separate from the state and the market. It includes non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, and various associations formed by citizens to pursue common interests. Social Capital: Social capital encompasses the networks, relationships, and trust within a society that facilitate cooperation for mutual benefit. It represents the value of social connections and the norms of reciprocity and trust that exist among people. Importance to Democracy: Civil society and social capital are vital for a well-functioning democratic system. They provide avenues for citizens to express their interests, exchange information, and develop the skills needed to participate actively in the political process. These elements foster a sense of community, trust, and cooperation, contributing to a healthier democratic environment. Weakening Factors: Civil society and social capital can be weakened by factors such as social polarization, erosion of trust in institutions, and a decline in civic engagement. Additionally, external pressures, political repression, or economic disparities can negatively impact these foundations of democracy.

What are the consequences of concentrated corporate ownership of the media andfragmentation of the media?

Concentrated corporate ownership of the media can lead to consequences such as limited diversity of perspectives and potential biases in reporting. When a few large corporations control a significant portion of media outlets, there is a risk that the news coverage may reflect the interests or ideologies of those corporations, potentially narrowing the range of viewpoints presented to the public. On the other hand, media fragmentation, where there is a proliferation of diverse sources, can lead to information silos and the polarization of public opinion. Individuals may choose outlets that align with their existing beliefs, reinforcing pre-existing views and limiting exposure to differing perspectives. Striking a balance between preventing concentrated corporate control and addressing media fragmentation is crucial to ensuring a diverse and informed public discourse.

How are the power problems of the branches of the federal government (Congress,Executive branch (president himself and bureaucracy), and Judiciary) interconnected?Here you should demonstrate a clear understanding of the individual power problemsas they connect to their respective sources of power.

Congress: Power Problem: Potential gridlock due to divided government, difficulty in passing legislation. Connection to Source of Power: Derives power from representing the people, but bicameralism and partisan polarization can hinder legislative efficiency. Executive Branch: Power Problem (President): Potential for executive overreach, especially through executive orders. Connection to Source of Power: President's power is rooted in the Constitution's grant of executive authority, but this can lead to accusations of unilateral decision-making. Power Problem (Bureaucracy): Administrative discretion and potential for unaccountable decision-making. Connection to Source of Power: Bureaucracy derives power from implementing laws, creating potential for influence over policy outcomes. Judiciary: Power Problem: Potential for judicial activism or restraint, impacting policy outcomes. Connection to Source of Power: Judicial power is based on interpreting laws and the Constitution, and the potential for activism or restraint reflects the judiciary's influence on legal precedents. Interconnectedness: Checks and Balances: Each branch has tools to check the power of the others. For example, Congress can override vetoes, the President can appoint judges, and the Judiciary can declare laws unconstitutional

What are the sources of power for the president, and how do these connect to the power problem with the presidency?

Constitutional :Delegated,Implied, inherent in office? Statutory Legislation, Case Law, Political Parties,Personal Skills ,Circumstances/ Crises,Role of public opinion Delegated Powers: Appointment, Pardon, Veto, Treaty making, Chief Executive, Commander in Chief (CIC) The complex interplay of these powers sometimes leads to debates about the proper balance between the branches of government and the potential for presidential overreach. The evolving nature of presidential power can create tensions and discussions about maintaining the intended system of checks and balances.

What are the constitutional qualifications for president? Are there other unofficial qualifications?

Constitutional Qualifications for President:Natural-Born Citizen: The person must be a natural-born citizen of the United States.Age Requirement: The candidate must be at least 35 years old.Residency: The individual must have been a resident of the country for at least 14 years.Unofficial Qualifications:While not specified in the Constitution, there are informal or unofficial qualifications that often influence presidential candidates' viability: 1. Political Experience: Candidates often have a background in politics, such as serving as a governor, senator, or in a high-ranking government position .2.Educational Background: Many presidents have had a strong educational background, often holding advanced degrees. 3. Public Speaking Skills: Effective communication is crucial, and strong public speaking skills can enhance a candidate's appeal. 4. Media Presence: A positive image in the media can influence public perception and support. 5. Fundraising Ability: The capacity to raise funds for a campaign is essential in modern presidential elections.

Separation of powers

Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law. The idea is to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and potentially abusing its authority.

How has the court evolved over time? What are the key court cases within each SupremeCourt era?

Early Court (1789-1801): Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, allowing the Court to review and potentially invalidate actions of other branches. Marshall Court (1801-1835): McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Affirmed federal law supremacy and the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Clarified Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce. Taney Court (1836-1864): Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Denied African Americans citizenship and standing to sue in federal court. Reconstruction Era (1865-1937): Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Established "separate but equal" doctrine. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Overturned Plessy, ending racial segregation in schools. Warren Court (1953-1969): Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Established Miranda warning rights during police questioning. Burger Court (1969-1986):Roe v. Wade (1973): Recognized abortion as constitutionally protected. United States v. Nixon (1974): Limited executive privilege, contributing to Nixon's resignation.Rehnquist Court (1986-2005):Bush v. Gore (2000): Decided the 2000 election, ending the Florida recount.Lawrence v. Texas (2003): Struck down Texas's sodomy law.Roberts Court (2005-Present):Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Lifted restrictions on corporate and union political spending.Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.

How has the power of the president evolved? And again, how does this connect to the power problem of Congress?

Evolution of Presidential Power: Over time, the power of the U.S. president has expanded. Early presidents had limited authority, but factors like crises, global shifts, and changes in public expectations have contributed to the growth of presidential powers. The presidency now holds greater influence in areas like foreign policy, national security, and executive orders.Connection to Congress Power Problem: As presidential power has grown, there's a concern about a potential "power problem" in Congress. Congress, designed as a co-equal branch, has faced challenges in asserting its authority. Factors such as partisanship, gridlock, and a complex legislative process have sometimes hindered Congress from effectively checking and balancing presidential power. The evolving presidential authority and Congress's struggle to assert itself raise questions about the balance of powers outlined in the U.S. Constitution.

How are federal judges selected? Florida judges?

Federal Judges: 1. Nomination: Federal judges, including Supreme Court Justices, are nominated by the President of the United States. 2. Senate Confirmation: The nominated judges undergo a confirmation process in the U.S. Senate. The Senate Judiciary Committee holds hearings to assess the qualifications and suitability of the nominees. 3. Senate Vote: The Senate votes on the confirmation of the nominee. A simple majority is required for confirmation. Florida Judges: 1. Judicial Nominating Commission (JNC): In Florida, for many judicial appointments, including state trial and appellate judges, the process often involves Judicial Nominating Commissions. The JNC is responsible for providing the Governor with a list of potential candidates. 2. Governor's Appointment: The Governor selects a judge from the list provided by the JNC. 3. Merit Retention: In Florida, judges may face a merit retention vote during general elections. Voters decide whether to retain a judge for another term.

How does federalism complicate the court system? How many court systems are there?How is the federal court system organized? How is the state of Florida court systemorganized?

Federalism complicates the court system by establishing both federal and state court systems, each with its own jurisdiction and authority. In the United States, there are two main court systems: the federal court system and the individual state court systems. The federal court system is organized into three main levels: the U.S. Supreme Court at the top, followed by the Courts of Appeals (Circuit Courts), and then the District Courts. Each state, including Florida, has its own court system, typically organized into trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and a state supreme court. Florida's state court system, for instance, comprises trial courts handling various cases, District Courts of Appeal that review decisions from lower courts, and the Florida Supreme Court serving as the highest appellate court in the state. This dual-court system reflects the principles of federalism, where both federal and state governments maintain distinct legal domains.

What are the key differences between the Senate and the House of Representatives?

House of Representatives: Members represent specific congressional districts within their state. Senate: Senators represent the entire state. Election Frequency:House of Representatives: All members are up for reelection every two years. Senate: Approximately one-third of the Senate is up for reelection every two years. Leadership:House of Representatives: The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and is elected by House members. Senate: The Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate, but a President pro tempore is elected to preside in their absence. Role in Impeachment:House of Representatives: Has the sole power to impeach federal officials. Senate: Conducts the trial for impeached officials. A two-thirds majority vote is required for conviction.I nitiation of Revenue Bills:House of Representatives: Revenue (tax) bills must originate in the House. Senate: Has the power to amend revenue bills but cannot initiate them. Size and Atmosphere:House of Representatives: Larger body, more formal and structured. Senate: Smaller body, more relaxed and less formal.

Lobbying/lobbyist

Idea: Individuals or groups trying to influence government decisions, policies, or legislators. Example: A person hired by a company to talk to lawmakers and convince them to support laws favorable to that company.

Voter Fatigue

Idea: People becoming tired or disinterested in participating in elections or civic activities due to frequent or lengthy voting processes.Example: After several rounds of elections within a short time, individuals may feel exhausted or less motivated to engage in the voting process.

How did the Founding Fathers intend the judicial branch to function? (Federalist Paper #78)

In Federalist Paper #78, Alexander Hamilton outlined the Founding Fathers' intent for the judicial branch. They envisioned the judiciary as the least dangerous branch since it lacked both the power of the purse (budgetary control) and the power of the sword (force). The primary function of the judiciary, according to Hamilton, was to interpret and apply the laws, ensuring they aligned with the Constitution. The courts were seen as essential for protecting individual rights and liberties against potential abuses by the legislative and executive branches. The independence of the judiciary, with judges serving lifetime appointments, was designed to shield them from political pressures and enable impartial judgment. The Founding Fathers intended the judiciary to act as a check on the other branches, safeguarding the Constitution and ensuring the rule of law.

Primary/caucus

In presidential campaigns, a caucus is a system of local gatherings where voters decide which candidate to support and select delegates for nominating conventions. A primary is a statewide voting process in which voters cast secret ballots for their preferred candidates.

Indirect (grassroots) vs. direct lobbying vs. Astroturf lobbying

Indirect (Grassroots) Lobbying: Ordinary people or local groups advocate for a cause, and their collective voice influences policymakers. Example: A community organizes letter-writing campaigns or petitions to express support or opposition to a policy. Direct Lobbying: Professional lobbyists, often hired by organizations, directly communicate with policymakers to influence their decisions. Example: A company hires a lobbyist to meet with legislators and advocate for laws favorable to the company's interests. Astroturf Lobbying: Creating a fake appearance of grassroots support. It may involve organizations or campaigns that simulate grassroots movements but are actually orchestrated. Example: An industry group creates a fake grassroots campaign with paid actors posing as concerned citizens to support their cause. Key Difference: Grassroots Lobbying: Involves genuine, bottom-up efforts by ordinary people. Direct Lobbying: Involves professionals directly influencing policymakers. Astroturf Lobbying: Creates a fake grassroots appearance to manipulate public opinion.

How do we define interest groups? What are the main types of interest groups? What are the roles of interest groups in a democracy? What are benefits and drawbacks of interestgroups?

Interest Groups Definition: Interest groups are organized associations influencing public policy by advocating for specific issues and representing the interests of individuals or organizations. Main Types:Economic: Represent businesses and workers.Public Interest: Advocate for societal issues.Professional Associations: Represent specific professions.Single-Issue: Focus on narrow causes.Identity-based: Represent specific social groups. Roles in Democracy: Representation: Express member views to policymakers. Advocacy: Promote specific policies and issues. Education: Provide information on key topics. Mobilization: Activate civic and political participation. Benefits: Pluralism: Contribute diverse perspectives. Representation: Ensure specific interests are considered. Information: Provide expertise. Civic Engagement: Encourage public participation. Drawbacks: Inequality: Unequal influence due to resource disparities. Capture: Risk of controlling policymaking for self-interest. Fragmentation: Numerous groups can lead to policy conflicts. Access Disparities: Unequal access to policymakers.

How do interest groups and political parties differ?

Interest Groups: Goal: Interest groups focus on advocating for specific issues, policies, or causes that align with the interests of their members. Function: They work to influence and shape public policies by lobbying and engaging with policymakers. Their primary aim is to advance the concerns of their members. Nature: Interest groups can represent a wide range of interests, from business and labor to environmental and social issues. Political Parties: Goal: Political parties aim to gain political power by winning elections. Their main objective is to control and operate the government. Function: Parties recruit and support candidates, organize campaigns, and present a broad political platform. They seek to appeal to a wide range of voters. Nature: Political parties are broader in scope, covering a wide range of issues and policies. They aim to represent a comprehensive set of ideologies and appeal to a diverse electorate.

Interest aggregation

Interest aggregation: the process by which political demands are combined into policy programs

What is the definition of interest aggregation?

Interest aggregation: the process by which political demands are combined into policy programs -process that determines which voices get heard (narrowing of inputs) -Outcome of election -political parties are the primary interest aggregators

What is interest articulation? What are the two main components?

Interest articulation is the process through which individuals or groups express their concerns, preferences, or demands to those in power. It involves conveying opinions and seeking attention for specific issues within the political system. The two main components of interest articulation are citizen action and interest groups. Citizen action encompasses the direct involvement of individuals in expressing their views, such as through voting, attending public meetings, or participating in protests. Interest groups, on the other hand, are organized associations that represent specific interests, advocating for their members' concerns in a more structured and collective manner. Together, these components contribute to the dynamic exchange of ideas and preferences within a democracy.

Necessary and Proper Clause (elastic clause)

Is a part of the United States Constitution that gives Congress the authority to make laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its other powers. It allows Congress to pass additional laws beyond those specifically listed in the Constitution if those laws are deemed necessary to fulfill the powers granted to the federal government. This clause provides flexibility for Congress to adapt to new situations and challenges as they arise.

Standing Committee

Is a permanent committee in Congress dedicated to specific areas of legislation and policy. These committees play a vital role in thoroughly examining and refining proposed laws within their designated subject areas. Each Standing Committee focuses on particular topics, such as finance, foreign affairs, or healthcare.Members of Congress serve on one or more of these committees, allowing them to specialize in specific policy areas. Standing Committees are crucial in the legislative process, conducting hearings, reviewing bills, and proposing changes before the full Congress votes on them. They provide an organized and effective way for lawmakers to address various issues facing the country.

What are incentives for joining interest groups?

Joining interest groups can offer individuals various incentives, such as: Representation: Interest groups advocate for specific issues or concerns, providing members with a collective voice and influence in policy decisions. Access and Influence: Members often gain access to policymakers, allowing them to shape decisions and policies that align with their interests. Information and Resources: Interest groups provide members with valuable information, research, and resources related to their shared concerns, enhancing awareness and knowledge. Social Interaction: Joining a group allows individuals to connect with like-minded people, fostering a sense of community and shared purpose. Advocacy Skills: Participation in interest groups can develop members' skills in advocacy, public speaking, and strategic communication. Policy Impact: By joining forces, individuals can have a more significant impact on policy outcomes than they might have as isolated citizens.Joining interest groups offers individuals a platform to amplify their voices, connect with others who share similar concerns, and actively participate in shaping policies that matter to them.

What is the nature of the debate concerning judicial restraint vs. judicial activism?

Judicial Restraint: Definition: Judges should interpret laws narrowly and defer to elected branches. Limited Role: Avoid making policy decisions, stick to original intent. Respect for Precedent: Emphasizes following legal precedent and legislative decisions. Judicial Activism: Definition: Judges should interpret laws broadly to address contemporary issues. Expansive Interpretation: Constitution adapts to societal needs, may reinterpret precedent. Advancing Rights: Judiciary duty to protect individual rights, even if overruling legislatures. Points of Contention: Interpretation: Debate on narrow original intent vs. broad adaptation to circumstances. Role in Policy: Concerns about judiciary overstepping, engaging in policymaking. Practical Implications: Checks and Balances: Affects balance of power among branches of government. Legal Precedent: Influences stability of legal precedent and future cases. Public Perception: Legitimacy: Public views on whether judges should exercise restraint or activism impact judiciary legitimacy.

Duverger's Law

Law of politics, formalized by Maurice Duverger, stating that plurality-rule electoral systems will tend to have two political parties. it's a principle in political science that suggests a relationship between the electoral system used in a country and the number of political parties it has. The law states that in a single-member district electoral system (like the one used in U.S. congressional elections), over time, two major political parties are likely to dominate and third parties struggle to compete. This is because the winner-takes-all nature of such systems tends to favor larger parties, making it challenging for smaller parties to win representation

What are the four roles of Congress?

Law or Policy Making for the Nation, Representation, Constituency Service,Legislative Oversight

What are potential explanations for low voter turn out?

Low voter turnout can be attributed to various factors. One primary reason is apathy or disengagement, where individuals feel that their vote won't make a significant difference. Additionally, barriers like restrictive voting laws, registration difficulties, or inconvenient polling locations can discourage people from participating. Lack of trust in the political system, candidates, or dissatisfaction with available choices may also contribute to voter apathy. Furthermore, life constraints such as work obligations or health issues can limit the ability of some individuals to vote. Addressing low voter turnout often involves efforts to enhance civic education, simplify the voting process, and inspire confidence in the political system.

What are the two main electoral systems found in democracies, and how do they function?

Majoritarian System:How it works: In this system, the candidate or party that receives the most votes in a constituency wins all the representation for that area.Example: The U.S. uses a majoritarian system for most of its elections, where the candidate with the most votes in a district wins a seat. Proportional Representation (PR) System:How it works: Parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive. If a party gets 30% of the votes, they ideally get roughly 30% of the seats.Example: Countries like Germany and Sweden use proportional representation, aiming to reflect the diversity of voter preferences in the legislature.

How did Marbury v. Madison establish the principle of judicial review? What is judicialreview?

Marbury v. Madison, a landmark Supreme Court case in 1803, established the principle of judicial review. In this case, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that the Supreme Court had the authority to review the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress and signed by the President. While the specific case dealt with a political appointment, Marshall's broader assertion in the decision established the principle of judicial review—the power of the courts to interpret the Constitution and determine the constitutionality of government actions. This landmark decision affirmed the judiciary's role in interpreting the Constitution and ensuring that governmental actions align with its provisions, marking a crucial development in the American system of checks and balances.

What is mass media, and when was the advent of mass media?

Mass media refers to the means of communication, such as newspapers, radio, television, and the internet, that reach a large audience simultaneously. The advent of mass media can be traced back to the 19th and 20th centuries, with significant developments in technology and communication. The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century, laid the foundation for mass communication by allowing the production of printed materials in large quantities. However, it was in the 19th and 20th centuries, with the rise of newspapers, radio, and television, that mass media truly became a powerful force for disseminating information and shaping public opinion on a broad scale. The ability to reach a vast audience quickly transformed the way information was shared, making mass media a central component of modern societies.

Who is the current Speaker of the House?

Mike Johnson

Political efficacy

Political efficacy:Idea: The belief that an individual's actions and participation in politics can influence and make a difference in the political system. Example: Feeling confident that your vote matters and can impact the outcome of an election reflects a high level of political efficacy.

What is political polarization and does it exist? What does Fiorina argue about politicalpolarization in his article?

Political polarization refers to the divergence of political attitudes, beliefs, and ideologies between individuals or groups. It typically involves a widening gap and increasing ideological distance between those on opposite ends of the political spectrum. Fiorina, in his article, argues that the extent of political polarization is often exaggerated. He contends that while political elites may show increased polarization, the general public tends to be more diverse and less ideologically extreme. Fiorina emphasizes that many Americans hold a mix of liberal and conservative views, challenging the notion of a deeply divided society. According to him, the political landscape is more nuanced and varied than a simple narrative of widespread polarization might suggest

What is political socialization, and what are the main agents of political socialization?

Political socialization refers to the process through which individuals acquire political beliefs, values, and behaviors. It occurs throughout a person's life and involves various influences that shape their political perspective. The main agents of political socialization include family, education, peers, media, and religious institutions. Family plays a crucial role in introducing individuals to political ideas during childhood, while schools and educational institutions reinforce civic values and provide information about the political system. Peers contribute to shaping political opinions through shared discussions and experiences. Media, including news sources and social media, significantly influences political views by presenting information and framing issues. Religious institutions may also impact political beliefs through teachings and values. Together, these agents shape an individual's understanding of politics and contribute to their political identity.

What is the power problem with the media, and why does it exist?

Power problem with media is bias Types of bias: economic, ideological, sensationalism, andpartisanship

Which government officials on the state and federal levels are DIRECTLY elected by thepeople?

President and Vice President: These officials are elected every four years through the Electoral College system, where citizens indirectly vote for electors who then cast their votes for the presidential and vice-presidential candidates.U.S. Senators: Senators are elected by the voters of their respective states to serve six-year terms. Each state has two senators.U.S. Representatives (Members of the House of Representatives): Representatives are elected by voters in individual congressional districts within their states. The number of representatives from each state is based on its population.Governors: Governors are elected by the voters of their states and typically serve four-year terms. They are the chief executives of the state governments.State Legislators: Members of state legislatures (both the Senate and the House or Assembly) are directly elected by voters in their respective districts.Mayors: In the case of local government, mayors are often directly elected by voters in a city or municipality.

What does the Senate play in presidential appointments to the bureaucracy and judiciary?

Presidential Appointments to the Bureaucracy: 1. The President nominates individuals for various positions in the executive branch, such as cabinet members, agency heads, and other key officials. 2. The Senate must confirm these nominations by holding hearings and voting on whether to approve or reject the President's choices. 3. This confirmation process ensures that the Senate has a say in who holds important roles in the government, providing a system of checks and balances. Presidential Appointments to the Judiciary:1. The President also nominates federal judges, including those for the Supreme Court and lower federal courts.2. Similar to executive branch appointments, the Senate conducts hearings to assess the qualifications and views of judicial nominees.3. The Senate then votes to confirm or reject the nominees. A successful confirmation means the individuals become federal judges with lifelong appointments, shaping the judiciary's composition.T

What are the various steps/components of presidential elections? What is a caucus? Whatis a primary?

Presidential elections in the United States involve several steps. First, candidates from major political parties go through a series of primary elections and caucuses, where voters express their preferences. A caucus is a local meeting where party members discuss and select their preferred candidate through open discussions and votes. A primary, on the other hand, is a state-level election in which voters cast secret ballots to choose their preferred candidate. These processes determine the number of delegates each candidate receives. The next step is the national party conventions, where delegates officially nominate their party's candidate. Following the conventions, the general election takes place in November, where voters in each state cast their ballots for the presidential candidate of their choice. The candidate who wins the majority of electoral votes in this election becomes the President of the United States.

What are the various ways to measure public opinion? What type of polls are most reliable?What type of poll is unscientific?

Public opinion can be measured through various methods, including surveys, polls, and focus groups. Scientific polls, conducted through random sampling to ensure a representative sample of the population, are considered the most reliable. These polls aim to minimize bias and accurately reflect the broader public sentiment. On the other hand, unscientific polls, such as online surveys or polls conducted without proper sampling methods, are less reliable. These polls may not represent the population accurately and can be influenced by factors like self-selection, leading to skewed or misleading results. It's essential to rely on scientifically conducted polls to obtain a more accurate understanding of public opinion on specific issue

What is public opinion, and why is it important in a democracy?

Public opinion refers to the collective attitudes, beliefs, and preferences of the general population on various issues. In a democracy, public opinion holds immense significance as it serves as the foundation of representative governance. Elected officials rely on an understanding of public sentiment to make informed policy decisions that align with the will of the people. Public opinion guides the democratic process by influencing elections, shaping policy debates, and holding leaders accountable. It fosters a dynamic interaction between citizens and government, ensuring that policies reflect the diverse perspectives and values of the population. In this way, public opinion is a vital mechanism for citizen engagement, promoting responsiveness, and sustaining the democratic principles of representation and accountability.

Administrative discretion

Refers to the authority given to government agencies and officials to interpret and apply laws within a certain degree of flexibility. It means that those responsible for implementing laws and policies have some leeway in how they carry out their duties. They can use their judgment and expertise to make decisions based on the specific circumstances they encounter. Administrative discretion is essential for the practical functioning of government agencies, allowing them to adapt to diverse situations while staying within the broader framework of the law.

Single Member District Plurality System/ Winner Take All/ First Past the Post vs. Proportional

Single Member District Plurality System (Winner Take All/First Past the Post):Idea: Each geographic area (district) elects one representative, and the candidate with the most votes in that district wins.Outcome: Only the candidate with the most votes in a district gets a seat, and the party with the most seats forms the government.Example: U.S. House of Representatives elections, where each congressional district elects one representative.Proportional Representation:Idea: Seats in the legislative body are allocated to political parties based on the proportion of votes they receive in the overall election.Outcome: Multiple parties can win seats, and the distribution reflects the percentage of votes each party received.Example: If a party gets 30% of the total votes, they ideally get approximately 30% of the seats in the legislative body.Key Difference:In Winner Take All, the candidate or party with the most votes in a specific district takes all the representation for that area.In Proportional Representation, the distribution of seats aims to mirror the overall percentage of votes each party received nationwide.

FCC

Stands for the Federal Communications Commission. It is a U.S. government agency responsible for regulating and overseeing communication by wire, radio, television, satellite, and cable. It was established to ensure that these communication services operate in the public interest, promoting competition, innovation, and protecting consumers. The FCC sets rules and standards for the broadcasting industry, allocates the use of the radio frequency spectrum, and addresses issues such as net neutrality and media ownership. Essentially, it plays a key role in shaping and overseeing various aspects of communication and media in the United States.

What do we mean by the "cult of the amateur" when we talk about media/ journalism in the21st century?

The "cult of the amateur" in 21st-century media and journalism refers to the rise of non-professional individuals or citizen journalists participating in news production through platforms like blogs, social media, and user-generated content. While this democratization of information allows for diverse voices and perspectives, it also raises concerns about the reliability and accuracy of news. With the ease of online publishing, anyone can contribute to the information landscape, blurring the lines between professional journalism and amateur commentary. Critics argue that this trend can lead to the spread of misinformation, as the lack of professional standards and fact-checking may compromise the quality and credibility of news in the digital age.

What is the electoral college, and why does it exist?

The Electoral College is the method used in the United States to elect the President and Vice President. It consists of 538 electors, with each state having a certain number of electors based on its representation in Congress. The system combines the number of senators and representatives in each state, with the District of Columbia also having three electors. During a presidential election, voters in each state cast their ballots for a slate of electors pledged to a specific candidate. The candidate who wins the popular vote in a state usually receives all of that state's electoral votes, except in Nebraska and Maine, which use a proportional system. The Electoral College was established by the Founding Fathers as a compromise between electing the President by popular vote and having Congress make the decision. It aims to balance the interests of large and small states and prevents the dominance of heavily populated regions in presidential elections.

How does the electoral college work? (Make sure you know specifics) What are criticismsof the electoral college?

The Electoral College is the system used in the United States to elect the President and Vice President. Each state is allocated a certain number of electors based on its representation in Congress, combining the number of senators and representatives. In most states, the candidate who wins the popular vote receives all of that state's electoral votes, except in Nebraska and Maine, where votes can be split. A candidate needs a majority of electoral votes (270 out of 538) to win the presidency. Critics of the Electoral College argue that it can lead to "winner-takes-all" outcomes, where a candidate may win the popular vote but lose the election if their opponent secures more electoral votes. This has happened in a few instances throughout U.S. history, leading to calls for reforms or the adoption of a popular vote system. Additionally, critics express concerns about the disproportionate influence of certain swing states in presidential elections, which can overshadow the voices of voters in other states.

What does the First Amendment freedom of speech protect? Is the 1st Amendmentinterpreted in absolute terms, or are there exceptions? What types of speech are notprotected?

The First Amendment's freedom of speech protects individuals' rights to express their thoughts, opinions, and ideas without government interference. However, the interpretation is not absolute, and there are exceptions to this protection. Speech that incites violence, poses a clear and present danger, or involves obscenity, defamation, or fighting words may not be protected. Additionally, certain forms of commercial speech, like false advertising, and speech that violates intellectual property rights may face limitations. While the First Amendment is a cornerstone of free expression, it is subject to reasonable restrictions in specific circumstances to balance individual rights with broader societal interests and safety.

How did the Founding Fathers view Congress? Did they intend on legislative or executive governance?

The Founding Fathers envisioned Congress as a legislative body with the primary responsibility of making laws. They designed it to be a co-equal branch of government alongside the executive (President) and the judiciary (courts). The intention was to create a system of checks and balances, ensuring that no single branch held too much power. The Founding Fathers did not intend for Congress to have executive functions but rather to focus on representing the interests of the people and passing legislation. This separation of powers is a fundamental principle of the U.S. Constitution.

What did the Founding Fathers think about the abilities of common citizens(in terms of voting, being educated, public opinion, etc)?

The Founding Fathers had varied views on the abilities of common citizens. While they championed democratic principles, some held reservations about the potential for mob rule and the uninformed masses making significant decisions. Figures like Alexander Hamilton and John Adams were skeptical of direct democracy and expressed concerns about the wisdom of the general public. However, others, including Thomas Jefferson, were more optimistic, believing in the ability of an informed citizenry to make sound decisions. Overall, the Founding Fathers aimed to establish a balance between representative democracy and safeguards against the potential excesses of unchecked popular opinion, leading to the creation of a system with elected representatives and a Constitution that outlined both individual rights and a framework for governance.

How does the media both set the agenda and frame issues?

The media plays a crucial role in shaping public perception by setting the agenda and framing issues. Setting the agenda involves deciding which topics are deemed important and warrant public attention. By highlighting specific issues through news coverage, the media influences what people consider significant. Framing, on the other hand, involves presenting information in a particular way to shape public understanding. The media can frame issues by emphasizing certain aspects, using specific language, or providing a particular context, influencing how audiences interpret and respond to the news. In this way, the media not only informs the public but also guides the public's attention and understanding of various topics and events.+

Discuss the order of presidential succession.

The order of presidential succession outlines who becomes the President if the sitting President is unable to fulfill their duties. 1. Vice President: The Vice President is the first in line. If the President can't serve, the Vice President steps in. 2. Speaker of the House: If both the President and Vice President are unable, the Speaker of the House (the leader of the U.S. House of Representatives) takes over. 3. President Pro Tempore of the Senate: If the President, Vice President, and Speaker are all unable, the President Pro Tempore of the Senate (a senator chosen to preside in the absence of the Vice President) assumes the role. 4. Cabinet Members: The order then follows the line of the President's Cabinet, starting with the Secretary of State and proceeding based on the order in which the departments were created.

What is the power problem with the judicial branch, and why does it exist?

The power problem with the judicial branch refers to concerns about the potential overreach of judicial authority, particularly when unelected judges make decisions with far-reaching implications. Critics argue that judges, who are not directly accountable to the electorate, might engage in judicial activism—interpreting the Constitution or laws in a way that aligns with personal ideologies rather than adhering strictly to the original intent. This can lead to concerns about the democratic legitimacy of certain decisions. The power problem exists due to the inherent tension between the need for an independent judiciary to safeguard constitutional principles and the potential for judges to influence policy in ways not directly accountable to the public. Striking a balance between judicial independence and accountability remains an ongoing challenge.

What is the power problem with the presidency? How does it connect to the powerproblem of Congress?

The power problem with the presidency refers to the challenge of balancing the need for a strong executive with the potential for abuse of power. The Constitution grants the President significant powers, but there is a concern about the potential for executive overreach, unchecked authority, and the erosion of checks and balances.This power problem connects to the power problem of Congress in the context of a broader struggle for a balanced distribution of powers among the three branches of government. The framers of the Constitution aimed to establish a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. However, this balance is delicate, and over time, there have been shifts in the relative power of the executive and legislative branches.Both the presidency and Congress have at times sought to expand their influence, leading to power struggles. For example, Congress may try to limit executive power through legislative means, such as controlling the budget or confirming presidential appointments. Conversely, the President might use executive orders or other unilateral actions to assert authority.The power problem underscores the ongoing tension between the need for a strong, effective government and the imperative to prevent tyranny or authoritarianism. It necessitates a constant evaluation and adjustment of the separation of powers to ensure that each branch operates within its constitutional limits.

What level of government is primarily responsible for the regulation of elections? What doesthe Constitution/ Amendments say about elections?

The regulation of elections is primarily the responsibility of state and local governments in the United States. The Constitution grants states the authority to determine the "Times, Places, and Manner" of holding elections for Senators and Representatives. Additionally, the 15th, 19th, 24th, and 26th Amendments address issues related to voting rights and procedures, such as prohibiting racial discrimination, granting women the right to vote, eliminating poll taxes, and lowering the voting age to 18. While the federal government has some oversight, the specifics of election regulations are largely within the purview of individual states.

What are the two theories of representation/ views on role of public opinion and its relationship to public policy?

The two theories of representation regarding the role of public opinion in shaping public policy are the delegate model and the trustee model. In the delegate model, representatives see their role as strictly mirroring the preferences of their constituents. They act as delegates, carrying out the will of the people and adhering closely to public opinion. On the other hand, the trustee model suggests that representatives, as trustees, are entrusted by the public to make decisions in the best interest of the nation, even if it may differ from current public opinion. Trustee representatives exercise independent judgment and may prioritize long-term considerations or expert opinions over immediate public sentiment. These theories reflect the ongoing debate about the appropriate balance between responsiveness to public opinion and the exercise of independent judgment by elected officials.

Trustee vs. Delegate theory of representation/ public opinion

Trustee Theory: Elected representatives use their judgment and expertise to make decisions they believe are in the best interest of the public.Role: They act as "trustees" who exercise independent judgment, considering the long-term welfare of the constituents.Delegate Theory:Elected representatives strictly follow the preferences and opinions of their constituents, acting as messengers for the public will.Role: They act as "delegates" who convey and execute the specific wishes of the people who elected them

What three themes does Washington emphasize in his Farewell Address?

Unity and Sectionalism: Washington emphasizes the importance of national unity and warns against the dangers of sectionalism and political factionalism. He urges Americans to prioritize the common interest of the nation over regional or party interests, emphasizing the need for a unified and cohesive country. Foreign Relations and Neutrality: Washington highlights the significance of maintaining a neutral stance in foreign affairs, particularly in the context of the ongoing conflicts in Europe. He advises the avoidance of permanent alliances and entanglements that might compromise the nation's ability to pursue its own interests and maintain peace.Preservation of the Constitution and Government Institutions: Washington stresses the necessity of preserving the Constitution and the institutions of government. He encourages respect for the rule of law, the separation of powers, and the democratic process. Washington warns against the dangers of undermining these foundations, emphasizing the importance of maintaining the integrity of the nation's political system.

Ballot Initiative/ Referendum

a "ballot initiative" or "referendum" is a way for people to directly vote on a proposed law or policy. Instead of the government making the decision, citizens can put an issue on the ballot. They vote "yes" or "no" to either approve or reject the proposed law or changes to existing laws. It's a form of direct democracy, allowing citizens to have a direct say in specific decisions that impact their community or state.

Fairness Doctrine

a policy of the FCC that required broadcast license holders to present controversial issues in a fair and balanced manner. Enforced from 1949 to 1987, the doctrine aimed to ensure that different perspectives on important topics were aired, promoting diversity and preventing the dominance of a single viewpoint in the media. It was intended to serve the public interest by fostering informed and balanced discussions on broadcast outlets. The Fairness Doctrine was eliminated in 1987, and its removal contributed to changes in the media landscape.

Conference Committee

a special committee created to resolve disagreements between the House of Representatives and the Senate on a particular piece of legislation. If the two houses pass different versions of a bill, a Conference Committee is formed to work out the differences and come up with a single, unified version that both chambers can agree upon. Once the committee reaches a consensus, the revised bill goes back to each house for a final vote before it can become law. The Conference Committee plays a crucial role in the legislative process, facilitating compromise and coordination between the two branches of Congress.

Federalism

a system of government where power is divided between a central authority (like a national government) and individual regions or states. It means there are two levels of government that each have their own responsibilities and authority. This system aims to balance national unity with regional autonomy. federalism refers to the division of powers and responsibilities between the national government (federal government) and individual state governments. The U.S. Constitution outlines the powers granted to the federal government, and any powers not explicitly given to it are reserved for the states. This system of government allows for a sharing of authority and responsibilities between the national and state levels.

Select Committee

a temporary committee established by a legislative body, such as the U.S. Congress, to investigate specific issues or address particular concerns. Select Committees are created for a specific purpose, often in response to a pressing problem or to study a particular subject in-depth. Once the committee completes its task and submits a report or recommendations, it is usually disbanded. Select Committees allow Congress to focus on specific issues and gather expertise to address emerging challenges or investigate important matters.

Executive order

an executive order is a directive issued by the President that manages operations of the federal government and has the force of law. It's a command from the President to federal agencies and officials on how to carry out their duties. Executive orders are typically used to implement existing laws, enforce policies, or manage the executive branch's internal affairs. While they do not create new laws, executive orders have significant influence and can shape the way laws are executed and enforced.

What is the power problem with Congress, and why does it exist?

effectiveness; Congress as the "broken branch" of government. Why?: organization and operation

Rule of Law

everyone is subject to the law, including those who make the laws, and no one is above it. It implies that laws should be applied consistently and fairly to all people, regardless of their status or power. It is a fundamental principle in a just and democratic society, ensuring that legal processes and decisions are predictable, transparent, and based on established rules rather than arbitrary actions.

Gerrymandering (partisan-along party lines or racial)

gerrymandering is the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or group over another. It's done to give one side an advantage in elections by strategically shaping the boundaries of voting districts. There are two main types:Partisan Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to benefit a specific political party, making it more likely for that party to win more seats. Racial Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries based on race, often with the intention of diluting the voting power of a particular racial or ethnic group.

Joint Committee

is a committee that includes members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate. It is a committee where representatives and senators work together on issues that require collaboration between both chambers of Congress. Joint Committees can be temporary or permanent and are often established to address specific tasks, such as conducting investigations or overseeing certain aspects of government operations. They provide a way for members of both houses to coordinate and cooperate on issues of common interest.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

is a law that aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting. It prohibits discriminatory practices like literacy tests and other barriers that were historically used to disenfranchise African American voters. The law played a crucial role in promoting equal voting rights and increasing political participation among minority communities.

Executive agreement

is a pact between the President and the leader of another country. Unlike treaties, executive agreements do not require Senate approval. They are often used for issues that do not have a significant impact on domestic laws and are within the President's constitutional powers. Executive agreements can cover a range of topics, including trade, defense, and diplomatic relations, and they allow for more flexibility in international dealings compared to formal treaties.

Indirect democracy

is also known as representative democracy. it is a system where people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. In simple terms, instead of every citizen voting on every issue, they vote for individuals who will represent their interests and make decisions in a legislative body, such as congress. These elected representatives then create and vote on laws and policies. Indirect democracy is a practical way to manage decision-making in large societies, allowing citizens to participate in governance through their chosen representatives.

Executive privilege

it is the President's right to keep certain communications and information confidential. It is based on the idea that for effective governance, the President and other high-ranking officials need to have candid and open discussions without fear that their conversations will be made public. Executive privilege is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but is considered an implied power of the President. However, it is not absolute, and in certain situations, the courts may compel the release of information if it is deemed crucial to the administration of justice or government accountability.

1934 Communications Act

law that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and regulates communication by wire and radio in the United States. The act created the FCC as an independent agency to regulate communication services. It grants the FCC authority over radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable communication, aiming to ensure fair competition and protect the public interest. The act recognizes that the airwaves are a public resource and grants the FCC the authority to allocate and license their use. The FCC sets and enforces standards for broadcasting, including content, licensing, and technical aspects. The act promotes the availability of communication services to all Americans, contributing to the concept of universal service.

How do we define political parties? What are the roles of political parties in a democracy?

political parties are the primary interest aggregators and are organized groups of individuals with shared political goals and ideologies. 1. Recruit and Nominate Candidates: Parties identify and support candidates to represent them in elections, from local offices to the presidency.2. Campaign and Elections: They organize and run election campaigns, mobilizing voters and competing for elected positions.3. Government Operation: Successful parties form the government, with their members occupying key positions. They implement policies, legislate, and govern.4. Representation: Parties represent diverse interests and viewpoints, providing voters with choices that reflect a range of perspectives.5. Political Education: Parties help educate the public about political issues, shaping public opinion and fostering informed citizenry.

Mass media

refers to a broad range of communication channels, such as newspapers, television, radio, and the internet, that reach a large audience. These outlets play a crucial role in shaping public opinion, disseminating information, and facilitating communication between the government and the citizens. Mass media acts as a watchdog, holding the government accountable by reporting on its actions, policies, and decisions. It is a key element in the functioning of a democratic society, providing citizens with the information they need to make informed decisions and participate in civic life.

Civil Rights Act

refers to several pieces of U.S. legislation that aim to protect the rights of individuals against discrimination based on characteristics such as race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The most well-known Civil Rights Act is the one enacted in 1964. The purpose was to end segregation and discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Jurisdiction

refers to the authority or power of a court to hear and decide legal cases. It defines the specific geographic area, subject matter, or types of cases that a particular court is allowed to handle. Jurisdiction ensures that cases are heard by the appropriate court based on factors like location, the nature of the legal issues, and the parties involved. Different courts, such as federal and state courts, may have distinct jurisdictions, and understanding jurisdiction is crucial for the proper administration of justice.

Civil society

refers to the community of individuals and organizations outside of the government and business sectors. These are groups of people who come together voluntarily to pursue common interests, advocate for causes, or address societal issues. Civil society includes various groups such as non-profit organizations, advocacy groups, community associations, and grassroots movements. It plays a vital role in shaping public opinion, promoting social change, and providing a check on government actions.

Social capital

refers to the networks, relationships, and social connections among individuals and communities. It's the idea that the strength and quality of these social connections can have positive effects on society. Social capital can contribute to community cooperation, civic engagement, and the overall well-being of individuals and communities. It emphasizes the importance of trust, shared values, and social interactions in building a healthy and functioning society.

Interest articulation

refers to the process by which individuals, groups, or organizations express their needs, concerns, and desires to the government. This can take various forms such as:Lobbying: Groups or individuals may directly communicate with government officials to influence decision-making.Public Advocacy: Expressing opinions and concerns through public speeches, writing, or media to raise awareness and influence public opinion.Petitions: Collecting signatures or support for a specific cause or issue to present to the government.Participation in Elections: Voting for candidates or issues that align with one's interests

Bicameralism

refers to the system of having two separate chambers or houses within the legislative branch. Specifically, it pertains to the two houses of the United States Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives.Bicameralism means there are two groups of lawmakers who work together to make laws. Each house has its own set of responsibilities and represents the people in a different way. The idea behind this system is to provide a checks-and-balances mechanism, ensuring that no single group has too much power and that legislation receives careful consideration from multiple perspectives before becoming law.

Fourth estate (media)

the "Fourth Estate" refers to the media, often considered as the fourth branch of government alongside the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The term emphasizes the media's role as an additional check on the power of the government. The media serves as a watchdog, providing information, analysis, and criticism that help hold the government accountable, inform the public, and contribute to the functioning of a healthy democracy. It plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing policy discussions, and ensuring transparency in government actions.

Representation

the act of being a voice or advocate for a group of people within the government. This often involves elected officials, such as members of Congress, who are chosen by the people to represent their interests and concerns in the decision-making processes of the government.

Power problem (generally)

the need to grant government enough power to address problems, while limiting it enough to be held accountable.

22nd Amendment

this imposes a limit on the number of terms a person can serve as the President of the United States. No individual can be elected to the office of the President more than twice. The exception is that if someone assumes the presidency due to the death or resignation of the previous president and serves less than two years of their term, they can still be elected to two full terms.The amendment was introduced to prevent a president from serving an extended, possibly indefinite, number of terms and to promote regular changes in leadership.