Grammar Revision

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uncountable noun

A noun that has no plural form, such as "water," "gold," or "furniture".

restrictive relative clause

A relative clause that cannot be removed from the sentence without destroying the meaning of the sentence. Not surrounded by commas. (that)

plural-only noun

A noun that has no singular form: shorts, trousers, slacks, scissors, clothes.

zero plural noun

A plural form identical with the singular, e.g. sheep, aircraft.

compound sentence

A sentence with two or more main clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions.

transitive verb

An action verb that has a direct object

grammatical auxiliary

assist the main verb; be, do, have

some vs. any

some is used in affirmative sentences, any is used in questions and negatives

sentential relative clause

A relative clause that is analyzed as a disjunct adverbial; it says something about the whole preceding sentence, not about an individual noun phrase. It is seperated by a comma from the rest of the sentence. My parents kept refusing to send me more money, (which really annoyed me.)

non-restrictive relative clause

A relative clause that provides extra information. Surrounded by commas (who/which)

complex sentence

A sentence composed of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause

simple sentence

A sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause

intransitive verb

An action verb that does not have a direct object but can require an adverbial

indefinite pronouns

Anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, all, each

indicative subject-auxiliary inversion

If a negative or limiting adverbial is put at the beginng of a sentence: --Not in a million years will I go back to this hotel! (A auxV S MV A)

interrogative subject-auxiliary inversion

Movement of auxiliary verb to the front of the sentence; used when writing a question

reflexive pronoun

Refers to the subject and directs the action of the verb back to the subject.

subject-verbal inversion

The main verb moves in front of the subject. The subject is the most important new info, VP is simple and intransitive "Here is Johnny" (A V S) "Come here," said the children on the swing.

grammatical words

They have little semantic content of their own and chiefly indicate a grammatical relationship. They serve to bind a text together and they have a relatively fixed number of words that perform a similar function.

root modality

When the speaker predicts something about a future situation, can bring about/influence someone else to bring about a situation, or describe the capacity of someone or something in the present to do something; always non-factive

central deteminer

a determiner that cannot occur with an article (or an article)

pre-determiner

a determiner that comes before the central determiner: all, twice, fractions, such

progressive aspect

a form of the auxiliary verb "be" and the -ing form of the main verb; it indicates that an action is ongoing

simple noun phrase

a noun on its own or a noun preceded by a determiner

complex noun phrase

a noun that is modified

collective noun

a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things

countable noun

a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count

relative clause

a particular type of subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun: who, which, that, whose

reduced relative clause

a relative clause where the relative pronoun has been omitted

adjunct

a type of adverbial that answers questions such as why, how, when, where, describes cause, effect and conditions

disjunct

a type of adverbial that conveys attitudes and feelings

non-finite verb

a verb that does not express contrasts of tense, number, and person; they are always the same; ing-form, past participle, infinitive

modal

a verb that expresses a range of judgments about the likelihood of events

prepositional verb

a verb that is followed by a preposition that cannot be separated fromthe verb and placed after a following phrase

stative verb

a verb that refers to a state, experience, or conditon rather than to actions; usually not used in progressive form, usually occurs in simple form in all tenses

dynamic verb

a verb that refers to an action or to a changing situation; it has a beginning and an end; it can be progressive as well as simple

complex transitive verb

a verb that takes an object and an object predicative

monotransitive verb

a verb that takes one object and can also require an adverbial

ditransitive verb

a verb that takes two objects (one indirect and one direct)

demonstrative pronoun

a word that points the place of a specific person, place, or thing: this (is big), that (doesn't fit), these (are yours), those (are mine)

articles

a, an, the

voice

active or passive

types of pre-modification for nouns

adjectives, participles, nouns, 's genetives, adverbs

consecutive adjunct

an adverbial that establishes an effect of result. It rained so hard "that the streets flooded".

concession adjunct

an adverbial that establishes contrary circumstances. Lorna went out "although it was raining".

manner adjunct

an adverbial that establishes how the action happened or the state existed; He ran "with difficulty" (manner)

conditional adjunct

an adverbial that establishes the condition in which an action occurs or state holds. I would go to Paris, "if I had the money".

purpose adjunct

an adverbial that establishes the goal of an action (what one wants to accomplish). He works a lot "to earn money for school."

instrument adjunct

an adverbial that establishes the instrument used to accoplish an action. He wrote the letter "with a pencil".

degree adjunct

an adverbial that establishes the measure of the action, state, or quality that they modify. I am "completely" finished.

reason adjunct

an adverbial that establishes the why, or purpose of, an action or state

time adjunct

an adverbial that establishes when, how long, or how frequent the action or state happened or existed.

place adjunct

an adverbial that establishes where, to where, or from where a state or action happened or existed.

conjunct

an adverbial whose function is to join two sentences or other discourse units (e.g. however, anyway, in the first place ).

grammatical words (word classes)

auxiliary verbs prepositions pronouns interjections coordinating conjunctions the infinitive marker to dummy it subordinating conjunctions determiners existential there numerals the negator not

demonstrative determiner

can be singular or plural, close or distant: this (cat), that (house), these (dogs), those (birds)

past participle

combines with the grammatical auxiliary verb have to form the perfect aspect, can be used as an adjective

perfect aspect

constructed by using the auxiliary verb have and the past participle of the main verb. It normally indicates that an action is complete.

modal equivalent

contain combinations of grammatical auxiliaries (either BE or HAVE) with modal meaning : be able to, be allowed to, be supposed to, be going to, to have to

extension in time verbs

dynamic verbs like walk, dance sew, drive; in progressive it suggests that a situation is not permanent

sudden change verbs

dynamic verbs that refer to a sudden change in state: die, drown, stop, crack; progressive suggests the approach to the change rather than the change itself

process of change verbs

dynamic verbs that refer to change over time: become, get, change, grow; progressive suggests the focus is on the on-going process (not habitual or universal)

momentary verbs

dynamic verbs without significant extension in time, hit, kick, knock, meet; progressive suggests repeated actions going on for some time

reciprocal pronouns

each other, one another

indicative mood

expresses factual meaning

subjunctive mood

expresses wishes, conditions, and other non-factual or hypothetical situations

post-determiner

follows a central determiner: cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, much, many few, little, several

past tense

form of the verb that is used to mark past time

auxiliary verb

helping verbs assist the main verb in the clause to express a range of grammatical contrasts; modal and grammatical

non-factive

hypothetical statement about the furture, uncertain of the facts; expressed by modal auxiliaries and the imperative or subjunctive moods

appositives

identify the noun by giving an attribute of the noun, giving an example of the noun, or rewording or defining the noun

proximity principle

in general, words of a clause element should stick together as a unit

factive

indicative sentences, things that can be true or are knowable (regardless of certainty)

mood

indicative, subjunctive, and imperative

non-finite clause

infinitive or participle clauses

possesive pronoun

is a form of personal pronoun that shows possesion or owernship

zero article

is used to build indefinite noun phrases with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns: general references, abstract nouns, seasons, festivals, institutions; Ex. Christmas is coming. Love is good.

present participle

it combines with the grammatical auxiliary ver be to form the progressive aspect, can be used as an adjective

interrogative pronoun

it introduces a question

regular verbs

lexical verbs that are inflected by adding -ed in the past tense and the past participle forms

irregular verbs

lexical verbs that do not follow normal inflection rules in the past tense and past participle forms

copular verbs

link the subject to the subject predicative

lexical verb

main verbs that have a clear, stateable meaning; refer to actions, activities, states or relations

epistemic modality

modality that expresses a lack of certainty but is not completely non-factive; could be true or not but the speaker lacks the facts to assess this

postponement

moving a long and heavy clause element (or part of a clause element) to the end of a sentence; This made "unhappy" those who think juvenile delinquents tend to get off too easily.

possessive determiner

my, his, our

other determiners

no, either, either of, neither, neither of, enough, another; ex. no apples, neither tie, enough water, another time

types of phrases

noun, verb, adjective, adverb, prepositional, pronoun-headed noun phrases

time of verb

past, present, future

types of post-modification for nouns

prepositionial phrases, relative clauses, non-finte clauses, adjectives, adverbs, appositives

instantaneous present

punctual present - dynamic, coincides with moment of speech; like sports commentary or live broadcasting

referring present

quoting famous people; I hear you are going away. "Hear" implies greater confidence in the truth

aspect

refers to the how an action or event is viewed with respect to time, rather than to when it happened; ongoing or completed

personal pronoun

represents a specific person place or thing (we, you,it)

inversion

switching the verb and subject because of the principle of end weight

finite verb

the first verb in a complex verb phrase, it shows contrast in tense and case

-s form

the form of the verb that is used in the third person singular present tense

base form

the form of the verb with no endings, used in the infinitive

tense

the way the verb changes its endings to express time; present and past

phrasal verbs

two-word verbs where the second element is an adverbial participle: crop up, give in

historic present

using the present to refer to something in the past to make it vivid

present progressive

verb form: they are working, she is speaking

past perfect progressive

verb form: they had been working

past perfect

verb form: they had worked

present perfect progressive

verb form: they have been working

present perfect

verb form: they have worked

past progressive

verb form: they were working

future progressive

verb form: they will be working

future perfect progressive

verb form: they will have been working

future perfect

verb form: they will have worked

simple future

verb form: they will work

simple present

verb form: they work, she speaks

simple past

verb form: they worked, she spoke

infinitive

verb form: to work/ to speak

intransitive verbs

verbs that do not take objects but may require an adverbial

transitive verbs

verbs that require an object

catenatives

verbs which are used like auxiliaries, yet can also be main verbs; kept, began, stop; they cannot be used to make questions or negations on their own without "do" support

fronting

when something other than the subject is first in a sentence, most often an ADV

relative pronouns

who, whom, whose, which, that

foreign plurals

words of Latin or Greek origin form their plurals according to the rules of their original language

lexical words

words that carry explicit meanings and represent word groups that are open to addition and variation


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