HDFS Final

Authoritative Parenting

(High Demand, High Responsiveness) -child-centered, democratic, flexible -firm behavioral guidelines -decision making, warm, accepting, involved, trusting, monitoring -assertiveness, self-regulation, autonomy

Authoritarian Parenting

(High Demand, Low Responsiveness) -adult-centered, autocratic, rigid -strict rules and expectations -unilateral decision making -little warmth or communication -obedience, distrusting -punitive punishment

Indifferent Parenting

(Low Demand, Low Responsiveness) -adult centered, passive, dismissing -few demands, poor or little communication -do not monitor or supervise behavior -detached, distant, withdrawn, absent

Indulgent Parenting

(Low demand, High Responsiveness) -child-centered appeasing -no guidelines, non-directive -avoid conflict, discipline -warm, accepting, nurturing -few rules and expectations -over involved, blurred roles

Stability and Changes in Self-Esteem

-*Stability*: extent to which individuals' relative ranking within a group on a particular trait stays more or less the same over time -self-esteem becomes increasingly stable during adolescents -*self-consciousness*- the degree to which an individual's self-image changes from day-to-day

Information-processing perspective

A perspective on cognition that explains cognitive development in terms of specific components of the thinking process.

Attachment in Adolescence

*Adult Attachment Interview*- structured interview used to assess an individual's post attachment history and "internal working model" of relationships. -secure, dismissing or preoccupied -secure attachment linked to more social competence, more success in school, less substance use, and better adjustment -Attachment security is generally stable, but can change in dysfunctional family situations or with chronic stress. -The degree of security in an adolescent's attachment style interacts with other experiences to shape mental health and behavior.

Attachment Theory

*Attachment*- strong affectional bond that develops between an infant and caregiver. *Secure Attachment*- healthy attachment between infant and caregiver, characterized by trust *Anxious-Avoidant Attachment*- insecure attachment between infant and caregiver, characterized by indifference on the part of the infant toward the caregiver. *Anxious-Resistant Attachment*- insecure attachment between infants and caregiver, characterized by distress at separation and anger at reunion *Disorganized Attachment*- relationship between infant and caregiver characterized by the absence of normal attachment behavior.

Genetic Influences on Adolescent Development

*Behavioral Genetics*- scientific study of genetic influences on behavior. -Twin studies- Adopted children and comparing them to birth and adoptive parents -Children and siblings in stepfamilies. *Molecular genetics*- scientific study of the structure and function of genes. -Genetic markers for aggression, depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking -*Alleles*- different versions of the same genes. *Shared environmental influences*- nongenetic influences that make individuals in the same family similar to each other. -Socioeconomic status, neighborhood and less influential in adolescents. *Nonshared environmental influences*- nongenetic influences in individuals' lives that make them different from people they live with. -Parental treatment, peer relations and school experiences are particularly strong in adolescents. Genes shape tendencies, but whether these tendencies are actualized often depends on the environment and vice versa.

Information-Processing Perspective: Memory

*Capacity*- number of mental tasks we can handle at one time -Ex: how much can be retained and considered at once? -Multi-step problems or problems with many rules can be tricky! -Adolescent memory capacity is larger than for children *Knowledge Base*- amount of information we do know -Adolescents have broader knowledge base than children -Egocentrism means they think they know more than they do! *Automaticity*- repetitive tasks we can do without cognitive effort *Working Memory*- holding information for a short time to solve problems *Long-term Memory*- Ability to recall memories from long ago *The Reminiscence Bump*- More memories recalled from this period of the lifespan than any other

Externalizing Problems

*Conduct disorder*-A repetitive and persistent pattern of antisocial behavior that results in problems at school or work, or in relationships with others *Oppositional-defiant disorder*-A disorder of childhood and adolescence characterized by excessive anger, spite, and stubbornness *Antisocial personality disorder*-A disorder of adulthood characterized by antisocial behavior and persistent disregard for the rules of society and the rights of others *Psychopaths*-Individuals who are not only antisocial but also manipulative, superficially charming, impulsive, and indifferent *Aggression*- Acts done to be intentionally harmful -This broad category includes physical fighting, relational aggression, and intimidation. -It can be instrumental (planned) or reactive (unplanned). *Juvenile offending*- An externalizing problem that includes delinquency and criminal behavior -*Delinquency*-Juvenile offending that is processed within the juveniles justice system -*Criminal behavior*-Crimes that are dealt with in the criminal justice system, regardless of the age of the offender

Internalizing Problems

*Depression*-A psychological disturbance characterized by low self-esteem, decreased motivation, sadness, and difficulty in finding pleasure in formerly pleasurable activities -In its mild form, depression is the most common psychological disturbance among adolescents. -Depression has emotional symptoms, cognitive symptoms, and physical symptoms. -The symptoms of major depression are the same in adolescence as in adulthood and among males and females.

Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence

*Gender Intensification Hypothesis*- idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence. -Individuals' beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as they move through adolescence; however, society pressures adolescence to behave in sex-appropriate ways. -Adolescents more intolerant about peers behaving in gender-atypical ways than they are about variations in sexual orientation (ex. homosexuals act more feminine).

Identity and Gender

*Gender identity*- one's sense of oneself as male, female or transgender. *Transgender*-having a gender identity that differs from the sex one that was assigned at birth. -Have higher rates of depression, suicidality, self-harm and eating disorders than other teens. -Should see these things as fluid rather than fixed, points along continua rather than absolute categories. *Sexual Orientation*- whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex or both. *Gender-role behavior*- extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally "masculine" or "feminine" ways. -Few sex differences except: males more physical aggressive, females social or verbally aggressive; males express intimacy through shared activities; females express intimacy verbally; females are more prone to low self-esteem and depression.

Rites of Passage:

-Rumspringa (Amish)- explore out of the community to see if they want to remain in the community (if they come back they are adults) -Bullet Ant Biting Ceremony (20 times)

Antisocial Behavior

*Life-course persistent offenders*-Individuals who begin demonstrating antisocial or aggressive behavior during childhood and continue their antisocial behavior throughout adolescence and into adulthood -Psychologically troubled -Mostly males -From poor backgrounds -Disproportionately from homes where divorce has occurred -Often have hostile, inept, or neglectful parents -Aggression identifiable as early as age 8 -Have problems in self-regulation -More likely than peers to suffer from ADHD *Adolescent-limited offenders*-Antisocial adolescents whose delinquent or violent behavior begins and ends during adolescence -Do not usually show signs of serious psychological problems or family pathology -However, show more problems than teens who are not atall delinquent -More mental health, substance abuse, and financial problems -Main risk factors: poor parenting (especially poor monitoring)and affiliation with antisocial peers It is necessary to have information on the juvenile's behavior and history before adolescence in order to predict whether her or his offending is likely to be adolescence-limited or life-course-persistent.

Bronfenbrenner's Bio-Ecological Systems Model

*Microsystems*- people and contexts that interact directly with the adolescent (parent, sibling, neighbors, teachers, peers) *Mesosystem*- interactions and relationships between microsystems (parent/teacher conference, sibling relations to friends, friend's relationship to school) *Exosystem*- setting that affects the adolescent indirectly through the microsystem (parent's workplace, school system, hospital, community, law) *Macrosystem*- culture, customs, value systems, gender norms. *Chronosystem*- time and historical influence *Techno-subsystem*- media influences (computers, internet, portable devices, social media, TV, phone)

Information-Processing perspective: Processing Speed and Organization

*Processing Speed*-Adolescents gain the ability to process the information needed to solve problems faster. -The biggest increase in speed occurs in early adolescence. *Organization*- Adolescents improve in their ability to use organizational strategies when approaching problems. -With age, individuals' strategies become increasingly efficient.

Hormonal and Contextual Influences on Sexual Activity

*Testosterone*- sex hormones secreted by gonads, found in both sexes but higher in males than females. -and androgens make adolescents more likely to report masturbation, thinking about sex, and planning sexual intercourse within the next year. -estrogen for girls Physical maturation which makes them more attractive to girls Social factors far more important in influencing girls' involvement in sex than boys.

Early maturation for boys:

- popularity, better self-esteem - drugs, alcohol, delinquency, precocious sexual activity, greater impact of victimization/ being bullied, more depression and anxiety, more intense temper tantrums.

How does cognition develop? Piaget

- stage theory where adolescents move from concrete operations to formal operations (logical reasoning, hypothetical, abstract, introspection) -Cognitive growth is more continuous than stage-like.

Personality

-*Five Factor Model*- theory that there are five basic dimensions to personality: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. -genetic and environmental influences on personality -temperament and personality become increasingly stable as we grow older -research does not show that adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality

Early maturation for girls:

-*Maturational deviance hypothesis*- youngsters who stand far apart from their peers may experience more psychological distress than adolescents who blend in more easily. -*Developmental readiness hypothesis*- early maturing adolescents are at highest risk for psychological and behavioral problems because they are not emotionally or cognitively ready for the major physiological, social, and emotional changes comprising puberty -cultural and contextual factors -more popularity with boys -heavier, shorter in stature later in life, precocious sexual activity, lowered self-image, higher rates of depression and eating disorders, social anxiety, victims of rumors and gossip.

Diana Baumrind- Two critical dimensions of parenting

-*Parental Responsiveness*- degree to which parents responds to child's needs in an accepting, supportive way -*Parental Demandingness*- degree to which parents expects/demands mature, responsible behavior from the child.

Margaret Mead types of culture

-*Postfigurative Cultures*- cultures in which the socialization of young people is done primarily by adults. -What they need to know changes little over time (due to slow cultural change) -*Configurative cultures*- cultures in which young people are socialized both by adults and each other. -Societal change so quick that parental values become out of date. -*Prefigurative cultures*- cultures in which society is changing so quickly that adults are frequently socialized by young people, rather than the reverse.

Sex Differences in the Meaning of Sex

-*Sexual socialization*- The process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality The Way Boys Feel -First experience orgasm through masturbation -Keep matters of sex and intimacy separate -Interpret intercourse in terms of recreation rather than intimacy -Likely to experience approval from peers they confide in The Way Girls Feel -More likely to experience sex for the first time with another person -Integrate sexual activity into an existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement -Because of possible pregnancy, more likely to be encouraged to approach sex cautiously -After first experience, more likely to encounter disapproval or mixed feelings from others in whom she confides Differences between males and females in the meaning of sex are not inevitable

Poverty Rates

-20% of all adolescents in the US grow up in abject poverty, another 20% in low-income families -gap between poor and rich is at an all-time high -Poverty more likely in non-white adolescents; racial disparity due to more single-parent households, which are more likely poor. -Variations within different family structures are likely to be more important than the differences among them.

Puberty and Autonomy

-Adolescent independence- seeking is a natural consequence of sexual and physical maturation -puberty= lower emotional investment in family; more investment in peers and equal

Conflict in changing friendships

-Adolescents' close friendships also are distinguished from their casual friendships in the types of conflicts they have and the ways in which disagreements are resolved. -More emotional with lots of anger and hurt feelings -More likely to provoke efforts to restore the relationship than is conflict between casual friends

Outcomes of different parenting styles:

-Authoritarian: more dependent, more passive, less socially adept, less self-assured, less intellectually curious -Indulgent: less mature, less responsible, and more conforming to their peers -Indifferent: often impulsive and more likely to be involved in delinquent behaviors and in early experimentation with sex, drug and alcohol. -Authoritative: more psychosocially mature than peers raised by parents w/ other styles; responsible, creative, socially and academically successful, self-assured.

Ethnic Parenting

-Authoritative parenting less prevalent among Black, Asian or Hispanic families than among white families (typically, more demanding parenting styles) -Asian and Asian-Americans use protective or "strict-affectionate"- fewer negative consequences for adolescence -Black parents tend to be more authoritarian and controlling. -black teens closer to parents who use physical discipline; white teenagers more distant -White and black teens perceive parents as less warm when demandingness is high.

Sex Differences in Depression

-Before adolescence, boys are slightly more likely to exhibit depressive symptoms. -After puberty, females are more likely to be depressed, possibly because of the following reasons: -Gender roles - pressure to act passive, dependent, and fragile; heightened self-consciousness over physical appearance -Greater levels of stress during early adolescence -Ruminating more - turning feelings inward -*Oxytocin*-A hormone known to influence emotional bonding to others; higher in females causing them to be more sensitive to relationships

Cross-sectional

-Comparing several different groups at one time -less expensive, quicker. -history influences an issue

Mood, Syndromes, and Disorder- Internalizing Problems

-Depressed mood (feeling sad) -Depressive syndromes (having multiple symptoms of depression) -Depressive disorder (having enough symptoms to be diagnosed with the illness) -Depressed mood, depressive syndrome, and depressive disorder are more common over adolescence -Increase in stressful events of life -Cognitive changes of adolescence permit the introspection, self-criticism, and rumination that often accompany depression. -Prevalence of depressive feelings increases around the time of puberty.

Sex differences in intimacy: Males

-In conversations, boys are more controlling -Boys value friendships placing a premium on having fun. -Boys develop close friendships at a later age than with females. -Girls more socially and emotionally mature in early and middle adolescence, but by late adolescence boys have caught up.

Changing Society: Divorce

-In many industrialized nations, including America, the family has undergone many profound changes over the last half century. -High rates of divorce, cohabitation, and childbearing outside of marriage: Changing economy (factor service economy) -The proportion of single-parent families stabilized at historically high levels during the 1990s and has remained relatively unchanged since. -The U.S. divorce rate began increasing during the 1960s, peaked during the 1980s, and has settled just under 50% -The marriage rate has declined and cohabitation rates are up. -Approximately one-third of people who married in the 2000s will be divorced within 20 years. -Adolescents more likely to grow up in a divorced family

Are other parenting styles adaptive?

-No (not really). However, context does matter in the type of parenting used.

The Different Roles of Parents and Peers in Intimacy

-Parent-adolescent relationships have an imbalance of power (teens receive advics, conflicts usually result with a "winner" and "loser.") -Peer relationships are mutual, balanced, equal exchanges, with conflicts ending in compromise. -*Social support*- The extent to which an individual receives emotional or instrumental assistance from their social network -A lack of support from parents or from friends in school is associated with low self-worth and poorer social adjustment. -Having support from one source does not compensate for lack of support from the other.

Changes in status:

-Relationships- intimacy, dating, sexuality, friendships -Legal standing- *Age of majority*- the designated age at which an individual is recognized as an adult (discontinuous) -Achievement- compulsory school before the age of full time work

Late maturation for boys:

-Score higher on measures of intellectual curiosity and social initiative.

Social media and intimacy

-Some scientists believe that using social media helps teenagers develop social competence. -Provides many of the same opportunities for self-disclosure, support and companionship and conflict as in person. -Helps teens validate the importance of their friendships. -Provided new ways for adolescents to enjoy their friends' companionship. -Difference between experiences digitally and in person are surprisingly small. -Can occur at different locations and times. -Important source of info about romantic partners. -Same negative interactions that occur online occur in person (gossip, jealousy, criticism and conflict)

Adolescent Relativism:

-ability to see things as "relative" rather than black/white or right/wrong. -extreme skepticism -unlikely to accept "facts" w/o evidence and argument.

Relational aggression

-acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of his or her relationships with others, as in malicious gossip -most studies of aggressive children have paid more attention to boys -boys are more overtly aggressive than girls, but girls are more likely to engage in relational aggression "Mean Girls" -relational aggression first found in girls, but boys also use it -more attention has been devoted to physical fighting, though relational aggression also causes suffering -many adolescents are okay with relational aggression -those who use it are often more popular

Transition into adulthood in the US (and other contemporary societies) is discontinuous:

-adolescents are given little preparation for the 3 important roles of worker, parent, citizen -segregated from these types of activities -jobs available to teens are not like those they will hold as adults -most young people have little training in child rearing and related matters -adolescents are segregated from most of society's political institutions -adolescents are required to assume these roles when they reach age of majority (Adult status) -Societal Mixed messages (independent vs parent's good decisions; education vs emphasis on entertainers and athletes; adults drink and do drugs despite telling kids not to; don't have sex even though it is essential and fun).

Transitions in adulthood in traditional cultures is continuous:

-adolescents' preparation for adulthood comes from observation and hands-on experience -work tasks related to adult work and roles (caregiving, cooking, running family business) -modernization and globalization makes for a more discontinuous process all over the world.

Socialization vs Selection

-adults concerned over the influence of peers in promoting delinquent activity -studies indicate that both selection and socialization are at work across a variety of attitudinal and behavioral domains. -socialization is far stronger over day-to-day preferences in things like music than over many in behaviors that adults worry about.

Sibling Relationships

-as children mature from childhood to early adolescence, sibling conflict increases -over the course of adolescence, sibling relationships become more equal, more distant, less emotionally intense -sibling relationships affected by parent-child relationships and adolescent relationships with peers -Siblings may have very different family experiences (treated differently, or perceive similar experiences differently) -even identical twins have some non-shared experiences -unequal treatment often creates conflict among siblings, but most (75%) of treatment is not differential -If all children treated well, differential treatment may be good for siblings -siblings get along (less rivalry) -parents responsive to needs of different children -*Sibling de-identification*- try to distinguish themselves from siblings (less competition)

Secular trend

-average age of menarche has decline significantly in the past 2 centuries -explains group differences in maturation (across countries as well)

Delayed phase preference

-average number of hours slept per night declines until late teens -later melatonin secretion -environmental influences (video games, tv) and school start times

Thinking about thinking (metacognition)

-awareness and ability of our own thinking -why and how you know what you know -learning about your emotions -strategies for memorizing, learning and problem solving (mnemonic) -ego centrism -*Imaginary audience*- belief that everyone is watching (your behavior is everyone's concern) -*Personal Fable*- experiences are unique, nothing bad can happen because they are special.

The Social Brain

-becoming social through new perceptions and behavior -more sensitivity to facial expressions and social cues -increased sensitivity to social evaluation -more susceptible to peer pressure -learning and cognition take place in the context of relationships -*Theory of Mind*- understanding that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs and opinions (starts at age 6, metacognition strengthens it).

False-Self Behavior

-behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others -adolescents become able to distinguish between their authentic and inauthentic selves -they dislike false-self behavior, but also believe it is sometimes acceptable. -adolescents differ in the degrees of and reasons for presenting false fronts -false-self behavior is linked to increased depression and hopelessness

Cognitive Change and Autonomy

-being able to make independent decisions -considering other people's perspectives, reasoning in sophisticated ways, foreseeing consequences -foundation for changes in thinking about social, moral and ethnical problems.

Waxing and Waning of Crowds

-by 9th grade, nearly universal agreement among students about their school's crowd structure and the strength of peer groups influence is very high (declines between 9th and 12th grade). -decline in prominence of peer crowds parallels developmental changes in adolescents' susceptibility to peer pressure -older adolescents may feel that being part of a crowd is stifling.

Puberty

-capable of sexual reproduction -triggered by hormone production through the body's endocrine system leading to physical changes in the body (not new, the hormones already existed) -development and maturation of gonads -emergence of secondary sex characteristics

Social Roles and Autonomy

-changes in social roles and activities during adolescence raise concerns related to independence -wanting to participate in unsupervised activities (campfires, sleepovers, movies) -new positions and roles that demand increasing degrees of responsibility and self-reliance

Stability in Friendship

-cliques show only moderate stability over the course of the school year, although they are more stable later in high school -only about 1/3 of students who name a befriend in the fall of a school year rename the same person as their best friend in the spring -boys' friendships tend to be more stable -most common causes of broken friendships are jealousy, incompatibility, betrayal and aggression -friendships in 7th grade rarely survive through the end of high school

Cognitive (Value) Autonomy

-establishment of an independent set of values, opinions and beliefs. -Three trends: -beliefs about moral, political, and religious issues become more abstract -beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles -beliefs become founded in the young person's own values -Growth can be traced to cognitive changes characteristic of the period -Emotional autonomy gives adolescents the ability to view their parents more objectively

In traditional and tribal cultures, distinction is clearly marked:

-formal initiation ceremony -boys: timing varies (puberty, chronological age, community decision) -girls: linked to onset of menstruation -physical appearance is often changed (clothing, *scarification*)

Thinking about abstract concepts:

-higher-order thinking (puns, metaphors, friendship, faith) -Daydreaming is a form of abstract thought

Differentiated and Self-Concept; Organization and Integration of Self-Concept

-link traits and attributes describing themselves to specific situations -take into account who is doing the describing -Shift toward differentiation in self-conceptions accompanies by better organization and integration -recognition of multifaceted, contradictory personality -initial stress about inconsistencies; recognition of advantages in long run -able to distinguish between one's self (who one really is), ideal self (who one would like to be) and feared self (who one most dreads becoming)

Erikson's 5th Stage of Psychosocial Development focuses on:

-identity vs identity diffusion -not until adolescence does one have the mental or emotional capacity to achieve a balanced, coherent sense of identity -developing an identity is both a social and mental process -adolescents identify results from mutual recognition between the young person and society. -*Psychological Moratorium*- period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities. -necessary due to complications of identity development in modern society -important prelude to establishing a coherent sense of identity -some consider it a luxury of the affluent -loss of PM means lost potential -failure to form a coherent identity may be termed "identity diffusion" or "role confusion" -*Individuation*- processing of becoming psychosocially independent from parents. -involves thinking about thoughts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes and ideas. -Process: increased social interaction with peers, expanded experiences and opportunities, less adult supervision, more choices

Crowds affect adolescent behavior

-imitation of high-status peers -Crowd as a reference group- establish and reinforce social norms/values and expectations (clothing, leisure activities, tastes in music) -When adolescents are reinforced for following a crowd's norms, they feel better about themselves and further incorporate their crowd membership into their identity. -provide a basis for adolescent's own identity

How Romance changes peer groups

-in early adolescence, activities revolve around same-sex cliques -as romantic interests builds, but before romantic relationships begin, boys' and girls' cliques come together -by middle adolescence, mixed-sex and mixed-age cliques become more prevalent -in late adolescence, peer crowds begin to disintegrate as they become more adult like, not used as identity structure and seek more intimacy than a crowd can provide -couples split off from larger groups

Legal status change

-increased privileges + increased responsibility -IP: gambling, buying alcohol, seeing x-rated films -IR: *Status Offense*- violation of the law that pertains to minors but not adults -Juvenile Justice system designed to deal with those under 18 -Criminal justice system designed to deal with those after the age of majority -*1/3 of children aged 13 and under and 1/5 of children aged 14 or 15, are as impaired in their abilities to serve as competent defendants as mentally ill adult (less likely to understand rights, more likely to confess to crimes)*

Resolving the Identity Crisis

-individuals make take "informational" vs "normative" vs "diffuse/avoidant" orientation -some studies link identity development measures to score on a 5-factor model of personality -defining characteristic of individuals who achieve a coherent sense of identity is approaching life's decisions with a strong sense of agency. -*Agency*- sense that one has an impact on one's world. -generally, individuals identity development is healthy, more likely to come from authoritative homes (parenting styles are not the same across racial/ethnic groups)

Interpersonal development is cumulative; a life long process

-infancy affects early childhood, which affects middle childhood and so on. -those who had secure infancy have different interpersonal tract than those who did not. -possible for interpersonal development to be cumulative without the root cause being the individuals internal working model -mixed study results concerning direct link between infant attachment and equality of interpersonal relationships.

Does infant attachment predict adolescent intimacy?

-initial attachment relationships forms the basis for the model of interpersonal relationships employed throughout life. -*Internal Working model*- implicit model of interpersonal relationships that an individual employs throughout life, believed to be shaped by early attachment experiences. -*Rejection Sensitivity*- heightened vulnerability to being rejected by others -high rejection sensitivity and emotional insecurity are linked to further increases in rejection sensitivity.

Executive Function

-inside prefrontal cortex -working memory- how much info you can hold at one time. -inhibitory control -cognitive or mental flexibility- not just black and white (root of creativity)

Crowds

-larger, more vaguely defined groups, based on reputation, activities, or stereotype (not actual friendship). -jocks, brains, nerds, druggies, punks, populars -based less on interaction and more on a sense of identity.

Clarity of Transition:

-less emphasis on attaining a specific role and more emphasis on self-reliance. -decline in the importance of marriage and parenthood as defining features of adulthood -similar criteria for males + females and fewer gender-typed role expectations.

Sullivan's Theory of Interpersonal Development

-lifespan theory about the need for interpersonal connection -need for intimacy precedes development of romantic or sexual relationships (capacity for intimacy first develops in same-sex relationships) -quality of same-sex friendships predictive of quality of later romantic ones. -challenge: transition between nonsexual, intimate same-sex friendships to sexual, intimate other-sex friendships. -*Platonic relationships*- nonsexual relationships with individuals who might otherwise be romantic partners -Homosexuality considered abnormal at the time of this theory (only talking about heterosexuality)

Prefrontal Cortex

-major area of adolescent development -synaptic pruning -Myelination -decisions, reasoning, higher-order thinking, inhibition, coordinate thinking and feeling

Development of Moral Reasoning

-moral development involves both reasoning (how individuals think about moral dilemmas) and behavior (how they behave in situations that call form oral judgments). -Prosocial behavior: behaviors intended to help others -Lawerence Kohlberg- Stages of Moral Development -Assessing moral reasoning: -The dominant theoretical viewpoint in the study of moral reasoning is grounded in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. -Researchers assess individuals' moral reasoning by examining their responses to hypothetical dilemmas about difficult real-world situations.

Crowd structure may change overtime

-more differentiated, permeable -less hierarchical -these changes allow adolescents more freedom to change crowds, enhance their status

Psychosocial Impact of Puberty

-physical changes affect self-image, mood and relationships w/ partners -self-esteem varies by gender and ethnicity (white girls most affected) -moodiness-more fluctuations throughout the day than adults .

Identity Statuses

-point in the identity development process that characterizes an adolescent at a given time. -determining an individual's identity status: -exploration and commitment -exploration in "depth" and exploration in "breadth" -dynamic process involving alternating commitment and exploration

Popularity

-popular adolescents are more socially skilled than unpopular peers -variability among popular teens in characteristics, making it difficult to predict popularity -*Sociometric Popularity*- how well-liked an individual is. -*Perceived Popularity*- how much status or prestige an individual has. -Predicting this is hard: peer norms change, socially competent adolescents are skilled at figuring out norm changes, adjusting behavior in response to them, and even influencing them

What triggers puberty?

-presence of mature sexual partners -nutritional resources -physically mature enough to begin reproducing -Leptin- protein produced by fat cells is an important signal of puberty. -must accumulate enough body fat -rising levels signal hypothalamus to stop inhibiting puberty (in females) -Melatonin suppresses it. -Adrenarche- maturation of adrenal glands and leads to physical changes; stimulate feelings of sexual attraction.

James Marcia and Identity Statuses

-proposed that identity development is made up of crisis (or exploration) and commitment -*Crisis*- period of role experimentation and exploration among alternative choices. -*Commitment*- demonstrating a personal commitment to particular values, beliefs, and roles. -*Identity Achievement*- commitment made after crises experienced. -individual has resolved his/her identity issues and made commitments to particular goals, beliefs and values. -*Identity Moratorium*- no commitment made and is experiencing crisis. -individual is actively raising questions and seeking answers. enduring commitment have not yet been made -*Identity Foreclosure*- commitment and no crises experienced -individual seems to know who she/he is but has latched onto an identity prematurely without exploration -*Identity Diffusion*-no commitment and no crises experienced -individual has not yet thought about or resolved identity issues and has failed to chart directions in life. -Late adolescences is a time for consolidation of identity based on experiences -Identity status changes throughout the lifespan -not a set path of stages (move back and forth) -different status for different aspects of identity (occupational vs gender vs intimate vs ethnic)

Autonomy

-psychosocial concern that surfaces and resurfaces throughout the life cycle -is not resolved forever when young adulthood is reached (adulthood and aging due to loss of ability and function) -changes in autonomy have biological, cognitive and social roles

Plasticity of the brain:

-respond to experience -malleable- changes n wiring of connections -risk reward improves with more connections

Thinking in multiple dimensions:

-seeing multiple perspectives -sarcasm and satire

Fluctuations in Self-Image during Early Adolescence

-self-image fluctuations are most likely between the ages of 12-14. -egocentrism- makes young adolescents aware of each other's reactions -adolescents learn that it is not always possible to tell what people are thinking -adolescents are especially interested in their peers' opinions of them.

Sexual Activity and Psychological Development

-sexual activity during adolescence is decidedly not associated with psychological disturbance (Same self-esteem and life satisfaction) -Risky sex- unprotected, with multiple partners; associated with other risk taking (sensation seeking, impulsivity and poor self-regulation) -early sexual activity, before 16, is associated with more permissive attitudes toward sex, experimentation with drugs and alcohol, minor delinquency, low religious involvement, and a stronger orientation toward independence. -late sex, 16 or late, associated with positive development -impact of sexual activity on mental health depends on extent to which the behavior is seen as culturally normative. -those who do not engage in sex till after 18, usually strong religious commitment. -those after 20, less likely to marry or cohabit, but better mental health and greater satisfaction with their relationship.

Clique membership based on...

-similar characteristics like same sex (during middle early and middle adolescence (mixed later)), same age, same race/ethnicity, same socioeconomic background -common interest like *orientation toward school* (achievement, educational plans, attitudes), *teen culture* (music, dress, leisure activities, drug use), and degree of involvement in antisocial activity (gangs, drugs) -in most high schools it is easy to see the split between cliques due to their orientation toward teen culture.

Cliques

-smaller groups (2-12 individuals) defined by common activities and friendship (having known each other for a long time) -where adolescents learn many of their social skills (friendship, leadership, communication, trust, independence).

Roles of Parents

-socializing certain traits in their children -problematic parent-child relationship- adolescent's friendships by monitoring the individuals their child spends time with, but excessive control can backfire. -*Iatrogenic effects*- unintended adverse consequences of a treatment or intervention. [group based interventions for adolescents with conduct problems may not work.

Popularity and Aggression

-some aggressive teens are quite popular -some popular boys are extremely aggressive, athletically competent, and average or below average in friendliness, academic competence, shyness. -some girls are antisocial and anti academic and sometimes bullies. -*Instrumental Aggression*- aggressive behavior that is deliberate and planned. -*Reactive Aggression*- aggressive behavior that is unplanned and impulsive (less status)

Thinking about possibilities:

-wonder how they may change in the future or wonder how they would be different if in different circumstances -move between specific and abstract to create these -*Deductive Reasoning*- logical reasoning that draws conclusions from a general set of premises. -*Hypothetical thinking*- see beyond what is directly observable and apply logical thinking to anticipate what might be possible (if-then)

Ethnic Identity

-the aspect of individuals' sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership -Development in America: -Generally weak in white youth -white adolescents less likely than Black, Latino or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel strong commitment to it -among immigrants adolescents, moving between identifying as a member of a broad ethnic category or a group defined by country or origin -Development is similar to identity development in general: -unquestioning view of oneself is displaced or upset by a crisis -period of exploration occurs after crisis -development of ethnic identity is strongly influenced by context

Behavioral Autonomy

-the capacity to make independent decisions and to follow through with them -More sophisticated reasoning leads adolescents to hold multiple viewpoints in mind simultaneously: -weighing opinions/advice of others -more likely to contemplate long-term consequences -consider both risks and consequences -consider others' point of view -Result is improved decision-making skills and independent behavior. -Improvements in decision-making linked to improved self-regulation and self-esteem -reduced response to immediate rewards -impulse control -Mature decision making is the product of cognitive abilities and emotional factors (do not develop at the same time) -As adolescents spend more time outside the family, the opinions and advice of others becomes more important. -Influence of parents and peers: -turn to different people for advice in different situations (Peers: short-term, day-to-day, social matters; Parents: long-term questions) -peer pressure- orientation toward peers, absence of adults, changes in brain leads to greater peer influence early on (14-16).

Emotional Autonomy

-the establishment of more adult like and less childish close relationships with family members and peers -Changes in Adolescent-Parent Relationship: -*De-idealization*- do not see parents as all knowing -find peers to help with social problems -emotional energy in other relationships -more adult-like relationship to parents later in adolescence -Continuing process of individuation from parents begins in infancy/early childhood, culminates in late adolescence -Healthy *Individuation* (sharpening of an individual's sense of being an autonomous, independent person) and positive mental health are fostered by close family relationships -*Detachment*- process through which adolescents severe emotional attachments to their parents and other authority figures

Ethnic Socialization

-the process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background, also referred to as racial socialization -understanding and valuing one's culture -dealing with racism -succeeding in mainstream society -positive mental health among ethnic minority adolescents is associated with biculturalism -in the US, the development of ethnic identity is a far less salient issue for white adolescents than for those from any other ethnic group.

Social cognition

-thinking about other people, interpersonal relationships and social institutions -medial prefrontal cortex activity decreases -understanding peer exclusion, authority (questioning it) -understand *social conventions*- norms that govern everyday behavior in social situation (conventions do not matter, they can regulate people's behavior).

Rejected Adolescents

-those who have trouble controlling aggression -withdrawn adolescents who are shy, anxious, and inhibited. -those who are both aggressive and withdrawn - peer rejection in adolescence can often be traced to rejection during earlier periods of development -rejection by peers is a major source of stress for adolescents (stronger biological stress response to it than children and adults)

How Authoritative Parenting Works

1. Provide an appropriate balance between restrictiveness and autonomy -develop self-reliance while providing necessary limits 2. Engage adolescents in verbal give-and-take -intellectual development and psychosocial maturity 3. Warm parent-child relationship -strong attachment to parents = more influence by parents

Information-Processing Perspective: Attention

Ability to focus (or be attentive) to certain stimuli *Selective attention*- focusing on one task or stimulus above all others *Divided attention*- shared focus across more than one stimulus (multi-tasking) -Not as effective as selective attention for learning and cognitive performance Adolescents improve in both types of attention but may believe these are equal! -Improvement in metacognition tells us when we must pay selective attention

Ethnic and Cultural Differences in Expectations for Autonomy

Adolescents mental health is best when their desire for autonomy matches their expectations for what their parents are willing to grant. -White adolescents less likely than Asian adolescents to define themselves in terms of their relationship with their parents. -Increased autonomy associated with better emotional functioning among American youth. Sex and birth order differences in behavior autonomy tend to be very small and are often inconsistent. -Can occur depending on mix of boys and girls and type of attitudes towards sex roles (traditional- boys over girls; educated- girls over boys). -Especially pronounced in black households, boys given more autonomy than girls. Immigrant families: adolescents want autonomy earlier due to the level of independence seen through their friends and because they acculturate more quickly. -Parents wait longer and this causes conflict.

Perspectives on Adolescence, G. Stanley Hall

Biosocial- "Father of adolescence" -among first to describe this as unique period of development -*"storm and stress"*- hormonal changes create upheaval and society must manage these inevitable difficulties. Hall accurately described... -moodiness (depression) -sensation-seeking/thrill-seeking -peak in crime rates -influence of media -importance of peer context [Mischaracterized adolescent sexual development]

Girls vs boys' conflicts in intimacy

Boys: briefer, issues of power and control, escalate into physical aggression, resolved w/o any effort to do so "letting it slide" Girls: longer, betrayal in the relationship, resolved when on friend apologizes. -Girls more negatively affected than boys by the loss of a relationship

Displays of Intimacy

Caring and Concern -Compared to children, adolescents have the following traits: -More helpful and generous -More responsive to close friends -More empathic and socially understanding -More focused on providing support Conflict Resolution -More likely to end conflicts with negotiation -Negotiation more common between romantic partners than friends, close friends than acquaintances -Similar to resolution with parents when younger

Changes in Friendship

Children and adolescents define friendship somewhat differently. -Both children and adolescents mention sharing, helping, common activities. -Adolescents also mention self-disclosure, common interests, similar attitudes and values, and loyalty. A pattern of change takes place during middle adolescence. -Concerns about loyalty and anxieties over rejection become more pronounced and may temporarily overshadow concerns about intimate self-disclosure. -Older adolescents typically have conflicts over private matters. -Younger adolescents typically have conflicts over public disrespect. -Girls in particular show a pronounced increase in jealousy over their friends' friends during early adolescence. This pattern of change may be related to the transition into other-sex relationships.

Longitudinal

Comparing the same group at different points in time. -takes longer

The Lifespan perspective

Development is a Lifelong process -Every stage of development involves particular tasks -Development can best be understood in the context of the entire life span Multi-directionality- Development can take many directions -Experiences and genes interact to change us as we age -Differences between individuals become bigger as we get older Plasticity-The degree to which characteristics can or cannot change throughout the lifespan -varies greatly between individuals, depending on personality and opportunity Contextualism Development must be studied in various contexts -Family, siblings, peers, schools, work, community, culture, SES, historical context -*Reciprocal Influence*-Development is an ongoing interaction between a changing individual in a changing environment Multidimensionality -Many intra-individual factors interact to affect development -Biological, cognitive, physical, social, emotional factors -Motor development > Cognitive development -Mind-body connection

Adolescent Growth Spurt

Development of *primary* (development of organs and glands gonads) and *secondary sex characteristics* (breasts, pubic hair) *Peak Height velocity*- gaining most height *Epiphysis*- closing of the ends of the bones. *Tanner Scale*- stages of physical and sexual development.

Causes of Internalizing Problems: Diathesis-Stress Model

Diathesis-stress model of depression-A perspective on depression that posits that problems are the result of an interaction between a preexisting condition (the diathesis) and exposure to a stressful event or condition -Nature and Nurture! Depression occurs when people with a predisposition (a diathesis) toward internalizing problems are exposed to chronic or acute stressors (a stress). -Those without the diathesis are able to withstand a great deal of stress without developing psychological problems. The Diathesis -May be biological in origin (neuroendocrine or genetically linked) -*Neuroendocrine*- Referring to activity in the brain and nervous system -May be caused by cognitive style: people who tend more to hopelessness,pessimism, and self-blame. The Stress -Having a high-conflict and low-cohesion family -Being unpopular, having poor peer relations, being bullied, having depressed friends -Reporting more chronic and acute stressors

Origins of Sex differences

Early age- females are more strongly encouraged to develop and express intimacy (especially verbal) than males. -Boys are punished for demonstrating feminine qualities while girls are not for portraying masculine ones. -Boys intimacy = lack of masculinity -Several studies have found that in some ethnic groups there may not be similar patterns of sex differences in intimacy.

Impacts of Divorce

Effect of divorce is small in magnitude -Problems with achievement, behavior problems, psychosocial adjustment and family relations -Stronger among school-aged children. -Effects of divorce are lessened in the US because divorces are more common, so kids are less likely to be stigmatized and more likely to have access to psychological services. Relationship with family matters more than number of parents. -Less conflict in single-parent households. -Process of going through divorce is more important than resulting family structure. -Disorganized or disrupted parenting, marital conflict, and increased stress in the household has more of an impact than the number of parents. -Adolescents may have inherited from their divorced parents some of the same traits that may have influenced their parents' decision to get divorced. -Immediate problems more common among boys, younger children, children with a temperament, do not have supportive relationships w/ adults outside the family, when parents divorce during the transition into adolescence.

Sex Education

Effective sex education can delay the initiation of sex and reduce adolescents' likelihood of having unsafe sex, but it does not reduce their likelihood of having sex. *Comprehensive sex education*-Programs that not only provide information about contraception, STDs, and pregnancy but also teach adolescents how to refuse unwanted sex and avoid unintended sex, increase their motivation to engage in safe sex, and change perceptions about peer norms and attitudes -Do not encourage more teens to have sex -Change what teens know, do not change how they behave *Abstinence-only sex education*-Programs that encourage adolescents to avoid sexual activity but that do not provide information about safe sex -Unequivocally unsuccessful -Cause an increase in teen pregnancy and childbearing

Pubertal effects on relationships:

Family: -increased conflict and distance -physical changes; lifestyle changes; psychological function (depression, anxiety, ego-centrism); thrill-seeking behavior -changes in the parent (midlife crisis) Peers: -cross sex romantic activity -depends on social norms

Sex differences in intimacy: Females

Females adolescents-middle adolescent years- list more friends than boys do -Females express greater interest in their close friendships, talk more frequently about their intimate conversations with friends, express greater concern about friend faithfulness and greater anxiety over rejection, and place greater emphasis on emotional closeness in their evaluation of romantic partners. -Girls more collaborative (girls more likely to provide help because they can see things better from the perspective of others) -Girls value friendships based on emotional support and concern *Co-Rumination*- excessive talking with another about problems. -Girls' mental health is more negatively affected when things are going poorly. -Brings friends closer but contributes to depression and anxiety. -This negativity is toxic (contagious and emotional mimicry). -For boys this improve friendships but use humor which draws them closer and avoid those negative effects.

Prevention and Treatment of Externalizing Problems: Antisocial Behavior

In order to lower rates of chronic antisocial behavior, experts argue we need mainly to prevent disruption in early family relationships and head off early academic problems through a combination of family support and preschool intervention. -Interventions designed to improve transition into school and work roles in young adulthood may prove helpful. -Society is hesitant and wants to wait until we see a sign of trouble in a family before acting. *Evidence-based practices*- programs and practices that have a proven scientific basis. -Psychotherapy, family-based interventions, diversion programs designed to remove delinquents from the juvenile justice system and provide them with alternative opportunities for productive behavior. -*Multisystemic Family Therapy*- intervention designed to reduce antisocial behavior that has been proven to be effective. -Interventions that group youth together tend to be less effective (foster friendship among delinquent peers, more antisocial adolescents teach less antisocial ones some of the "tricks of the trade").

Other Individuals as Targets of Intimacy

Intimacy in sibling relationships is complicated by a mix of affection and rivalry. -Adolescents fight more with siblings than with friends. -Conflict, warmth, and closeness with siblings all decline during adolescence. Relatively little is known about intimacy with extended family or with nonfamilial adults. Intimacy with grandparents declines during adolescence, although less so if the adolescent is living with a single, divorced mother. The development of relationships with nonfamilial adults is a normative part of adolescence.

Targets of Intimacy: Parents and Peers

Intimacy with peers replaces intimacy with parents. Intimacy with other-sex peers replaces intimacy with same-sex friends. Parents and Peers as Targets of Intimacy -Relationships with best friends and romantic partners are more intimate and less stressful than those with parents. -Intimacy drops with parents but may be restored in young adulthood. -Instead of parent-oriented or peer-oriented adolescents, difference in adolescents who have a lot of social contact and those who are socially isolated. -*Reaffiliation motive*- The normal and adaptive motivation that most of us have, which prompts us to reconnect with others when we feel lonely

Preconventional Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments

Conventional Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules and conventions.

Postconventional moral reasoning (principled moral reasoning)

Kohlberg's third level- society's rules and conventions are seen as relative and subjective rather than as authoritative.

Prevention and Treatment of Externalizing Problems: Juvenile Offenders

Many juvenile offenders "age out" of crime as they settle into adult roles, criminal lifestyles become more difficult and less attractive. Others go through a period of self-discovery, during which they decide they want to change their lifestyle and become successful members of the community. -Internalized a basic foundation of norms and moral standards, it is easier to help them control their behavior and stop misbehaving. Four Strategies: -Teach delinquent adolescents how to learn to resist peer pressure and settle conflicts w/o aggression. -Train parents to monitor their children more effectively, minimize opportunities for adolescents to engage in peer-oriented misbehavior. -Intervene in classrooms, schools and neighborhoods to alter broader climate to discourage antisocial behavior and encourage prosocial behavior. -Treat delinquency when it occurs, make sure adolescent knows that misbehavior has definite consequences (deter the teen from doing the same in the future). Incarcerating juveniles for long periods have shown to be ineffective in deterring future crime.

Puberty, Cognitive Change and Social Roles- Development of Intimacy

Puberty: changes in sexual impulses provoke interest in sex and romantic relationships. Cognitive Changes: more sophisticated conceptions of social relationships; better communication skills; and more self-awareness. -How to "repair" their mood. -Establish and maintain relationships with greater empathy, self-disclosure and sensitivity; also, to feeling of loneliness. -Maturation of connections between brain regions involved in decision making, emotional experience and processing. Social roles: more alone time with friends, engaged in intimate discussions in person or online. -Adults may confide in their children as they see them as "near adults". -School structure: more contact between younger and older teens.

Stress and Coping

Stress responses vary; some adolescents experience the following: -Internalized disorders (anxiety, depression, headaches, indigestion, immune system problems) -Externalized disorders (behavior and conduct problems) -Drug and alcohol abuse problems Stress does not always lead to negative outcomes. -*Resilience*- The ability of an individual to continue to function competently in the face of adversity or stress -Using more effective coping strategies also buffers the effects of stress. -*Primary control strategies*- Coping strategies in which an individual attempts to change the stressor -*Secondary control strategies*- Coping strategies that involve attempts by the individual to adapt to the stressor

Late maturation for girls:

Twice as likely as early maturing girls to continue beyond the compulsory minimum number of years of high school.

Marital Conflict

a cycle in which parental conflict impacts children's behaviors, and their maladjustments affects the quality of their parent's marriage. Children more affected when they are aware of it than when it is hidden -Particularly harmful when it is hostile, physically violent or frightening (depression, aggression and delinquency) Children more affected when it leads to feelings of insecurity or self-blame. -Drawn into or blaming themselves for their parents' conflict (anxious, depressed, distressed) Children more affected when conflict disrupts the quality of the parent-child relationship.

Limbic System

a set of brain structures -*Hypothalamus*- regulates autonomic nervous system, via hormones -*Hippocampus*- LTM -*Amygdala*- fear, reward, mating behavior -dopamine and serotonin -*Gray matter*- pinkish-gray color, contains cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. -*White matter*- axons connecting different parts of gray matter to each other -*Synaptic Pruning*- unused and unnecessary synapses start to be eliminated. -*Myelination*- brain circuits insulated with myelin, improves efficiency of info processing.

·"Sleeper" effects

effects of divorce that may not appear until later in the child's development: -Increased drug use and higher rates of early pregnancy are consequences of lower level parental monitoring in divorced homes. -Affects one's conceptions of relationships or views of romantic commitment.

Risk-factors for earlier puberty for females:

father-absence; less cohesion; more conflict; stepfather (pheromones); childhood sexual abuse

Growing up poor affects adolescents' brain development:

o Failure in school, unemployment, delinquency and teen pregnancy which contribute to transitional difficulties. o Stresses associated with poverty undermine the quality of people's relationships with each other. Associated with harsh, inconsistent and punitive parenting which links to adolescent misbehavior. Violence leads to thinking about suicide, depression PTSD, hopelessness, callousness, precocious sex and substance abuse and doubles the chance of them committing more violence. o To ease the transition: community work to develop responsibility and adult roles. Need adult mentors. • Presence in the youth's life over an extended period (at least 2 yrs), has frequent contact with the youngsters and involves the adolescent in a wide range of recreational, social and practical activities. Having positive family relationships, involvement in extracurriculars and having strong religious beliefs, and mindfulness can alleviate some of these stress-related problems.

Discontinuous Transitions

passage into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into abruptly. o Contemporary society exhibits this.

Continuous Transitions

passages into adulthood in which adult roles and statuses are entered into gradually. o Samoa young- taking care of siblings, socialization of them; fundamentals of weaving, boating, fishing, building, farming. More observational and hands-on learning.

Endocrine System

produce, circulate and regulates hormone levels in the body. *Hormones*- substances secreted by endocrine glands *Glands*- organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in specific ways *Gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons*- in the brain, plays important role in puberty *Set Point*-physiological level of setting that the body attempts to maintain through a self-regulating system. *Feedback Loop*- cycle through which two or more bodily functions respond to and regulate each other: hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the gonads [hypothalamus tells PG to tell gonads (testes-M, ovaries-F) to release hormones]

Girls contribute ________ to being happier, more successful and more popular. While boys also suffer from body dissatisfaction from being _______, they also suffer from it when they are too ____.

thinness heavy; thin