HIST/NAIS 14 Final Exam Review

Albany Congress, 1754

1754: English colonies meet to discuss unified Indian policy. An important step in forging unity among the British colonies, was a cultural encounter, where colonial officials met with Iroquois men who spoke on wampum belts and Indian women strung belts for use in council.

French and Indian War

(1756-1763) War fought in the colonies between the English and the French for possession of the Ohio Valley area. The English won. Fundamentally altered Britain's relations with its American colonies and their Indian neighbors. The scale of military mobilization in North America was unprecedented. For the first time in their long imperial rivalry, Britain and France committed thousands of regular troops to America and spent fortunes recruiting and arming Indian allies. Escalating conflict between Britain and France came to a head in the Ohio valley and erupted into the Seven Years' War. Though known in America as the French and Indian War, from a Native American perspective the conflict is better understood as a French and English war. In 1763 Britain and France signed the Treaty of Paris (also called the Peace of Paris), ending the Seven Years' War. Under the terms of the treaty, France handed over to Britain all of its North American territory east of the Mississippi, apart from New Orleans (which France had secretly ceded to Spain along with its territory west of the Mississippi the previous year). Indians were stunned to learn that France had given up Native lands without even consulting them: they were undefeated and the French had no right to give their country to anyone.

Arthur St. Clair

1791 - Northwestern tribes defeat General Arthur St. Clair In 1791 the Indian confederacy routed an American army under General Arthur St. Clair in the heaviest defeat Indians ever inflicted on the United States. St. Clair suffered over nine hundred casualties, with some six hundred dead, at a time when the young republic had neither the manpower nor the resources to sustain such losses. American claims to Indian land by right of conquest looked empty. For a time it seemed as if the United States would negotiate a compromise agreement with the Indian tribes of the Old Northwest. In the fall of 1792, the noted Seneca orator Red Jacket carried a message to the western tribes, saying the Americans would be willing to compromise and might accept the Muskingum River as the boundary line. But the Shawnees and their allies had defeated both Harmar's and St. Clair's armies and saw no need to compromise now. A Shawnee chief named Painted Pole told Red Jacket to "speak from your heart and not from your mouth," and, picking up the strings of wampum on which Red Jacket had spoken, he threw them at the feet of the Seneca delegation.

Battle of Fallen Timbers, 1794

1794 - Decisive battle between the Miami confederacy and the U.S. Army. British forces refused to shelter the routed Indians, forcing the latter to attain a peace settlement with the United States. Meanwhile, Congress was appropriating $1 million to raise, equip, and train a new army, the Legion of the United States, to be led by General Anthony Wayne against the Indian alliance. Little Turtle began to incline toward peace and his son-in-law William Wells, a white captive who had been adopted and fought against the Americans in St. Clair's defeat, switched sides and served as a scout and interpreter for Wayne.26 By the time Wayne and his army entered Indian country in 1794, the confederacy of northwestern tribes was no longer united. On the west bank of the Maumee River, south of Lake Erie, a reduced Indian force confronted Wayne's troops in a tangle of trees felled by a tornado. Outnumbered and outgunned, the Indians were driven from the field by the American cannon, cavalry, and bayonets. "We were driven by the sharp end of the guns of the Long Knives," recalled one Indian leader of the Battle of Fallen Timbers. "Our moccasins trickled with blood in the sand, and the water was red in the river." They fled to a nearby British fort, where they believed they would receive assistance. They were mistaken. Britain, faced with trouble in Europe and a revolutionary government in France, was not interested in another war in America. The fleeing Indians found the gates of the fort barred against them. The lack of British support dispirited the Indians more than the actual battle at Fallen Timbers, where their losses were relatively light.

Mandans

1837 - SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC VIRTUALLY DESTROYS THE ____ A Native American people formerly living in villages along the Missouri River in south-central North Dakota, with present-day descendants on Lake Sakakawea in west-central North Dakota. By the end of the eighteenth century, two broad categories of Indian peoples lived on the Great Plains: sedentary farming tribes and mobile buffalo hunters. The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras, for instance, had lived alongside the Missouri River for hundreds of years. They inhabited earth-lodge villages, cultivated extensive acreage of crops, practiced elaborate rituals, and observed rank and status within their societies. British, French, and Spanish merchants traded in their villages. Crows, Kiowas, Arapahos, Cheyennes, and other tribes brought horses to the villages of the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras. The Lakotas, the western Sioux, obtained horses at the Arikara villages and traded them to their eastern Yankton and Dakota relatives The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras held a commanding position on the Great Bend of the upper Missouri prior to 1780 and their power and numbers had blocked Sioux expansion. An estimated twenty-four thousand Arikaras lived in numerous villages in the mid-eighteenth century, but they lost 75 to 80 percent of their population in the epidemic, and the survivors huddled into just a couple of villages. The Mandans, who numbered about nine thousand people in the middle of the eighteenth century, told Lewis and Clark in 1805 that twenty-five years before they had inhabited half a dozen villages but had been reduced to just two by repeated attacks from Sioux and smallpox

Tecumseh

A Shawnee chief who, along with his brother, Tenskwatawa, a religious leader known as The Prophet, worked to unite the Northwestern Indian tribes. The league of tribes was defeated by an American army led by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. Tecumseh was killed fighting for the British during the War of 1812 at the Battle of the Thames in 1813. 1805-1811 - Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa attempt to unite tribes of the East 1813 - Death of Tecumseh However, it was the Shawnee Prophet's brother, Tecumseh, who gave strongest direction to the developing movement of Indian unity. Tecumseh had fought at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 (see page 210), but he refused to sign the Treaty of Greenville. Identifying American expansion and piecemeal cessions of land as the major threat to Indian survival, Tecumseh argued that no tribe had the right to sell their lands, because the lands belonged to all Indian people. He denounced older chiefs who signed away tribal territory, and his influence soared aer pro-American chiefs ceded more than 3 million acres to the United States at a "whiskey treaty" at Fort Wayne in 1809. Tecumseh traveled from the Great Lakes to Florida, carrying his message of pan-Indian land tenure and preaching a vision of an independent Indian nation stretching from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.

Black Hoof

After 1794, the Shawnee chief _____ tried to retain tribal lands by accepting acculturation into American culture. Some chiefs attempted to lead their people along the paths of change mandated by the United States. Little Turtle, Black Hoof, Blue Jacket, and others who had fought against the Americans since the days of the Revolution kept the peace they made at the Treaty of Greenville, which had created a boundary between Indian and American territory while ceding huge tracts of Indian land in present-day Ohio and Indiana. Many Shawnees left Ohio and moved to Missouri, but most of those who stayed followed the lead of their principal chief, Black Hoof, in adapting to a changing world. In the first decade of the nineteenth century, however, while Black Hoof tried to make the transition to a new way of life, two Shawnees emerged as leaders in a pan-Indian religious and political movement. Ohio Shawnees moved west in 1832, although their principal chief, Black Hoof, who had encouraged his tribe to adapt to the new ways of life, did not live to see it.

Delawares Part 2

After Colonel Henry Bouquet defeated the Indians of the Ohio valley at Bushy Run later that year, he dictated peace terms that required the Indians to hand over all of the captives they had taken during the recent war. The Shawnees and Delawares complied, but they reminded Bouquet that the captives "have been all tied to us by Adoption. . . . we have taken as much care of these Prisoners, as if they were [our] own Flesh, and blood."

Cherokees

After the Cherokees acquired a written language in the 1820s, written Cherokee spread quickly; according to a census in 1835, 18 percent of Cherokees could read English and 43 percent could read Cherokee. As assaults on their land and sovereignty increased, the Cherokees used writing, printed documents, and their newspaper, The Cherokee Phoenix, in a campaign to publicize their civilization, rights, and sufferings, and Cherokee women resorted to written petitions to register their opposition to removal. Cherokee traditions tell that their ancestors originated in the southern Appalachians, in what is today the western Carolinas and eastern Georgia and Tennessee, and that from time immemorial Cherokee men hunted and Cherokee women farmed, planting and harvesting corn, beans, and squash in the fertile valleys of the Appalachians. Smallpox decimated Cherokee population in 1738 Cherokee warriors had participated as allies of the British in Forbes's campaign against Fort Duquesne, but Virginian settlers killed some of them on their way home. Cherokee chiefs could not prevent retaliatory raids by their warriors, who were also frustrated by the colonists' constant encroachment on their hunting territories. Following a series of Cherokee attacks on white settlements on the South Carolina border, an open war with the British broke out in 1759. Aer the Anglo-Cherokee War of 1759-61, Lieutenant Henry Timberlake accompanied three Cherokee chiefs to London to help secure the peace that had been made. By the end of the Revolution, the Cherokees' population had dropped to perhaps ten thousand people; they had lost three-quarters of their territory, and more than half of their towns had been destroyed. Their world was in chaos.

Sea otter trade pt. 3

As other nations probed the coasts of Alaska, Russia redoubled its efforts to secure the sea otter trade. In 1784 Grigory Shelikhov established a settlement on Kodiak Island aer subjugating the Alutiiq inhabitants. He petitioned the Russian government to grant his company a monopoly and asked that missionaries be sent. The first group of Russian Orthodox missionaries arrived at Kodiak in 1794, and in 1799 the state granted a monopoly to the Russian American Company (RAC). The RAC took control, but government regulations prohibiting abuse of the Natives were regularly ignored. Pushing southeast along the coast, Russians opened trade relations with the Tlingits in the late 1780s. In 1799 Alexander Baranov, general manager of the RAC, shied the company's base of operations to a site a few miles north of present-day Sitka. But the powerful Tlingits, who numbered some ten thousand at the turn of the century, proved formidable customers and adversaries. In 1802 Tlingits attacked and burned the Russian outpost at St. Michael.

Delawares

Algonquian-speaking tribe residing primarily in the Ohio Valley. The Iroquois fought, traded, and communicated with Algonquian-speaking peoples who surrounded the Iroquoian homeland in New York and Ontario: Ottawas, Algonquins, and Montagnais to the north; Mahicans, Abenakis, and Wampanoags to the east in New England; Delawares and Nanticokes to the south; and Shawnees, Potawatomis, Anishinaabeg,° Illinois, and Foxes to the west. 1737 - Delawares lose their lands in the Pennsylvania "Walking Purchase" The Delawares lost the last of their lands in the upper Delaware and Lehigh valleys in the infamous "Walking Purchase" of 1737, when Pennsylvanians produced a team of runners to measure out an old deed that supposedly granted William Penn and his heirs land "as far as a man can go in a day and a half." In the second half of the century William Penn's "peaceable kingdom" became a zone of racial hatred and frontier conflict with no place for cultural mediators, a decline into violence that revealed "the final incompatibility of colonial and native dreams about the continent they shared."30 The Delawares continued to retreat westward before the advancing edge of the colonial frontier. Penn wanted to portray the Walking Purchase as a mutually-agreed-upon deal, but in reality the Delawares were being pushed off their land. As an Algonquian nation, the Delawares allied with French during Anglo-French conflicts.

William Wells

An American kidnapped by Native Americans and eventually adopted by Little Turtle. Renamed Wild Carrot. He originally fights for Native Americans but switches sides halfway after meeting an American family member Little Turtle began to incline toward peace and his son-in-law William Wells, a white captive who had been adopted and fought against the Americans in St. Clair's defeat, switched sides and served as a scout and interpreter for Wayne.

Covenant Chain

An alliance between the Iroquois Confederacy and the colony of New York which sought to establish Iroquois dominance over all other tribes and thus put New York in an economically and politically dominant position among the other colonies. The Iroquois combined statesmanship with a reputation for military prowess and held the balance of power in northeastern North America well into the eighteenth century. They compelled the British, like the French, to deal with them on Iroquois terms, paying constant attention to keeping strong the Covenant Chain that symbolically linked the Iroquois and their allies.

Treaty of Paris, 1763

At the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which ended the Seven Years' War, France ceded its North American territorial claims to Britain. France had already ceded its lands west of the Mississippi to Spain to keep them out of British hands. Under the terms of the treaty, France handed over to Britain all of its North American territory east of the Mississippi, apart from New Orleans (which France had secretly ceded to Spain along with its territory west of the Mississippi the previous year; Map 3.5). Indians were stunned to learn that France had given up Native lands without even consulting them: they were undefeated and the French had no right to give their country to anyone. Britain's long-sought victory was complete, but its attempts to regulate its newly acquired empire would generate resistance and wars of independence, in both Indian country and the American colonies.

Royal Proclamation of 1763

Britain's Royal Proclamation prohibits settlement on Indian lands west of the Appalachian Mountains he Royal Proclamation issued in October of that year established the Appalachians as the boundary line between Indian and colonial lands and stipulated "that no private Person do presume to make any Purchase from the said Indians"7 (Map 4.1). Only the crown's representatives acting in formal council with Indian nations could negotiate land transfers, and only licensed traders would be permitted to operate in Indian country. The government hoped such measures would prevent future Indian wars. But, like the Indian chiefs who were unable to control their young warriors, the distant British government was unable to prevent its subjects from encroaching on Indian lands.

Blackfeet

But as other groups edged onto the Plains and as the Blackfeet to the north acquired both horses and guns, the Shoshonis pulled back into the Rocky Mountains. They appear to have extended as far north as the Saskatchewan River, where they came into conflict with the Blackfeet by the 1730s. At first, the Shoshoni cavalry had the advantage and pushed the Blackfeet northward. However, firearms soon offset Shoshoni wealth in horses. As the Blackfeet began to close the gap on the Shoshonis in terms of horse power, they built up their arsenals of firearms and steel weapons, trading first with Cree and Assiniboine middlemen and then directly with the French, British, and Canadian traders who came to their country in growing numbers In 1774 Hudson Bay established Cumberland House on the border of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and by the 1790s rival Northwest and Hudson's Bay Company posts were competing for trade with the Blackfeet. Cree and Assiniboine Indians who had operated as middlemen between western tribes and trading posts on the shores of Hudson Bay now moved west to maintain their role in the expanding fur trade. With plenty of access to trade, the x Blackfeet played off rival traders to their advantage and controlled the trade routes, preventing guns from reaching the Shoshonis. Smallpox hit both the Blackfeet and the Shoshonis in 1781, killing between one-third and one-half of the people and interrupting hostilities for several years. By 1800, the Blackfeet and their allies had succeeded in pushing the Shoshonis off the Plains into the Rocky Mountain ranges of western Wyoming and Idaho, where the American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark met them five years later.

Mary Jemison

Captured and adopted by the Senecas as a teenage in 1758, and married an Indian husband and raised a family. In time, she came to share fully in the lives of Seneca women. Published her life story in 1824 She wrote of the hospitality and treatment of herself in Native society. "I afterwards learned that the ceremony I at that time passed through, was that of adoption. The two squaws had lost a brother in Washington's war,° sometime in the year before, and in consequence of his death went up to Fort Pitt, on the day on which I arrived there, in order to receive a prisoner or an enemy's scalp, to supply their loss."

Attakullakulla (Little Carpenter)

Cherokee peace chief who agreed to sell land to the settlers in the Watauga and Transylvania Purchases Though Fort Loudon eventually fell, smallpox struck the Cherokee population, and through the spring and summer of 1761 Lieutenant Colonel James Grant's army of Scottish soldiers, South Carolina militia, and Indian allies burned many Cherokee towns, destroying the crops needed for winter food. Attakullakulla, the chief aptly known as Little Carpenter for his diplomatic ability to fashion agreements and other Cherokee leaders made peace in the fall. The Cherokee chiefs Attakullakulla (Little Carpenter), Oconostota, and Savunkah (the Raven of Chota) sold Henderson 27,000 square miles of territory between the Cumberland River in the south and the Kentucky River in the north in exchange for a cabin full of trade goods. The deal contravened the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and Cherokee tribal law, and the chiefs later declared that Henderson had deceived them as to what they were signing. The Cherokee chief Attakullakulla, or Little Carpenter, once expressed surprise to see no women present during a council with South Carolina. He said "that the White Men as well as the Red were born of Women and that it was Customary for them to admit the Women into their Councils and desired to know if that was not the Custom of the White People also." Father of Dragging Canoe

(1830) Indian Removal Act pt. 2

Chief Justice John Marshall declared that the Court lacked jurisdiction over the case since the Cherokees were neither U.S. citizens nor an independent nation; they (and all other Indian tribes residing within the United States) were "domestic dependent nations." The next year, however, a Vermont missionary brought suit challenging Georgia's right to exert its authority over him in Cherokee country. Because the suit involved a U.S. citizen, it fell within the Supreme Court's jurisdiction. In Worcester v. Georgia, the Court found that the Cherokee Nation was "a distinct community, occupying its own territory" in which "the laws of Georgia can have no force."36 The Court's decision was one of the most important in the history of U.S.-Indian relations, but it was not enough to save the Cherokees. Georgia would not tolerate a sovereign Cherokee nation within its boundaries nor would it tolerate federal protection of that sovereignty. Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's ruling. In 1835 the United States signed the Treaty of New Echota with a minority of Cherokees who agreed to move west voluntarily

Cornstalk

Continued encroachment on Shawnee land produced open conflict with the Virginians in 1774 in a war named aer Lord Dunmore, the colonial governor of Virginia. The Shawnee chief Cornstalk argued against war but led his warriors at the Battle of Point Pleasant at the junction of the Ohio and Kanawha rivers in present-day West Virginia. Aer a day-long battle the Shawnees were defeated and made peace, reaffirming the Ohio River as their boundary, but hostilities had hardly ceased before the American Revolution broke out. The Shawnees and their neighbors would once again fight for their lands. The Shawnee chief Cornstalk had led his warriors in Lord Dunmore's War, but now he counseled a neutral stance and worked to cultivate peaceful relations with the Americans. Seized under a flag of truce at Fort Randolph, Cornstalk was murdered by American militia in 1777. Most Shawnees made common cause with the British, who had been telling them they could expect nothing less than annihilation at the hands of the Americans, although Cornstalk's sister, Nonhelema, continued to work for peace and assisted the Americans.

Anthony Wayne

Defeated Northwestern tribes at Fallen Timbers (1794) Meanwhile, Congress was appropriating $1 million to raise, equip, and train a new army, the Legion of the United States, to be led by General Anthony Wayne against the Indian alliance. Little Turtle began to incline toward peace and his son-in-law William Wells, a white captive who had been adopted and fought against the Americans in St. Clair's defeat, switched sides and served as a scout and interpreter for Wayne.26 By the time Wayne and his army entered Indian country in 1794, the confederacy of northwestern tribes was no longer united. IN 1791 THE NORTHWEST INDIAN CONFEDERACY smashed Arthur St. Clair's army. As Anthony Wayne rebuilt the army and prepared for another invasion, the United States pursued diplomatic options in the hope of avoiding war by wringing concessions from the Indians, or simply to divide the confederacy in preparation for the next round of conflict.

Miamis

Eastern Algonquin Indians. Had control of northern states (Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Michigan) This group, along with other Indian nations, signed the Treaty of Greeneville after losing at Fallen Timbers. They give up their lands. Tanaghrisson was a pivotal Native player in the escalating imperial clash in the Ohio country in the middle of the eighteenth century. The French and the British both claimed the region, but so did the Iroquois League, which sent "half kings" as ambassadors to represent its interests among the multiple Indian nations — Shawnees, Delawares, Miamis, Wyandots, and others — who lived there. the 1780s the Northwestern Indian confederacy rejected treaties signed by individual tribes and refused to accept any American settlement west of the Ohio River. Delegates from the Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares, Shawnees, Ottawas, Anishinaabeg, Potawatomis, Miamis, and Wabash River tribes assembled in council at the mouth of the Detroit River in December 1786. They sent a message to Congress, assuring the Americans of their desire for peace, but insisting that "as landed matters are oen the subject of our councils with you, a matter of the greatest importance and of general concern to us," any cession of lands "should be made in the most public manner, and by the united voice of the confederacy; holding all partial treaties as void and of no effect." Aided by William Wells who now served as an Indian agent for the United States, Little Turtle urged the Miamis to make the transition to a new way of life. Many Shawnees le Ohio and moved to Missouri, but most of those who stayed followed the lead of their principal chief, Black Hoof, in adapting to a changing world.

Clan mothers

Fifty council chiefs or sachems were chosen by clan others from the member tribes. Clans were matrilineal. Clan mothers could decide the fate of captives, elect and remove council chiefs, and influence decisions for war or peace: "the Elders decide no important affair without their advice," noted one seventeenth-century French missionary.54 Women in other eastern tribes exercised similar influence.

Deganawidah

Traditional founder of the Iroquois confederation. Deganawidah and Hiawatha composed the laws of a great peace that would restore order and preserve harmony in Iroquois country.

Hiawatha

Legendary founder of the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. An Onondaga chieftain, who along with Doeganawidah, composed the laws of a great peace that would restore order and preserve harmony in Iroquois country.

Northwest Ordinance, 1787

In 1787 the Northwest Ordinance proclaimed that the United States would observe "the utmost good faith" in its dealings with Indian people and that their lands would not be invaded or taken except in "just and lawful wars authorized by Congress." But the ordinance also laid out a blueprint for national expansion: the Northwest Territory was to be divided into districts that, aer passing through territorial status, would become states. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin eventually entered the Union as states carved from the Northwest Territory. Indians who resisted American expansion soon found themselves subjected to "just and lawful wars."

Blue Jacket

In 1790 General Josiah Harmar invaded Indian country with some 1,500 men, but the warriors of the western tribes, ably led by the Miami war chief Little Turtle and Blue Jacket of the Shawnees, inflicted a decisive defeat. Worse was to come. In 1791 the Indian confederacy routed an American army under General Arthur St. Clair in the heaviest defeat Indians ever inflicted on the United States Little Turtle, Black Hoof, Blue Jacket, and others who had fought against the Americans since the days of the Revolution kept the peace they made at the Treaty of Greenville, which had created a boundary between Indian and American territory while ceding huge tracts of Indian land in present-day Ohio and Indiana.

Sea Otter Trade

In Alaska, Russian traders, promyshleniki, began to hunt for sea otter pelts after Vitus Bering, a Dane in the czar's service who gave his name to the straits, reached the Aleutian Islands in 1741. Before the end of the century, ships from several European nations and from New England were plying the coastline from Oregon to Alaska, trading for sea otter pelts that they then transported across the Pacific and sold at great profits in China. The search for new sources of furs and new customers fueled continued European exploration and penetration of Indian country. Many individual and family fortunes were built on the production and marketing of beaver and deerskins, and trading posts became centers of cultural as well as economic interaction. The fur trade was part of everyday life in early America, and it continued for centuries: the Hudson's Bay Company, established by British royal charter in 1670, joked that its initials stood for "Here Before Christ." Many North American cities, including Montreal, St. Louis, Detroit, Charleston, Albany, and New York, began as fur or deerskin trade markets. In the era that brought the revolution, Indians on the Northwest Coast became involved in a rush for sea otter pelts that brought the outside world to their shores. They witnessed the clash of imperial ambitions at their coastline, dealt with Russian, Spanish, British, and American ships, and became connected to a trade network that embraced Europe, Hawaii, and China. Like other peoples throughout the West, they also died in huge numbers as a massive smallpox epidemic raged from Mexico to Canada, a human catastrophe that occurred at the same time as the American Revolution but that has been largely ignored in American history.

Indian Trade and Non-Intercourse Act, 1790

In an effort to regulate conditions on the frontier and reaffirm that conduct of Indian affairs was reserved to the federal government, not the states, Congress passed the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act in 1790. Only licensed traders were permitted to operate in Indian country, and no transfers of Indian land were valid without congressional approval. The Trade and Intercourse Acts were renewed periodically until 1834. But, like the British aer 1763, the fledgling U.S. government failed to control its own citizens on distant frontiers. Frontier settlers, squatters, and speculators seldom shared their government's concern for expansion with honor — all they wanted was expansion. Individual states, resentful of attempts by the federal government to restrict their rights, frequently made treaties that never received congressional approval.

Northwest Indian Confederacy

In the 1780s the Northwestern Indian confederacy rejected treaties signed by individual tribes and refused to accept any American settlement west of the Ohio River. Delegates from the Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares, Shawnees, Ottawas, Anishinaabeg, Potawatomis, Miamis, and Wabash River tribes assembled in council at the mouth of the Detroit River in December 1786. They sent a message to Congress, assuring the Americans of their desire for peace, but insisting that "as landed matters are oen the subject of our councils with you, a matter of the greatest importance and of general concern to us," any cession of lands "should be made in the most public manner, and by the united voice of the confederacy; holding all partial treaties as void and of no effect."24 The confederacy prepared to resist American expansion, by armed force if necessary.

Sullivan's Expedition

In the fall of 1779, responding to raids on the frontiers of New York and Pennsylvania, George Washington dispatched an American expedition to burn out the Iroquois. General John Sullivan's army marched through the heart of Iroquois country, burned some forty towns, cut down orchards, destroyed crops, "and left nothing but the bare soil and timber." The Indians pulled back as Sullivan's expedition advanced but returned to find their homes laid waste. That winter, the snow fell to a depth of five feet, and the weather became so bitterly cold "that almost all the game upon which the Indians depended for subsistence, perished, and reduced them almost to a state of starvation through that and three or four succeeding years."13 (For more of Mary Jemison's experience, see "A Narrative of Her Life," pages 177-79.) Deprived of food and shelter, Iroquois refugees crowded around the British garrison at Fort Niagara. But Niagara stood at the end of a long supply line that was closed during the winter months when vessels from Montreal and Quebec could not navigate the ice-bound Great Lakes. The refugees at Niagara endured exposure, starvation, sickness, and misery during one of the coldest winters on record. merican soldiers who had accompanied Sullivan told of the fertile lands they had marched through, and American settlers and land speculators eagerly awaited the end of the war. Former masters of the region, the Iroquois soon were struggling to survive in a new world dominated by Americans.

Red Jacket

In the fall of 1792, the noted Seneca orator Red Jacket carried a message to the western tribes, saying the Americans would be willing to compromise and might accept the Muskingum River as the boundary line. But the Shawnees and their allies had defeated both Harmar's and St. Clair's armies and saw no need to compromise now. A Shawnee chief named Painted Pole told Red Jacket to "speak from your heart and not from your mouth," and, picking up the strings of wampum on which Red Jacket had spoken, he threw them at the feet of the Seneca delegation. The Seneca chief Red Jacket, for example, asked missionaries to explain why they were so sure that theirs was the one true religion. The Great Spirit had made Indians and white men different in many respects, so why not accept that He had given them different religions to suit their needs? The Indians might be more inclined to accept Christianity, he said, if the Christians they saw around them served as better examples. But since they saw lying, cheating, drunkenness, and the, the Indians thought they were better off with their own religion.

Sea otter trade pt. 2

In the late eighteenth century, Indian peoples on the Northwest Pacific Coast became producers and consumers in a commerce that spanned the world. They hunted sea otter pelts and traded them for manufactured goods conveyed by ships from Britain and New England; those ships then carried the pelts to China and traded them for silk and spices before returning home. In July 1776, just days aer American colonists signed the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia, Captain James Cook le England with two ships, Resolution and Discovery. Cook's crews sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, past Australia and Tasmania, and on to New Zealand; dropped anchor at Tahiti; and then sailed to Hawaii, becoming the first Europeans to visit the islands. They reached the northwest coast of America in the spring of 1778. The local Indians came alongside the ships in their canoes and traded sea otter pelts. Cook then pushed north along the coast of Alaska. When the ships returned to Hawaii, Cook was killed by angry Natives, but his crew carried on to Siberia and China, where they sold fifteen hundred beaver pelts as well as sea otter furs. Returning to England after fifty months at sea, they completed what has been called the greatest voyage in the age of sail. They also returned with news that there were fortunes to be made in the sea otter trade. Sea otters became the key to great fortunes in England and New England, and Northwest Coast Indian villages were soon busy ports of call in an enormous trade network involving three continents. British and Yankee merchants loaded ships with manufactured goods, sailed around the tip of South America and up to the Pacific Northwest Coast, and exchanged their goods for sea otter pelts.

Cheyennes

Indian people who became nomadic buffalo hunters after migrating to the Great Plains in the eighteenth century. Long before Euro-Americans pushed west onto the Great Plains, Indian peoples had been moving into and across the vast grasslands. Some peoples, like the Quapaws, Osages, Omahas, and Poncas, followed river valleys west before horses reached the Plains. Others, like the Cheyennes, Comanches, and Lakotas, migrated deep into the Plains to take advantage of new opportunities presented by the spread of horses. Some peoples were still in motion and competing for position on the Plains when the Euro-Americans arrived. Many of the nomadic buffalo- hunting peoples, such as the Lakota Sioux, Cheyennes, Kiowas, and Comanches, arrived much later. Crows, Kiowas, Arapahos, Cheyennes, and other tribes brought horses to the villages of the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras. The Cheyennes, who once lived in sedentary farming villages in Minnesota and then North Dakota, crossed the Missouri River and took up life as mounted hunters on the Plains in the late 1700s. Moving first to the Black Hills, they swung south to the central Plains aer 1800. Like American settlers who came later, the Cheyennes were drawn westward by new opportunities, but in their case the opportunities were the vast buffalo herds and "the chance to become middlemen in a sprawling trading system that reached from New Mexico to Canada."

White Eyes

Like their Shawnee neighbors, the Delawares were initially reluctant to take up arms or support the British. In fact, the Delaware chief White Eyes led his people in making the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778, the first written Indian treaty concluded by the new United States. The Delawares and the U.S. Congress agreed to a defensive alliance, but that alliance was short-lived: later that year, American militiamen, who evidently regarded all Indians as enemies, murdered White Eyes, their best friend in the Ohio Indian country. The government claimed that he had died of smallpox, but the damage was done. Like the Shawnees, most Delawares took up the hatchet and made Britain's war their own. Americans struck back, blindly. In 1782 a force of Pennsylvania militia marched into the town of Gnadenhütten in Ohio, a community of Delaware Indians who had converted to the Moravian faith. The Delawares were Christians and pacifists, but the militia recognized them only as their Delaware enemy. The Americans divided the residents into three groups — men, women, and children. Then, with the Indians kneeling before them singing hymns, the militiamen took up butchers' mallets and bludgeoned to death ninety-six people.

Gnadenhutten

Location of a Moravian Indian mission where a frontier group massacred unarmed Indians. This event led some Indians to resume the custom of ritual torture of prisoners for punishment. The Gnadenhutten massacre, also known as the Moravian massacre, was the killing of 96 pacifist Moravian Christian Indians (primarily Lenape and Mohican) by U.S. militiamen from Pennsylvania, under the command of David Williamson, on March 8, 1782, at the Moravian missionary village of Gnadenhutten, Ohio Country, during the American Revolutionary War.

Dragging Canoe

Many Cherokees, led by a war chief named Dragging Canoe, migrated rather than make peace with the Americans and kept up the fight from new towns they built around Chickamauga Creek in southwestern Tennessee. He stormed out of the negotiations at Sycamore Shoals and is reputed to have warned Henderson that he would make the lands "dark and bloody." He told British deputy superintendent of Indian affairs Henry Stuart "that he had no hand in making these Bargains but blamed some of their Old Men who he said were too old to hunt and who by their Poverty had been induced to sell their Land but that for his part he had a great many young fellows that would support him and that were determined to have their Land." But recurrent losses of Cherokee territory had undermined the prestige of the older chiefs. When Dragging Canoe and the younger warriors accepted the war belt the northern Indians offered them, they seized authority from the chiefs and reversed their policies of appeasement. Cherokee warriors attacked American settlements on the Watauga River the following month. The Americans granted them peace, but at a price: the Cherokees lost more than five million acres in treaties with Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Dragging Canoe and his followers refused to be party to the treaties and retreated to the southwestern reaches of Cherokee country, building new towns on the Chickamauga River and fracturing the ancient balance between old and young in Cherokee society.

Little Turtle (To do well, make sure you mention each time he shows up. Miamis.)

Many Native people refute the idea that their ancestors came to America via the Bering Strait and insist that they are truly indigenous people, not just the first immigrants to America. The Miami chief Little Turtle (c. 1752-1812) offered a different interpretation of the Bering Strait theory. Little Turtle is reported to have met Thomas Jefferson and a group of French scientists when visiting Eastern US. Little Turtle considered the evidence but came to a different conclusion: the Asian people must have migrated from America. In 1790 General Josiah Harmar invaded Indian country with some 1,500 men, but the warriors of the western tribes, ably led by the Miami war chief Little Turtle and Blue Jacket of the Shawnees, inflicted a decisive defeat. Worse was to come Meanwhile, Congress was appropriating $1 million to raise, equip, and train a new army, the Legion of the United States, to be led by General Anthony Wayne against the Indian alliance. Little Turtle began to incline toward peace and his son-in-law William Wells, a white captive who had been adopted and fought against the Americans in St. Clair's defeat, switched sides and served as a scout and interpreter for Wayne. By the time Wayne and his army entered Indian country in 1794, the confederacy of northwestern tribes was no longer united. On the west bank of the Maumee River, south of Lake Erie, a reduced Indian force confronted Wayne's troops. Outnumbered and outgunned, the Indians were driven from the field by the American cannon, cavalry, and bayonets. Aided by William Wells as an Indian agent for the United States, Little Turtle urged the Miamis to make the transition to a new way of life. Many Shawnees left Ohio and moved to Missouri, but those who stayed followed the lead of their principal chief, Black Hoof, in adapting to a changing world.

Pontiac's War (Part 2)

Pontiac turned growing anti-British sentiment into direct action by calling for the expulsion of the redcoats from Indian country. In 1763 Indian warriors responding to Pontiac's call captured every British fort west of the Appalachians except Niagara, Detroit, and Fort Pitt, to which they laid siege. Indians in the borderlands around Michilimackinac, where Lakes Huron and Michigan meet, prevented the war from spreading because they were more concerned with maintaining trade networks than with the threat of settlers on their lands, but elsewhere the Indians drove the redcoats back on almost every front, and backcountry settlers fled east to escape Indian raiding parties. However, the combination of European military superiority and disease among the Indian forces eventually turned the tide

Chickamaugas

Militant Cherokees who allied with Creeks and Shawnees against settlers along the frontier from Kentucky to Georgia during the 1780s and early 1790s. any Cherokees, led by a war chief named Dragging Canoe, migrated rather than make peace with the Americans and kept up the fight from new towns they built around Chickamauga Creek in southwestern Tennessee. American campaigns against the Chickamauga Cherokees sometimes struck the villages of those Cherokees who had made peace, which were closer and offered easier targets than those of the Chickamaugas. The Revolution le the Cherokee Nation devastated and divided, but the Chickamaugas remained defiant and continued to fight against American dominance until 1795. The Chickamauga Cherokees, as they became known, continued their war against the Americans. The Americans retaliated, oen without making a distinction between different groups of Cherokees: in 1780 they burned Chota itself. The Chickamaugas made common cause with militant factions among the Creeks and Shawnees and continued to resist American expansion.

Joseph Brant

Mohawk leader who supported the British during the American Revolution. The Mohawk Joseph Brant (1743-1807) was probably the most famous Indian of his day. Educated at Eleazar Wheelock's Indian Charity School in Connecticut, Brant was bilingual and literate, and assisted in translating the gospel into Mohawk. He visited England twice, was received at court, and befriended the Prince of Wales. He was the protégé of Sir William Johnson, who married Brant's sister Molly. Brant became a war leader on the British side during the Revolution and led his people to the Grand River aer the war. Though bitterly disappointed by Britain's abandonment of its Indian allies in 1783, he continued to play a pivotal role in relations between the northeastern Indians, the British, and the new United States.

Samson Occom

Mohegan Preacher. Wrote what is generally believed to be the first autobiography by a Native American. Helped found Dartmouth College.

Tanaghrisson

One of two "half kings" sent by Iroquois to native settlement of Logstown. Recognized by British as leaders. Sparked war by killing a French officer after Washington was captured and his party fired on a French detachment. George Washington, an officer in the Virginia militia who had gone to the Ohio country the year before to find out what the French were up to and request that they withdraw, now returned with a small force of soldiers and Indian warriors under a Seneca chief named Tanaghrisson. After ambushing a company of French soldiers led by Joseph Coulon de Villiers, sieur de Jumonville, Tanaghrisson and his warriors killed the French officer and ten of his men, but Washington was compelled to surrender to a superior French and Indian force and signed capitulation terms that admitted responsibility for Jumonville's murder.

Canasatego

Orator of the Onandaga who advocated for a union like the Iroquois for the United States The Iroquois model was there for the colonists to emulate — in 1744 the Onondaga orator Canasatego urged them to follow the model of "union and amity" established by "our wise Forefathers," and Benjamin Franklin asked why, if the Six Nations could create "such an Union," could not a dozen or so colonies do likewise?

The Indian Removal Act, 1830

Passed by Congress under the Jackson administration, this act removed all Indians east of the Mississippi to an "Indian Territory" where they would be "permanently" housed. The policy of removing Indian peoples from their eastern homelands to the West was implemented in the late 1820s, '30s, and '40s, but it originated in earlier periods when Americans had considered various solutions to the problem of what to do with Indians in the eastern United States. The government could try to destroy the Indians, assimilate them into American society, protect them on their ancestral lands, or remove them to more distant lands. Most Americans favored the last option as the only practical course. In May 1830, aer extensive debate and a close vote in both houses, and despite widespread opposition from church and reform groups throughout much of the country, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the president to negotiate treaties of removal with all Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi. Almost immediately, surveyors and squatters entered Cherokee country and Georgia stepped up its campaign of harassment. The Cherokees decided to fight Georgia in the federal courts. In 1830 John Ross hired William Wirt, the former U.S. attorney general, and other lawyers to represent his people's interests. In 1831 the Cherokee Nation brought suit against the state of Georgia in the U.S. Supreme Court.

Treaty of Paris, 1783

Peace of Paris: Britain recognizes the independence of its thirteen former colonies. Ultimately ended the Revolutionary War. In the West, Indians continued their wars for independence, but in 1783, at the Treaty of Paris, an exhausted Britain recognized the independence of the United States and acknowledged American sovereignty over all territory south of the Great Lakes, east of the Mississippi, and north of Florida. There were no Indians at the Peace of Paris and Indians were not mentioned in its terms. In effect, Britain abandoned its Indian allies to the mercy of the Americans. Indians were furious and incredulous when they learned that their allies had sold them out and given away their lands. Many Indians had fought for the king throughout the war, but they were neither represented nor included in the peace treaty. Now they faced a new power that regarded them as defeated enemies who had forfeited both lands and rights (Map 4.2). The Iroquois were "thunderstruck" when they heard of the peace terms, and the Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, who had fought for the British throughout the war, was enraged and "cast down" to be betrayed by "Our Allies for whom we have so oen freely Bled."

Pontiac's War

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763-1765) was an armed conflict between the British Empire and Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskogean, and Siouan-speaking Native Americans following the Seven Years' War. Indian tribes east of the Mississippi that had traded and allied with the French now found that they had to deal with the representatives of King George. Many British officials regarded the Indians as a defeated people and, with the war won, saw little reason to cultivate their allegiance. The Iroquois could no longer play the English and the French against each other, and with peace a flood of English settlers invaded Indian lands. In one of the most famous Indian wars for independence, named aer the Ottawa chief Pontiac, tribes in the Great Lakes and the Ohio valley regions rallied against the British. [Jeffrey Amherst] demanded the return of prisoners, many of whom had been adopted and were now, in Indian eyes, Indians. His soldiers and his forts threatened Indian lands, and British traders entered Indian villages for profit, not for an exchange between allies. Amherst prohibited all giving at the western posts and placed restrictions on the amounts of powder and lead traded to Indians. Britain intended to reduce the Indians to submission and take over their land.

Comanches pt. 2

Some Kiowa and Comanche bands were still on the northern Plains at the end of the century, but they continued their migration southward to the area of present-day Texas and Oklahoma. En route, the Comanches came into conflict with Apache bands, whom they pushed west off the Plains and into areas of Arizona and New Mexico. Comanches and Utes advanced together on to the southern Plains out of the foothills of the Rockies. They drove most of the Apache bands off the Plains, into the Southwest desert and against the Spanish frontier. As the Comanches and Utes consolidated their position as horse and buffalo Indians on the rich grasslands of the southern Plains, they also incorporated other peoples and built exchange networks with other tribes that enabled them to dominate trade between New Mexico and French Louisiana. By mid-century, the Ute-Comanche alliance had dissolved, and the Comanches were the dominant and growing power on the southern Plains. When Tomás Vélez Cachupín became governor of the Spanish province of New Mexico in 1749, he inherited a colony beset by Indian enemies on all sides. Mounted Utes, Navajos, Comanches, and Apaches raided Spanish and Pueblo communities alike. Lacking the manpower and resources to maintain a constant war effort, Vélez Cachupín turned to diplomacy to secure the protection his province needed. In 1751 he defeated a large Comanche war party, pinning it down at a waterhole and killing almost one hundred warriors. Then he made peace, sitting down and smoking with the Comanche chiefs who visited trade fairs at the Pueblo towns.

Comanches

Spanish New Mexico in the eighteenth century became more concerned with defending its northern borders against Apache, Navajo, Ute, and Comanche attacks than it was with subjugating and converting its Pueblo populations. Many Pueblos fought alongside Spaniards in conflicts against Indian peoples to the east, north, and west of New Mexico. Utes and Comanches raided Spaniards, Pueblos, Apaches, and Navajos. Spanish slave-raiding expeditions continued to strike deep into Indian country, and some Indian people raided more distant neighbors to feed the Spanish demand for slaves. In the recurrent raiding between Apaches, Navajos, Utes, Comanches, Kiowas, and Hispanos, many people were taken captive, and patterns of captive taking and captive exchange generated cross-cultural kinship connections within and among competing societies. Some Indian people incorporated the outsiders into their kinship systems and exchange networks, but the onus was on the Europeans to adjust to Indian ways when they dealt with the powerful Osages between the Missouri and Red rivers, and with the Caddos, Comanches, Lipan Apaches, and Wichitas who held the upper hand in Texas. In the eighteenth century, when mounted Ute, Comanche, and Apache nomads proved more than a match for heavily equipped Spanish soldiers in thinly spread garrisons, Spaniards came to rely on Pueblo and Pima allies and on diplomacy to defend their provinces. Apaches traded horses to Pueblos; Kiowas and Kiowa-Apaches traded them to Caddos; Wichitas and Pawnees traded them to Osages; Comanches and Utes traded them to Shoshonis

Shawnees pt. 2

Tanaghrisson was a pivotal Native player in the escalating imperial clash in the Ohio country in the middle of the eighteenth century. The French and the British both claimed the region, but so did the Iroquois League, which sent "half kings" as ambassadors to represent its interests among the multiple Indian nations — Shawnees, Delawares, Miamis, Wyandots, and others — who lived there. 1774 - Lord Dunmore's War between the _____ and Virginia 1786 - Treaty of Fort Finney between the ____ and the United States However, when Sir William Johnson met with the Iroquois at Fort Stanwix in 1768, he exceeded his authority and purchased a huge tract of land from the assembled Indian delegates. Most of the land the Iroquois sold was south of the Ohio River — hunting territory claimed by the Shawnees and Cherokees, who were not at the treaty negotiations. Combined with new boundary lines negotiated with the Cherokees at the Treaty of Hard Labor that same year and at the Treaty of Lochaber in 1770, the Fort Stanwix cession thrust a wedge into the heart of Indian country. Colonists swarmed into Kentucky, confident that these lands had been duly ceded, and clashed with Shawnee and Cherokee warriors determined to defend their hunting grounds against trespassers. Continued encroachment on Shawnee land produced open conflict with the Virginians in 1774 in Lord Dunmore's War. The Shawnee chief Cornstalk argued against war but led his warriors at the Battle of Point Pleasant at the junction of the Ohio and Kanawha rivers in present-day West Virginia. After a day-long battle the Shawnees were defeated and made peace, reaffirming the Ohio River as their boundary, but hostilities had hardly ceased before the American Revolution broke out. The Shawnees and their neighbors would once again fight for their lands.

Tecumseh pt. 3 (The vision of Tecumseh)

Tecumseh is widely regarded as one of the greatest Indian leaders, if not the greatest. Although he failed to achieve his goals, his dream of a pan-Indian coalition inspired generations of Native Americans. His determination to stand his ground, his prowess as a warrior, and the humanity he showed in war won admiration even from his enemies. William Henry Harrison, Tecumseh's nemesis, described him as "one of those uncommon geniuses which spring up occasionally to produce revolutions and overturn the established order of things." Had it not been for the presence of the United States, Harrison reckoned, Tecumseh "would, perhaps, be the founder of an empire that would rival in glory that of Mexico or Peru." Tecumseh denounced the Treaty of Fort Wayne. The ceded lands belonged to all Indians, he said, not just to the tribes who sold them. United defense of all tribal lands was not a new idea. As a young man in the 1780s and 1790s, Tecumseh had fought in the Northwest Confederacy that had adopted the same stance. He sought to revive and extend that confederacy, and channeled his brother's religious movement into a militant defense of Indian lands and independence. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa sent messengers out across Indian country and Tecumseh himself traveled widely among the tribes, preaching his vision of a still-strong Indian nation that would stand up to American aggression and winning converts to the cause with fiery oratory. He carried his message from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. He visited the Shawnees and Wyandots in Ohio, went on to the tribes in Michigan, dispatched messengers to the Iroquois in New York, traveled west to the Illinois and Mississippi, and tried to enlist the support of the Creeks, Cherokees, and Choctaws, as well as those Shawnees living in Missouri.

Tecumseh pt. 2

Tenskwatawa's teachings and Tecumseh's vision alarmed the U.S. government, especially the governor of Indiana Territory, General William Henry Harrison, who had built his career advancing Jefferson's policies of national expansion and Indian dispossession.10 In 1811 Harrison led an army in a preemptive strike against the Prophet's village at Tippecanoe while Tecumseh was away in the South.11 The battle was a relatively minor affair — Tecumseh dismissed it as "a scuffle between children" — but the Americans claimed a victory, the Prophet lost prestige, and Tecumseh's confederacy suffered a setback and loss of momentum. When the War of 1812 broke out between Britain and the United States, Tecumseh sided with the British in a last attempt to stem the tide of American expansion. The British-Indian alliance scored some early victories, but Britain was distracted by its involvement in European resistance to Napoleon. When Tecumseh was killed fighting Harrison's army at the Battle of the Thames in Ontario in 1813, the last hope of united Indian resistance east of the Mississippi also died. Tensions escalated after Tecumseh traveled the Southeast with his message of united Indian resistance in 1811. Indian nations east of the Mississippi continued to resist American military and cultural assault, but by 1815 Tecumseh's united movement was defeated and Indians were le to confront the United States alone, without European allies.

Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet

Tenskwatawa, the younger brother of Tecumseh, was a leader of the Shawnee tribe, who became known as the Shawnee Prophet. He became an important religious figure who warned other Indigenous peoples about European-Americans, and strove for unity among Indigenous tribes. Like Handsome Lake, the Shawnee Prophet, Tenskwatawa, lived an early life of drunkenness and debauchery. Like Handsome Lake, he fell into a trance and experienced a vision in 1805, which caused him to transform his life and bring a message of hope to his people. Tenskwatawa preached that the Master of Life had selected him to spread the new religion among the Indians. Indian people were warned to avoid contact with the Americans, who were "children of the Evil Spirit." They were urged to give up alcohol, refuse intermarriage, reject Christianity, lay down manufactured tools, and throw off white man's clothing. Instead of eating the meat of domesticated animals, they should return to a diet of corn, beans, maple sugar, and other traditional foods. They should avoid intertribal conflict and practice communal ownership of property. Tenskwatawa's teachings promised a revitalization of Shawnee culture, but his message also drew adherents from the Delawares, Kickapoos, Ottawas, Potawatomis, Anishinaabeg, and other tribes, especially aer he accurately predicted a total eclipse of the sun on June 16, 1806. Many Indians rejected his message, but hundreds of others flocked to the village he established at Prophetstown on the Tippecanoe River in Indiana.

Peace of Montreal, 1701

The Great Peace of Montreal (French: La Grande paix de Montréal) was a peace treaty between New France and 39 First Nations of North America that ended the Beaver Wars. It was signed on August 4, 1701, by Louis-Hector de Callière, governor of New France, and 1300 representatives of 39 Indigenous nations. The French, allied to the Hurons and the Algonquins, provided 16 years of peaceful relations and trade before war started again.[citation needed] Present for the diplomatic event were the various peoples; part of the Iroquois confederacy, the Huron peoples, and the Algonquin peoples. This has sometimes been called the Grand Settlement of 1701, not to be confused with the unrelated Act of Settlement 1701 in England. It has often been referred to as La Paix des Braves, meaning "The Peace of the Braves".

Smallpox epidemic of 1779-84

The 1779-1784 smallpox epidemic reached from South America to the Saskatchewan River, from Puget Sound to Hudson Bay (Map 4.7). It was certainly not the first epidemic to ravage the West, but it was more extensive than any before or since. The epidemic struck first in Mexico City, where it killed an estimated eighteen thousand people between September and December 1779. From there it spread in all directions: to the silver mining districts of northern Mexico; to Guatemala in 1780-81; to Colombia in 1781-83; to Ecuador in 1783.55 Infected families from Sonora carried the disease to Baja California. Indians who fled from the mission deathtraps into the mountains carried smallpox to the non-Christian Indians who lived there. The disease spread from Mexico along the camino real and other trails to New Mexico, where more than five thousand people died in 1780-81. So many people perished that Governor Anza urged reducing the number of missions in New Mexico. Hopis there told Anza they expected the epidemic to exterminate them. In 1785 a band of Comanches reported that two-thirds of their people had recently died of smallpox. The disease spread far and fast along well-traveled trade channels, following roughly the same routes by which horses spread across the West and racing across two-thirds of the continent in two to three years. When smallpox hit village farmers, they died in huge numbers; when it hit mobile hunters, they carried it to other groups. People who fled the dreaded disease infected their allies and the relatives who took them in. The epidemic became a turning point in relations between the semi-sedentary farming tribes on the upper Missouri and the Sioux.

Sir William Johnson

The British superintendent of Indian affairs in the North during the mid-eighteenth century, Sir William Johnson, set the tone of the British Indian department for more than a generation. Married Molly Brant, a Mohawk woman, so he understood the role of women in Iroquois politics, but he tried to ignore them. At a council meeting in the spring of 1762, Johnson barred women and children and invited "none but those who were Qualified for, and Authorized to proceed on business." 1768: Treaty of Fort Stanwix: Iroquois cede lands south of Ohio River to Sir William Johnson

Blackfeet pt. 2

The Shoshones welcomed American traders into their country; the new source of firearms allowed them to confront Blackfeet and other enemies on equal terms again in the 19th century.

The "Five Civilized Tribes"

The irony in Jackson's argument lay in the fact that the Indians whom Americans seemed most anxious to expel from their lands were people who, even by their own definition, Americans termed civilized. The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles became known as "the Five Civilized Tribes." A census taken among the Cherokees in 1825 showed that they owned 33 grist mills, 13 saw mills, 1 powder mill, 69 blacksmith shops, 2 tan yards, 762 looms, 2,486 spinning wheels, 172 wagons, 2,923 plows, 7,683 horses, 22,531 cattle, 46,732 pigs, and 2,566 sheep. Cherokees restructured their tribal government into a constitutional republic modeled aer that of the United States, with a written constitution, an independent judiciary, a supreme court, a principal chief, and a two-house legislature. They had a written language based on the syllabary developed by Sequoyah (aka George Gist, c. 1770-1843), who devoted a dozen years to creating a written version of the Cherokee language.29 In 1828 they established a newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, which was published in both Cherokee and English.

Treaty of Greenville, 1795

The lack of British support dispirited the Indians more than the actual battle at Fallen Timbers, where their losses were relatively light. In 1795, at the Treaty of Greenville, more than a thousand Indian delegates accepted Wayne's terms and ceded to the United States two-thirds of present- day Ohio and part of Indiana. In return, the Indians were promised a lasting boundary between their lands and American territory. With the war for the Ohio country over, many Indians turned to more subtle forms of resistance in what remained of their homelands, compromising where they had no choice, adapting and adjusting to changes, and preserving what they could of Indian life and culture in a nation that was intent on eradicating both.

Shawnees pt. 3

They [Cherokees] staged a coup during the war negotiations at Chota in May 1776, joining northern Shawnee, Delaware, and Mohawk delegates who called for resistance against the revolutionary colonists In 1782 the Indians lured Daniel Boone and the Kentucky militia into an ambush and routed them at the Battle of Blue Licks. About half of the Shawnees migrated west to present-day Missouri, which was claimed by Spain. Those who remained moved their villages farther and farther away from American assault. By the end of the Revolution, most Indian people living in Ohio were concentrated in the northwestern region. The Peace of Paris brought little peace in Indian country. In the summer of 1784, more than two hundred Indians — Iroquois, Shawnees, Cherokees, Creeks, and others — who were visiting St. Louis told the Spanish governor they were already feeling the effects of the American victory n January 1785 at Fort McIntosh in western Pennsylvania, U.S. commissioners met with delegates from the Wyandots, Anishinaabeg, Delawares, and Ottawas and demanded large cessions of land. When the Indians objected that the king of England had no right to transfer their lands to the United States, the Americans reminded them they were a defeated people. The Indian delegates attached their names to a treaty that was dictated to them. However, the Shawnees refused to attend.

Shawnees pt. 4

They had resisted expansion across the Ohio since the 1760s and knew from past experience that peace could only be bought with land. The Americans realized that no peace in the West would last if it did not include the Shawnees and dispatched emissaries to Shawnee villages. January 1786 more than two hundred Shawnees finally met the American commissioners at Fort Finney, where the Great Miami River meets the Ohio River in southwestern Ohio. The Shawnees approached the treaty grounds in ceremonial fashion, and the proceedings opened with traditional speeches of welcome, smoking peace pipes, and dining. But this was not a meeting between equals, and the American commissioners were in no mood for conciliation. General Richard Butler had fought with Colonel Bouquet against the Shawnees and Delawares in 1764 and was a veteran of the Revolutionary War. George Rogers Clark, the other American commissioner, had made a name for himself as an Indian fighter during the Revolution and led assaults on Shawnee villages in 1780 and 1782. But there was to be no peace for the Shawnees. Many who did not attend the treaty were outraged by the terms, and some refused to give up their captives as required by the treaty. Younger warriors accused Moluntha and the older chiefs of selling out to the Americans. Before the year was over, Kentucky militia raided Shawnee country again. he Shawnees' experiences in 1786 demonstrated that those worries and warnings were well founded. Shawnees became leaders in forging a multitribal coalition that resisted American expansion for a dozen years after the Revolution. 1780s Northwestern Indian Confederacy rejected treaties signed by individual tribes and refused to accept any American settlement west of the Ohio River. "Any cession of lands should be made by the united voice of the confederacy."

Treaty of Fort Pitt, 1778

Treaty between the Delawares and the United States; first treaty between United States and Indians. Like their Shawnee neighbors, the Delawares were initially reluctant to take up arms or support the British. In fact, the Delaware chief White Eyes led his people in making the Treaty of Fort Pitt in 1778, the first written Indian treaty concluded by the new United States. The Delawares and the U.S. Congress agreed to a defensive alliance, but that alliance was short-lived: later that year, American militiamen, who evidently regarded all Indians as enemies, murdered White Eyes, their best friend in the Ohio Indian country. The government claimed that he had died of smallpox, but the damage was done. Like the Shawnees, most Delawares took up the hatchet and made Britain's war their own.

Treaty of Fort Finney, 1786

Treaty between the Shawnees and the United States. In January 1786 more than two hundred Shawnees finally met the American commissioners at Fort ____, where the Great Miami River meets the Ohio River in southwestern Ohio. The negotiations at Fort ____ graphically illustrate the contrast between the old and new ways of conducting diplomacy in Indian country. The Shawnees approached the treaty grounds in ceremonial fashion, and the proceedings opened with traditional speeches of welcome, smoking peace pipes, and dining. But this was not a meeting between equals, and the American commissioners were in no mood for conciliation. General Richard Butler had fought with Colonel Bouquet against the Shawnees and Delawares in 1764 and was a veteran of the Revolutionary War. George Rogers Clark, the other American commissioner, had made a name for himself as an Indian fighter during the Revolution and led assaults on Shawnee villages in 1780 and 1782. He had little patience for the protocols of Indian diplomacy as practiced by the British and the French, preferring instead to dictate terms with the threat of force. When the Shawnees balked at the terms of the treaty, the Americans threw the Shawnees' wampum belt onto the ground and threatened them with destruction. Moluntha, a Maquachake chief, urged his people to reconsider, and they grudgingly accepted the American terms. The Treaty of Fort __, also known as the Treaty at the Mouth of the Great Miami, was signed between the United States and Shawnee leaders after the American Revolutionary War and ceded parts of the Ohio country to the United States. The treaty was reluctantly signed by the Shawnees and later renounced by other Shawnee leaders. The Northwest Indian War soon followed.

Shawnees

Tribe of Native Americans from the Mid-West. Joined the British against the Americans in war of 1812. Armed with English guns, the Westos preyed on bow-and-arrow tribes for slaves to sell in Charleston, until they themselves were destroyed in 1682 by Shawnee Indians in the pay of Carolina traders. The Westos in turn became victims of the Indian slave trade. Coocoochee, a Mohawk woman born near Montreal around 1740, was forced to move five times during a quarter century of war and upheaval in the Northeast, and finally took up residence among the Shawnees in the Ohio country. The Shawnees had migrated from their Ohio homelands in the late seventeenth century in the wake of the Iroquois wars. Many of them relocated to the Southeast, where they developed close contacts with the Creeks and encountered the English. By the mid-eighteenth century most of them were back in Ohio, where they were joined by Mingoes (Iroquois people who had moved west), Delawares, and other displaced peoples in a zone of escalating imperial friction. For Shawnees, mobility and migration became a way to survive in a world of violence and turmoil. After Colonel Henry Bouquet defeated the Indians of the Ohio valley at Bushy Run later that year [Pontiac's War], he dictated peace terms that required the Indians to hand over all of the captives they had taken during the recent war. The Shawnees and Delawares complied, but they reminded Bouquet that the captives "have been all tied to us by Adoption. . . . we have taken as much care of these Prisoners, as if they were [our] own Flesh, and blood."

Paxton Massacre

Two days after Christmas 1763, the "Paxton Boys," who had killed six Indians at Conestoga two weeks earlier, rode into Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and murdered fourteen Indians who had taken refuge in the workhouse.

Henry Knox

Washington's Secretary of War Although George Washington, his secretary of war Henry Knox, Thomas Jefferson, and other good men of the founding fathers' generation wrestled with how to deal honorably with Indian people, the taking of Indian land was never in doubt. The U.S. Constitution established national authority over the conduct of Indian relations, permitting only the federal government to negotiate and make treaties with Indian nations. The War Department assumed responsibility for Indian affairs, and the first secretary of war, Henry Knox, proved relatively humanitarian in his dealings with Indians. In the 1780s, with dust from the Revolution not quite settled on the frontiers, it made sense for Indian affairs to be under the jurisdiction of the War Department.

Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768

When Sir William Johnson met with the Iroquois at Fort Stanwix in 1768, he exceeded his authority and purchased a huge tract of land from the assembled Indian delegates. Most of the land the Iroquois sold was south of the Ohio River — hunting territory claimed by the Shawnees and Cherokees, who were not at the treaty negotiations. The Iroquois delegates deftly diverted colonial expansion away from their own land but lost prestige among western tribes who regarded the Fort Stanwix treaty as an act of betrayal

Comanches pt.. 3

When Spain attempted to solidify and extend imperial authority on its northern frontiers, it collided with an emerging Comanche empire on the southern plains. It was not an empire like the British imperial system or the "empire of liberty" that Jefferson envisioned; Comanche dominance rested on buffalo, horses, and grasslands, operated along networks of exchange and kinship, and relied on coexistence and coercion rather than conquest and colonization. Nevertheless, Comanche military prowess, commercial reach and economic power, incorporation of other peoples, and political and cultural influence challenged and eclipsed Spain's empire. The Comanches maintained alliances with the Wichitas, confined the Osages to the east, and pushed the Apaches south and west. They raided at will deep into Texas, New Mexico, and Spain's other northern provinces, carrying off captives and livestock and draining and diverting the limited resources Spain could afford for frontier defense. Despite Governor Cachupín's efforts to cultivate peace with the Comanches, Spanish-Comanche relations continued to be marred by hostilities. In 1779 Governor Juan Bautista de Anza defeated and killed the Comanche chief Cuerno Verde (Green Horn). Realizing that years of fighting could have been avoided if Spain had always treated the Comanches "with gentleness and justice," Anza quickly moved to restore peace. Recent losses to disease may also have induced Comanches to make peace. But Western Indian resistance, though shiing in its composition and power balance, remained a formidable force against Spanish expansion, and Comanche and Apache raids would continue long aer Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1785 a band of Comanches reported that two-thirds of their people had recently died of smallpox.

Treaty of Lancaster, 1744

When: 1744 Where: Pennsylvania Why important: commissioners from Virginia invited the Iroquois delegates to send their children to William and Mary college, where they would receive the benefits of an English education. One of the most important Indian treaties of colonial times; held in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Settled disputes b/t Iroquois and various colonies→ Britain and France were on the verge of renewed war, and the Iroquois promised to remain neutral (k) At the Treaty of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1744, commissioners from Virginia invited the Iroquois delegates to send their children to William and Mary, where they would receive the benefits of an English education. The Onondaga orator Canasatego thanked them for their kind offer but politely declined. In the expanded version of his reply recorded by Benjamin Franklin (who printed many colonial Indian treaties), Canasatego went further. Young Indians who had gone to school in the colonies, he said, came home "good for nothing," unable to hunt a deer, paddle a canoe, or find their way in the woods. Tongue in cheek, he returned the compliment: if the Virginians would like to send some of their young men to the Iroquois, the Indians would teach them their ways and make real men of them

Chota

Young Cherokee men, frustrated by their fathers' policies of selling land and determined to prevent further erosion of the Cherokee homeland, seized the outbreak of the Revolution as an occasion to drive trespassers off their lands. They staged a coup during the war negotiations at Chota in May 1776, joining northern Shawnee, Delaware, and Mohawk delegates who called for resistance against the revolutionary colonists. By the outbreak of the American Revolution, when their delegates assembled at Chota, the Cherokees had seen their lands whittled away in a series of treaties. The Treaty of Sycamore Shoals in 1775 that gobbled up most of the remaining Cherokee land in Kentucky was especially devastating. The Cherokees decision to go to war, and the restoration of peace, did little to stem the pressures on Cherokee land. Their opportunity to make this challenge came in May 1776 when a delegation of Shawnee, Delaware, Mohawk, and other Indians from the north arrived at Chota, the Cherokee capital or "beloved town" on the Little Tennessee River. Their faces painted black, they urged the Cherokees to join them in a war of united resistance against the Americans. The Chickamauga Cherokees, as they became known, continued their war against the Americans. The Americans retaliated, oen without making a distinction between different groups of Cherokees: in 1780 they burned Chota itself.