History 202 Final Exam UTM Barber

Mississippi Summer Project

-1,000 white college students from all the US to help create freedom schools that would educate blacks about laws and how to vote/pass literacy tests -campaign organization in the United States launched in June 1964 to attempt to register as many African American voters as possible in Mississippi, which up to that time had almost totally excluded black voters -sets civil rights movement on course of black nationalism -asked whites to leave because they were raised to think they are better -fierce resistance, but the movement persisted -three volunteers were murdered

Malcolm X

-1952 renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage -rough childhood; father was a preacher -> made them move a lot (house burned once) -father killed by the KKK -converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s and became a prominent leader (helped it grow, but left because it was not political enough) -became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter -taught blacks to love themselves and that race is structual -> believed that blacks should be in charge of the black institutions -nationalist -his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on seperationist and nationalist impulses to achieve true independence and equality -argued for separation, not integration -taught hypocrisy of of US nonviolent

Schwerner, Goodman and Chaney

-1964 -3 civil rights activists who were kidnapped and murdered in Mississippi while registering blacks to vote (Mississippi Summer Project volunteers) -had been working on the "Freedom Summer" program -Chaney, the only black one, was given a funeral by COKE and riled up the black community -crime went unpunished

Fannie Lou Hamer

-American voting rights activist and civil rights leader -helped organize the Mississippi Freedom Summer for the SNCC -a SNCC organizer and former sharecropper who had been evicted from her farm after registering to vote & thrown in jail for urging other African Americans to register to vote -helped organize and later became the vice-chair of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party & challenged the legality of the segregated Democratic Party at the Democratic Convention -spokesperson for the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the 1964 Democratic Convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey -set to testify, but cut off by surprise press conference because Johnson was scared of what her testimony would show to the US and world

ARVN

-Army of the Republic of Vietnam, US- backed and created armed forces -Diem's and South Vietnamese Army -the side the US fought on in both limited war and special war -opponents of the National Liberation Front (NLF) -constantly derided by US military forces

Ho Chi Minh

-Communist leader of Vietminh -president of North Vietnam, led the fight against the French (Vietcong) and fought for Vietnam's independence -declared independence in 1945 -Nationalist first, but also Communist

Democratic Party Coalition

-Democratic party made up by 3 groups: southern whites, black people, and the north white working class -These are the core groups that support the Democratic Party, including African-Americans, Jews, Women, Labor Unions, and poor people.

Anglo-Iranian Oil

-GB oil company in Iran and took most of their profits until Iran took it back --caused GB to boycott the oil --US stepped in and set up puppet government --40% GB, 40% US, and 20% French and Dutch --caused Iran to get less profits -Mossadegh's oil nationalization policy -British finds oil in Iran and is allowed to drill and export oil for very low taxes, Britain becomes dependent on them for oil supply -major source of wealth controlled by the British in Iran that the Iranians wanted back

Nationalism

-in Iran, Guatemala, and Vietnam, it was the countries wanting to rule themselves and their own economy as an independent nation -wanted to close their doors -US took down all 3 because we want all countries to have open doors (gives US more control)

Napalm

-Highly flammable chemical dropped from US planes in firebombing attacks during the Vietnam War -a gasoline-based substance used in bombs that U.S. planes dropped in Vietnam in order to burn away jungle and expose Vietcong hideouts -jelly-like form of gasoline that burned when dropped on people -put/dropped in any rural area In Vietnam -enhanced with white phosphorus so people could not run to water to protect themelves

Tet Offensive

-Jan. 1968 -NLF launches attack on US embassies and cities controlled in the area -showed a credibility gap (caused America to question and realize they were lied to) -real reason Johnson didn't run for president again -a massive surprise attack by the Vietcong on South Vietnamese towns and cities in early 1968 -1968, during Tet, the Vietnam lunar new year - Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army raiding forces attacked provincial capitals throughout Vietnam, even seizing the U.S. embassy for a time -U.S. opinion began turning against the war

National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission)

-Johnson assigns this commission to look and see why riots happen -group that examined the causes behind the rioting during the 1960's and identified institutional racism, discrimination, and unemployment as primary causes of collective behavior -gives 1 year and they come back in 9 months and say riots start because of police brutality and white people putting blacks in position -predict 1968 will be worse than 1967 race riots if nothing is done -integration as the fix

My Lai

-March 1968, in which American troops had brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, also led to more opposition to the war (over 200 killed) -small village where Charlie Company went in and killed 500 men, women, and children (reported it as 128 Vietcong) -made US look more intimidating -there was a war photographer and reporter there and put information and pictures in a magazine for America to see

March Against Fear

-March started by James Meredith (who was shot on the second day) as a way to say a black man can walk across Mississippi without fear -MLK (SCLC) & Stokely Carmichael (SNCC) came in to finish the march --add that they will register blacks to vote in every city and county as they go --sleep in school yards (Greenwood, MS says no) -does away after Stokely Carmichael (SNCC) began the chant "what do we want - black power" despite MKL's disapproval

NY Panther 21

-New York group of 21 black panthers charged with 360 crimes of conspiracy to commit felonies and put in prison. (April 2nd, 1969-May 1971) 18 months until found innocent after a 3 hour jury decision -in jail 6 months before trial started and trial lasted 18 months -found guilty of every charge -caused a break in Panther parties across US news casts say blacks can have fair trial

Nixon's Southern Strategy

-Nixon used Storm Thurmond to lead his pres. campaign in South -Thurmond was known for racism and yelling at Civil Rights Leaders -Focus: -- Law and Order -- Military strength -- appealed to South whites -strategy of courting more conservative southern voters -with appeals to law and order, striving to pull them away from their traditional support of the Democratic party -Nixon tried to attract southern conservative democrats by appealing to their unhappiness with federal desegregation policies and a liberal Supreme Court.

Radical and Liberal Perspectives on Race in America

-Radicals: --black nationalist --believed racism is the foundation of American roots -Liberals: --believed racism needs to end and is harmful to the country --believed racism is going away because it's not structural

Rust Belt

-The northern industrial states of the United States, including Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, in which heavy industry was once the dominant economic activity -In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, these states lost much of their economic base to economically attractive regions of the United States and to countries where labor was cheaper, leaving old machinery to rust in the moist northern climate -a few years after WW2

Special War

-US military advisors train Vietnamese to fight the war -the ARVN does most of the fighting -US role is principally training, not fighting, and the bulk of the fighting to be done by indigenous forces

Richard Nixon

-Vice President under Eisenhower and 37th President of the United States -1968 and 1972; Republican candidate -used 2 men: -- Spiro Agnew (racist vice pres.) -- Thurmond (racist campaign person) -won 1968 election -Vietnam: advocated "Vietnamization" (replace US troops with Vietnamese), but also bombed Cambodia/Laos, created a "credibility gap," Paris Peace Accords ended direct US involvement; economy-took US off gold standard (currency valued by strength of economy); created the Environmental Protection Agency, was president during first moon landing; SALT I and new policy of detente between US and Soviet Union; Watergate scandal: became first and only president to resign

Black Nationalism

-a belief in the separate identity and racial unity of the African American community -Black Panther party based on it -black power is a change to it -similar to Vietnam, Iran, and Guatemala nationalism -spurred by Malcolm X and other black leaders, a call for black pride and advancement without the help of whites -want to improve their lives without domination of whites -appeared to be a repudiation of the calls for peaceful integration urged by MLK

Stokely Carmichael

-a black civil rights activist in the 1960's -Leader of the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) -coins the term "Black Power" -follower of Malcolm X -did a lot of work with Martin Luther King Jr, but he later changed his attitude -urged giving up peaceful demonstrations and pursuing black power -known for saying,"black power will smash everything Western civilization has created." -wants to combine SNCC and Black Panthers -COINTELPRO used to jacket Carmichael and make it look like an FBI spy

Great Society

-a domestic program in the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson that instituted federally sponsored social welfare programs (his version of the Democratic reform program) to reduce poverty and racial injustice and to promote a better quality of life in the US -In 1965, Congress passed many Great Society measures, including Medicare, civil rights legislation, and federal aid to education -2 of the hundreds of programs were the CRA and the VRA -also 24th amendment (no poll tax)

COINTELPRO

-a secret FBI program, the Counter Intelligence Program, to discredit legitimate social movements -An FBI program begun in 1956 and continued until 1971 that sought to expose, disrupt, and discredit groups considered to be black nationalists of hates groups/radical political organizations: --Targeted antiwar groups during the Vietnam War --take them down in any way (violent or not) -one agent on MLK and one on Stokely Carmichael when SNCC and Panthers were to join

Dien Bien Phu

-a strategic mountain place (Northwest Vietnam) -where Navarre set up camp (French) -thought it was too high for anyone to get heavy weapons up there -BUT Vietminh had a cause and carried all their weapons up the camp -won the battle here, causing the French to pull out -led to the end of France's involvement in Indochina -A town of northwest Vietnam near the Laos border. The French military base here fell to Vietminh troops on May 7, 1954, after a 56-day siege, leading to the end of France's involvement in Indochina -resulted in a decisive victory for the anti-colonial forces of Vietnam against the French and country was divided in 2 with north being controlled by Ho Chi Minh and the south by the French and American support

Agent Orange

-a toxic leaf-killing chemical sprayed by U.S. planes in Vietnam to expose Vietcong hideouts -19 million gallons of one of the most carcinogenic chemicals on the planet -deforesting the jungle so we could see the Guerrillas/Vietcong -problem: sometimes US troops were in these areas (didn't show signs until 1990) -many birth defects, cancer cases, and still births in the future

Limited War

-a war fought with limited commitment of resources to achieve a limited objective, such as containing communism -this is when the US sends in its troops to do the brunt of the military work -US needed to save its reputation -used carpet bombs, Napalm, cluster bombs, ultra-rapid machine gun firing, and Agent Orange -US military forces take the principal fighting role, to be back up by indigenous forces

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

-an organization formed in 1960 to coordinate student sit-ins and other protests and to give young blacks a larger role in the civil rights movement -coordinated nonviolent attacks on segregation and other forms of racism -leaders: Stokeley, Carmichael, and John Lewis -coined the term Black Power after March Against Fear -going to join Black Panthers before COINTELPRO -agreed with philosophies of Malcolm X

Black Power

-black nationalism -the belief that blacks should fight back if attacked -believed institutions affecting black lives should be run by blacks -urged blacks to achieve economic independence by starting and supporting their own business -a turn away from integration and a call for blacks to have power over themselves -NO white domination -slogan used to reflect solidarity and racial consciousness, used by Malcolm X meaning that equality could not be given, but had to be seized by a powerful, organized Black community

Nation of Islam

-black supremacist group founded in 1930 by Elijah Muhammad (leader), who believed that Allah would create a Black Nation of people unified against the white man -Malcolm X joins and helps --starts the paper Muhammed speaks --leaves because it's not political enough -goals: improve the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of African Americans in the US -convinced itself that there was no purpose to work with the white man, and it is important to build the black people up and become economically self-sufficient, but exemplifying the importance of not interacting with white people whenever possible and becoming a believer in black nationalism -believes the whites are devils

Detroit and Newark

-both caused by police brutality -happening after the formation of black panthers and rise in black nationalism -lasted 5 days in Chicago (all police, guard, and 100 first airborne called in to stop it) -Detroit: July 23, 1967 (43 dead) -Newark: July 12, 1967 (23 dead)

United Fruit Company

-chose Guatemala because easy, weak government -supply produce to American market -they got all the profits (no taxes until Arevelo forced it to assess and pay) -had control of everything, but Guatemala was starting to take back (US called in CIA) -most important foreign economic concern in Guatemala during the 20th century -attempted land reform aimed at United Fruit caused U.S. intervention in Guatemalan politics leading to ouster of reform government in 1954

Hubert Humphrey

-democratic nominee for the presidency in the election of 1968 -he was L.B. Johnson's vice president (thirty-eighth Vice President of the United States), and was supportive of his Vietnam policies. This support split the Democratic party, allowing Nixon to win the election for the Republicans. Humphrey twice served as a United States Senator from Minnesota, and served as Democratic Majority Whip -created Humphrey Compromise for MFDP -he knew he had black votes, so he worked on getting white working class (North) -slogan: Law and Order

Voting Rights Act, 1965

-followed by Watts Insurrection -passed by President Johnson -part of Johnson's Grea Society Program -a law designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African-American suffrage/prohibits racial discrimination in voting -could not use any test or device to deny votes -allowed federal examiners to register voters in states that had disenfranchised blacks -as more blacks became politically active and elected black representatives, it gave jobs, contracts, and facilities and services for the black community and encouraged greater social equality (decreasing the wealth and education gap)

The Black Panther Party

-founders: Huey Newton and Bobby Seale (armed militants) -do patrols on police with arms and stand with guns ready when they see a black community member being bothered by police -was to combine with SNCC before COINTELPRO on Carmichael and broke up after Panther 21 -1966 to protect black rights -group formed in 1966, inspired by the idea of Black Power, that provided aid to black neighborhoods; often thought of as radical or violent -another black separatist movement; known for peaceful demonstrations, but more for police shootouts

Domino Theory

-if one nation comes under Communist control, then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control -Eisenhower said after France pulled out of Vietnam, if they let Communist Vietnam win, then this would spread across the world to all countries -a way to say that all countries would close their doors

Civil Rights Act, 1964

-immediately followed up by the Harlem Insurrection (violent uprising) -passed by President Johnson -started by JFK -part of Johnson's Great Society Program -outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin

"Chickens coming home to roost"

-ironic phrase Malcolm X used after US assassinated Diem in Vietnam -also used in Iran and Guatemala because 2 weeks after we killed Diem, JFK was assassinated -America was extremely violent and Malcom X was not surprised that American leaders were getting murdered often, said that we can't go kill other leaders without expecting our own to be at risk -karma

National Liberation Front (VC)

-known as Vietcong (VC) -Northern Vietnamese under Ho Cho Minh -fighting for their independence -US claims they were killing in huge amounts -Anticolonial movement -political arm of Vietcong -founded in December 1960 as an armed resistance to the Diem regime -Ho Chi Minh wanted to unite Vietnam under Northern rule and aided what group of communist rebels trying to overthrow Diem in the south. Official title of the Viet Cong

Lt. William Calley

-leader of Charlie Company who invaded My Lai -charged for what was done --20 years of hard labor --then house arrest --then pardoned completely by Nixon -Lt. William Calley was convicted of murder for his role in the March 1968 My Lai massacre, which left hundreds of Vietnamese civilians dead. Calley ordered the men of Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, Americal Division to shoot everyone in the village. He later maintained that he was following orders, but many of the soldiers present did not participate in the massacre. He himself rounded up a group of villagers, ordered them into a ditch, and then mowed them down with machine gun fire. Sentenced to life in prison, Calley was seen as a scapegoat for the Army's failure to instill morale and discipline in its troops. Upon appeal, his sentence was reduced. He was eventually released from prison in 1974. He later found work in the insurance business.

Martin Luther King Jr.

-major civil rights leader, helped in Albany (bailed out of jail) and in Birmingham (went to jail and supported kids protests), as well as the March on Washington -U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader -A noted orator that opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations -COINTELPRO found him cheating on his wife and tried to use it against him -said he would accept Humphrey Compromise as a national negro leader but not if it was from MS -stoned in Chicago when he tried to desegregate housing -Assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968 -Nobel Peace Prize (1964)

Vietminh

-organization of Vietnamese Communists and other nationalist groups that between 1946 and 1954 fought for Vietnamese independence from the French (Franco Vietnamese War) -Nationalist party in Vietnam -Leader: Ho Chi Minh -Resistance force

Flexible Response

-policy developed during the John F. Kennedy administration that involved preparing for a variety of military responses to international crises rather than focusing on the use of nuclear weapons -three rungs of John Kennedy's "Flexible Response Doctrine": special war, limited war, and total war -never used Total War

Vietnam's Declaration of Independence

-presented by Ho Chi Minh -said the same thing that US did in their Declaration of Independence -they had a desire to run their land and make a better life with their people with the Vietnamese running their government -French had conquered Vietnam and wanted them to pay for everything (tax peasants) -"All men are created equal; they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights; among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." ... "We are convinced that the Allied nations which at Tehran and San Francisco have acknowledged the principles of self-determination and equality of nations, will not refuse to acknowledge the independence of Vietnam. A people who have courageously opposed French domination for more than eighty years, a people who have fought side by side with the Allies against the Fascists during these last years, such a people must be free and independent. For these reasons, we, members of the Provisional Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, solemnly declare to the world that Vietnam has the right to be a free and independent country and in fact it is so already. The entire Vietnamese people are determined to mobilise all their physical and mental strength, to sacrifice their lives and property in order to safeguard their independence and liberty." -Ho Chi Minh

John F. Kennedy

-president during Civil Rights movement, who passes Civil Rights bill to try and cool down Civil rights movement and tries to stop March on Washington but ends up supporting it

Ngo Dinh Diem

-puppet leader that US supported in South Vietnam (1954-1963) -felt he didn't have to follow Geneva Accords -called himself the president and became cruel -when war was started, he wasn't doing well, so US did a coup and they looked bad for supporting him -he caused Communist Vietcong to thrive in the south --America had to increase military aid to stop him -American-backed strongman, led Vietnam from 1954-1963 -1963, assassinated in US-backed coup. -American ally in South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963; his repressive regime caused the Communist Viet Cong to thrive in the South and required increasing American military aid to stop a Communist takeover

Harlem and Watts

-race riots start to happen in New York City and in Los Angeles when police officers shoot black people -Harlem: --took place after CRA in 1964 --result of NY police brutality against 15 year old -Watts: --took place after VRA in 1965 --in LA neighborhood as a result of police brutality

White Backlash

-riots -Resistance to Black demands led by "law and order" advocates whose real purpose was to oppose integration -"If we got back to the nightstick more often, it would help. It was okay when we started giving the Negro an even break. Now they're taking advantage of it. ... If it was up to me, I'd stop everything being done for them." -> police said we give them a little and they try and take advantage (take it all back) because they are ungrateful

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

-separate Democratic delegation (integrated) -result of SNCC - led voter registration campaign -> challenged the right of the regular, all-white delegation to represent Mississippi at the 1964 Democratic convention -group that sent its own delegates to the Democratic National Convention in 1964 to protest discrimination against black voters in Mississippi -leading to Humphrey Compromise (MFDP did not accept and were not seated)

Columbia Student Rebellion

-started for 2 reasons: --exploitation of Harlem --research for war in Vietnam -erupted after students discovered links between the university and the institutional apparatus supporting the US involvement in Vietnam war -seized 7 building and 700 people arrested

Law and Order

-term started by Wallace -all 3 candidates in 1968 election took in -it meant to put black people "back in their place" -wanted the whites and police to run the country -Community component which provides safety in the form of laws and regulations and manages disputes between community members -Nixon promised during the 1968 campaign that he would restore this; the promise appealed many voters disgusted with radical protest movements of the 1960s

Land Reform

-the US making sure they had control of land in Iran, Vietnam, and Guatemala - this is... --how UFCO ran things --how Iran took the oil --how US took oil back -it is about trying to keep Vietnam separate -government had control over what happened to the land

Credibility Gap

-the gap between the Johnson Administration and the American public support after the Tet Offensive -America stops trusting government unconditionally because of statements made by the government during the Vietnam War -American public's growing distrust of statements made by the government during the Vietnam War

Strategic Hamlet Program

-the hammock villaget -when they would destroy villages because the way the VC fight is Guerilla Warfare -put up towers, fences, and a one-way entrance where they monitor who comes in/out -isolate peasants from Vietcong (southern rebels) -put them in compounds -alienated villagers -meant to avoid killing our allies -Southern Vietnamese policy intended to combat the growing popularity and presence of an anti-government group in the South's countryside

Franco-Vietnamese War

-war between France and Vietnam -fought because France wanted to capture Vietnam as a colony again -Vietnam had the advantage of knowing the land and a cause of fighting (but no allies or support) -France had trained military, money, & allies (but no cause or homeland) -US funded most of the war (4 years) before getting involved at the end -Dien Bien Phui causes French to pull out and sign Geneva Accords

George Corley Wallace

-was a four-time Democratic racist governor of Alabama during the 1960s and 1970s -Racist gov. of Alabama in 1962 ("segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever") -runs for pres. in 1968 on American Independent Party ticket of racism and law and order --2 main ideas... ---1. Democrats and Republicans are the same (do not care about white workers because they favor blacks) ---2. Law and Order --loses to Nixon -runs in 1972 but gets shot

1954 Geneva Accords on Indochina

-when French were defeated, they made a deal that said they would split Vietnam into North (Vietnam side of the war/Vietminh) and South (French side of the war) -After 2 years, the two sides would be recombined in an election -French agreed to withdraw their troops from North Vietnam -Ultimately offered a two-part solution to the problem of French domination of Vietnam: --phase one, a pullback... forces aligned w/ the Viet Minh would regroup north of the 17th parallel; while the French would regroup south of the 17th. --phase two would involve national elections to reunite the country two years down the road, in 1956 -partitioned Vietnam temporarily at the 17th parallel and called for elections in 2 years to lead to a unified Vietnam; rejected by the US who instead used covert ops

Escalation

-when Johnson considered the options on what to do in Vietnam -between Ball (against continuing the war) and Mcnamara (fight for US reputation and favor for friend) -we chose to go from special to limited war --sent troops after 13 coups and didn't work -policy of increasing military involvement in Vietnam --by the beginning of 1965 the US had approximately 25,000 troops in Vietnam and by the end of the year, it had over 180,000 troops --by end of 1966: US forces stood at 362,000 --by end of 1967: US forces stood at 485,000 --by mid-1968, US forces stood at 550,000

Jacobo Arbenz and Mohammed Mossadegh

Arbenz: -Guatamalen democratically elected 2nd president who seized land owned by the American-owned United Fruit Company -established literature programs and bought follow land from UFCO at price they said (causes UFCO to get US CIA involved) -also tried to declare Guatemala independent, saying its goals as a nation are to raise the standard of living for their people (rule themselves and their economy) -democratically elected -offered to pay United Fruit the value of land, but they rejected the offer and turned to US government -Eisenhower approved and expanded CIA's mandate from gathering intelligence to intervening in affairs of sovereign states Mossadegh: -Nationalist leader, 1st elected prime minister of Iran who wished to nationalize the oil in Iran (took from GB) --US steps in with CIA and overthrow democratic government of Iran and reinstalls a puppet shah ---gives 40% profit to GB, 40% to US, and 20% to French and Dutch ---how US split profit of Anglo Iranian Oil ---causes them to get less profit -because of western cooperation pressure, the CIA joined forces with conservative Iranian military leaders to engineer a coup that drove this man from office -they replaced him with Mohammed Reze Pahlevi, the young Shah of Iran. He acted as a pawn for the United States for the next 25 years.