History Chapter 22 sections 1-3

Neoclassical-

"new classical", relating to a simple elegant style (based on ideas and themes from ancient Greece and Rome) that characterized the arts in Europe during the late 1700s.

"Principia Mathematica"-

(the mathematical principles of natural philosophy) It was one of the most important scientific books ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. It's parts all worked together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically. By Isaac Newton

Tycho Brahe-

A Danish astronomer carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. He produced mountains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical sense of them.

Jean Jacques Rousseau-

A third great philosophe, was passionately committed to individual freedom. He, however, argued that civilization corrupted people's natural goodness. He believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the "general will" of society—a direct democracy. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book called The Social Contract.

He believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes.

According to Beccaria, what was the purpose of laws?-

law of universal gravitation

According to Newton, what 'key' idea linked planetary motion with motion on earth?-

Johannes Kepler-

After Brahe's death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician continued his work. After studying Brahe's data, he concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was previously thought. His laws showed that Copernicus's basic ideas were true. They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun.

Cesare Beccaria-

An Italian philosophe turned his thoughts to the justice system. He believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. In his celebrated book On Crimes and Punishments (1764), he railed against common abuses of justice. He also believed that capital punishment should be abolished.

"On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies"-

Copernicus's heliocentric theory book was not published until 1543 winced he feared ridicule and persecution. He received a copy of his book on his deathbed. While revolutionary, his book causes little stir at first.

Isaac Newton-

English scientist. Studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge university.he was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces. His great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earths and in space. He discovered the law of universal gravity which stated every object in the universe attracts every other object. In 1687, he published his ideas in a work called Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy—one of the most important scientific books ever written.he believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion.

"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"-

Galileo published this book in 1632. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. After this the pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition.

Gabriel Fahrenheit-

German physicist who made the first thermometer to use Mercury in glass. It showed water freezing at 32.

Rene Descartes-

He developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. Like Bacon, he believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. Rather than using experimentation, he relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed—because, as he wrote, "I think, therefore I am." From this starting point, he followed a train of strict reasoning to arrive at other basic truths.Modern scientific methods are based on his ideas.

He granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education.

Identify three actions that would demonstrate Frederick the Great's status as an "enlightened despot".-

Denis Diderot-

Madame Geoffrin helped finance his project.He imagined a large set of books to which all the leading scholars of Europe would contribute articles and essays. This Encyclopedia, as he called it, would bring together all the most current and enlightened thinking about science, technology, art, government, and more.

"On the Spirit of Laws"-

Montesquieu oversimplified the British system (it did not actually separate powers this way). His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book. In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government. "Power," he wrote, "should be a check to power." Each branch of government would serve as a check on the other two. This idea later would be called "checks and balances." Montesquieu's book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances became the basis for the United States Constitution.

Emilie du Chatelet-

One woman fortunate enough to receive education in the sciences, was an aristocrat trained as a mathematician and physicist. By translating Newton's work from Latin into French, she helped stimulate interest in science in France.

Nicolaus Copernicus-

Polish cleric and astronomer. He believed in the heliocentric or sun-centered theory.

Voltaire-

Probably the most brilliant and influential of the philosophes was François Marie Arouet. he published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, history, fiction, and drama. His sharp tongue made him enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison. After his second jail term, he was exiled to England for two years.

"The Social Contract"-

Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the "general will" of society—a direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book

Marie-Therese Geoffrin-

The most influential of the salon hostesses in Voltaire's time, Self-educated and from the well-to-do middle class, she was friends with both philosophes and heads of state. She corresponded with the king of Sweden and Catherine the Great of Russia. She helped finance the project of a leading philosophe named Denis Diderot.

Joseph II-

The most radical royal reformer, The son and successor of Maria Theresa, he ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. He introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press. He also supported freedom of worship—even for Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews. In his most radical reform, he abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash.

Catherine the Great-

The ruler most admired by the philosophes, She ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. The well-educated empress read the works of philosophes, and she exchanged many letters with Voltaire. She ruled with absolute authority, but she also took steps to modernize and reform Russia. In two wars with the Ottoman Turks, her armies finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. Russia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman-controlled straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. She also expanded her empire westward into Poland.

Philosophes-

The social critics of this period in France, they believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life

"Leviathan"-

Thomas Hobbes expressed his views in this work (1651).

Beccaria based his ideas about justice on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Upon what principle did Beccaria base his ideas about justice?-

The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative, or law making, power. The judges of the English courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case.

Using the English system as a model, which 'branch' in government exercised each of the following powers-executive, legislative, and judicial?

"On the Structure of the Human Body"-

Vesalius dissected humans corpses and published his observations. His book published in 1543 was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscles.

analytical geometry which linked algebra and geometry

What 'branch' of mathematics was developed by Rene Descartes?-

The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the mansions of several wealthy women of Paris.

What 'class' in European society was most open to the ideas of the Enlightenment?-

-Poland

What central European nation had virtually disappeared from the map of Europe by the late 18th century?

-relied on mathematics and logic. Believed everything should be doubted until proved by reason.

What did Descartes advocate as a means of gaining knowledge and understanding of the world?

the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. He remained publicly silent, but continued his studies. Then he published Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems, which presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy; he recanted his findings

What did Galileo do before the Inquisition that Luther refused to do at the Diet of Worms?

civilization

What did Rousseau believe had corrupted people's natural goodness?-

convinced him all humans were naturally selfish and wicked.

What impact did the English Civil War have on Hobbes' view of human beings?-

-satire; -he made frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government

What literary form did Voltaire use to criticize his opponents? Who were his most frequent targets?

scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people's lives. He urged scientists to experiment and draw conclusions, which is known as empiricism.

What of research did Bacon advocate in order for scientists to gain a better understanding of the world?-

telescope

What scientific instrument did Galileo build and use to study the heavens in 1609?

-Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven

What three composers rank among the greatest figures of the Classical period in music?

-it begins with a problem or question arising from an observation -Scientists next form a hypothesis which is then tested in an experiment or basis of data -In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a conclusion,which confirms or disproves the hypothesis.

What three steps make up the "Scientific Method"?

-In two wars with the Ottoman Turks, her armies finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. Russia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman-controlled straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.

What was Catherine I's most substantive achievement?

Joseph abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash.

What was Joseph II's most radical reform?-

Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the "general will" of society—a direct democracy.

What was Rousseau's idea of a 'good' government? What was its 'form'?-

-Belief in Progress -A More Secular Outlook -Importance of the Individual

What was the threefold legacy of the Enlightenment?

-a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial. -torture should never be used (the degree of the punishment should be based on the seriousness of the crime) -capital punishment should be abolished.

What were three fundamental beliefs Beccaria held regarding justice systems?-

-his belief that a government's power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy.

Which of John Locke's ideas is the foundation of modern democracy?

-it gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this form of inoculation were much lower than inoculation using live smallpox germs.

Why did Edward Jenner inoculate humans with germs from a cattle disease called "cowpox"?

they went against church teachings and authority. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they could question other church teachings as well.

Why did Galileo's findings frighten both Catholic and Protestant leaders?-

because people acted in their self-interest, Hobbes said the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control.

Why did Hobbes believe that a ruler needed total power?-

-male critics scolded women for reading novels because they thought it encouraged idleness and wickedness.

Why did male social critics in the Enlightenment era scold women for reading novels?

Andreas Vesalius-

a Flemish physician proved Galen's assumptions wrong. He dissected human corpses and published his observations. His book , On the Structure of the Human Boday, was filed with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle.

Baroque-

a grand, ornate style that characterized European painting, music, and architecture in the 1600s and early 1700s.

Scientific Method-

a logical procedure for gathering information about the natural world in which experimentation and observation are used to test hypotheses.

Anders Celsius-

a swedish astronomer created another scale for the Mercury thermometer. His scale showed freezing at 0.

Enlightenment-

an 18th century European movement in which thinkers attempted to apply the principles of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of society.

Francis Bacon-

an English statesman and writer. Had a passionate interest in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people's lives. In his writings, he attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers. He also criticized the way in which both Aristotle and medieval scholars arrived at their conclusions. They had reasoned from abstract theories. Instead,he urged scientists to experiment. Scientists, he wrote, should observe the world and gather information about it first. Then they should draw conclusions from that information. This approach is called empiricism, or the experimental method. Modern scientific methods are based on his ideas.

Galileo Galilei-

an Italian scientist who built on the new theories about astronomy. Built his own telescope to study the heavens. He published Starry messenger which described his astonishing observations. Announced that Jupiter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots and the earths moon has a rough uneven surface. Supported Copernicus theories. His findings frightened catholic and Protestant leaders. He went on trial before the inquisition and was never a free man again.

Thomas Hobbes-

expressed his views in a work called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. He argued that to escape such a bleak life, people gave up their rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this agreement, by which people created government, the social contract.

Elliptical-

having the form of a plane curve such that the sums of distances of each point in its periphery from two fixed points, the foci, are equal.

John Locke-

held a different, more positive, view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. He criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. According to him, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights— life, liberty, and property. He published his ideas in 1690, two years after the Glorious Revolution. His book, Two Treatises on Government, served to justify the overthrow of James II.

Salons-

in these large drawing rooms, hostesses held regular social gatherings; a social gathering of intellectuals and artists, like those held in the homes of wealthy women in Paris and other European cities during the Enlightenment.

Montesquieu-

influential French writer, devoted himself to the study of political liberty. An aristocrat and lawyer, he studied the history of ancient Rome. He concluded that Rome's collapse was directly related to its loss of political liberties. He called this division of power among different branches separation of powers.

Edward Jenner-

introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox. He discovered that inoculation with germs from a cattle disease called cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans. He used cowpox to produce the world's first vaccination.

- Checks and Balances-

limits imposed on all branches of a government by vesting in each branch the right to amend or void those acts of another that fall within its purview.

Evangelista Torricelli-

one of Galileos students developed the first Mercury barometer.

Enlightened Despots-

one of the 16th century european monarchs who was inspired by enlightenment ideas to rule justly and respect the rights of subjects.

Robert Boyle-

pioneered the use of the scientific method in chemistry. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called The Sceptical Chymist (1661), he challenged Aristotle's idea that the physical world consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water.

Heliocentrism-

sun-centered theory; the idea that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

Social Contract (Hobbes)-

the agreement by which people define and limit their individual rights, thus creating an organized society or government.

Empiricism-

the doctrine that all knowledge is derived from sense experience; experimental method

Geocentrism

the earth-centered view of the universe in which scholars believed the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe.

Frederick the Great-

the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, He granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. He also reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture. His most important contribution was his attitude toward being king. He called himself "the first servant of the state." From the beginning of his reign, he made it clear that his goal was to serve and strengthen his country.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek-

this Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time.

Zacharias Janssen-

this Dutch maker of eyeglasses in 1590 invented the first microscope.

Mary Wollstonecraft-

who published an essay, called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau that women's education should be secondary to men's. Rather, she argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful. Even if they are to be mothers, education will make them better mothers. She also believed that women not only should be able to be nurses but also should be able to become doctors. She also argued for women's right to participate in politics

"Encyclopedia"-

would bring together all the most current and enlightened thinking about science, technology, art, government, and more. This work was written by Denis Diderot.

"A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"-

written by Mary Wollstonecraft; in the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau that women's education should be secondary to men's. Rather, she argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful. Even if they are to be mothers, education will make them better mothers. Wollstonecraft also believed that women not only should be able to be nurses but also should be able to become doctors. She also argued for women's right to participate in politics.