history (dumbed down)

Constitutional monarchy

Type of government in which laws limited the ruler's power. England became one.

Edward Jenner

British physician who introduced the vaccine to prevent smallpox.

Old Regime

Social and political system of France that remained in the 1770s.

Enlightened despots

"Absolute ruler"; monarchs who embraced new ideas and made reforms that reflect Enlightenment spirit.

Guillotine

A machine with a heavy blade sliding vertically in grooves, used for beheading people.

Enlightenment

A new intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Known also as the Age of Reason.

Scientific Revolution

A new way of thinking about the natural world as people began to challenge ideas of ancient thinkers and the church.

Baroque

A style of art that dominated Europe in the 1600s and early 1700s; characterized by grand, ornate design; seen in Versailles and paintings.

Mulattos

After mestizos in rank; persons of mixed African and European ancestry.

George Danton

Among one of the Jacobin club's most compassionate and talented speakers. Lawyer. Known for his devotion to the rights of Paris' poor people.

Galen

Ancient Greek physician that European doctors had accepted the facts of. Had never dissected body of a human being. Studied anatomy of pigs and other animals. Assumed that human anatomy was much the same.

Jose de San Martin

Argentinian man. 1817- he led army on march across Andes to Chile. Joined there by forces led by Bernardo O'Higgins, son of former viceroy of Peru. Finally freed Chile with his help. 1821- he planned to drive remaining Spanish forces out of Lima. Needed larger force. He and Bolivar discussed this problem when they met at Guayaquil, Ecuador, in 1822. He left his army for Bolivar to command. With unified forces, Bolivar defeated Spanish at Battle of Ayacucho (Peru) on December 9, 1824.

Neoclassical

Artistic style of the late 1700s.

King James I (James Stuart)

Became king of England in 1603. Cousin of Queen Elizabeth I. Inherited issues of Elizabeth's reign(with Parliament over money). Offended Puritan members of Parliament because he refused to make Puritan reforms except for agreeing to the new translation of the Bible. Died in 1625.

Glorious Revolution

Bloodless overthrow of King James II

Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV)

Came to the throne in 1533 (3 years old). When 16, he became czar (means Caesar). Married Anastasia who was related to Romanovs. Ruled by terror after Anastasia died. Organized his own police force to hunt and kill anyone who he considered a traitor.

James II

Charles II died in 1685 and he became king. Offended subjects by displaying Catholicism.

Denis Diderot

Created a large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays. Called Encyclopedia and began publishing first volumes in 1751.

Edict of Nantes

Declaration of religious tolerance signed in 1598. Declared that the Huguenots could live in peace in France (Henry devoted reign to rebuilding France and prosperity). Restored French monarchy to strong position.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist who used microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings and red blood cells.

Isaac Newton

English scientist. Helped bring together Bacon's and Descartes' breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. Studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. Created the law of universal gravitation- every object tin the universe attracts every other object. Wrote The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.

Francis Bacon

English statesman and writer. Passionate interest in science. By better understanding the world, scientists would generate practical knowledge that would improve peoples' lives. Attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle or other ancient thinkers. He urged scientists to experiment then to draw conclusions.

Thomas Hobbes

Enlightenment thinker. Expressed his views in Leviathan (1651). English Civil War convinced him that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Wanted governments to keep order. He argued that to escape a bleak life, people had to hand over their rights to strong ruler. They gained law and order. Social contract- agreement by which people created a government. Wanted leaders to have total power to keep citizens under control. Best government was one which had the awesome power of a leviathan.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker. Philosopher who held more positive view on human nature. Idea that people could learn from experience and improve themselves. Criticized absolute monarchy and favored idea of self-government. All people born free and equal. 3 natural rights: life, liberty, and property. Purpose of government is to protect those rights. Citizens have right to overthrow government if they cannot protect rights.

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish physician who proved Galen's assumptions wrong. Dissected human corpses and published observations. Wrote On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Formerly enslaved. Unfamiliar with military and diplomatic matters. Leader. Became skilled general and diplomat. 1801- taken control of the entire island of Haiti and freed all enslaved Africans.

Rene Descartes

French man. Developed analytical geometry (linked algebra and geometry). Believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. Relied on mathematics and logic rather than experimentation. Everything should be doubted until proved by reason.

Rene Descartes

French writer. Brilliant thinker. Wrote Meditations on First Philosophy.

Oliver Cromwell

General of Puritans who could win the English Civil War. Got King Charles put to death. Abolished monarchy and the House of Lords in 1649. Sought to reform society in England.

Gabriel Fahrenheit

German physicist who made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass. Showed water freezing at 32 degrees.

Intendants

Government agents whom Louis increased the power of. Collected taxes and administered justice

Cabinet

Group of government ministers. They acted in the ruler's name but in reality represented the major party of Parliament. Became the center of power and policymaking over time.

Louis XIII

Henry IV's son. Took reign after his death. Was a weak king. Appointed a strong minister who made up for all of his weaknesses in 1624.

Skepticism

Idea that nothing can ever be known for certain. Caused by witnessing religious wars with horror. To doubt old ideas was the first step to finding truth.

Montesquieu

Influential French writer; Baron de Montesquieu- devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Believed Britain to be best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. Called division of power among different branches separation of powers. Wrote Spirit of Laws (1748).

Cesare Bonesana Beccaria

Italian philosophe. Turned his thoughts to the justice system. Believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Regularly criticized common abuses of justice. Person accused of a crime should have a speedy trial and torture should never be used. Punishment should be based on seriousness of crime. Capital punishment should be abolished. Based his ideas about justice on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist who built on new theories of astronomy. Built own telescope to study the heavens in 1609. 1610- published Starry Messenger. Described astonishing observations. Jupiter had 4 moons and sun had dark spots. Earth's moon had a rough, uneven surface. Wrote Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in 1632.

Charles I

James's son who took throne. Always needed money because of wars with Spain and France. Forced to call out Parliament again in 1628 who refused to grant him any money until he signed Petition of Right. He agreed to it but ignored it.

Louis XVI

King of France. Inherited considerable debt from previous kings. Indecisive and allowed matters to drift. Paid little attention to his government advisers and had little patience for the details of governing. Queen added to his problems. Tried to escape to the Austrian Netherlands in June 1791. Beheaded by guillotine.

Frederick the Great

King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. Committed himself to reforming Prussia. Granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. Reformed justice system and abolished the use of torture. He believed that serfdom was wrong but didn't want to lose support of wealthy landowners. Most important contribution was his attitude toward being king. Called himself "first servant of the state". His goal was to support and strengthen his country.

Peter the Great

Known as this because he was one of Russia's greatest reformers. Continued trend of increasing power of czar. Became sole ruler of Russia in 1696. Ruled absolutely. Brought Russian Orthodox Church under state control. Abolished office of patriarch- head of Church. Set up group - Holy Synod - to run Church under his direction. Reduced power of landowners. Modernized army.

Habeas Corpus

Latin meaning "to have the body". 1679 law gave every prisoner the right to obtain a writ or document ordering that the prisoner be brought before a judge to specify charges against the prisoner.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Lived during 1700s. Published essay A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. Disagreed with Rousseau in essay that women's education should be secondary to men's. Women need education to become virtuous and useful. Also urged women to enter male-dominated fields of medicine and politics.

Scientific Method

Logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. Begins with problem arising from observation. Next they for a hypothesis or unproved assumption. Then hypothesis is tested in experiment or on the basis of data. Final step: scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. It either confirms or disproves the hypothesis.

Agustin de Iturbide

Man who had defeated rebel Padre Morelos. Proclaimed independence for Mexico in 1821. Declared himself emperor, refused to recognize the declarations of independence from several Central American states. Overthrown in 1823.

Jacobins

Members of the Jacobin Club, a radical political organization; most people involved in the governmental changes in September 1792.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Minister of finance who helped Louis achieve his goals. Believed in mercantilism. Tried to make France self-sufficient to prevent wealth from leaving country. Government funds and tax benefits given to French companies to expand manufacturing. To protect France's industries, he placed high tariffs on goods from other countries. Recognized importance of colonies.

Voltaire

Most brilliant and influential of the philosophes; Francois Marie Arouet was real name. Published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. Satire against opponents. Targeted clergy, aristocracy, and government. Sent to prison twice because of his sharp tongue. Exiled to England for more than two years after second jail term. Never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech. Used quill as weapon in a thinker's war against humanity's worst enemies- intolerance, prejudice, and superstition.

Louis XIV

Most powerful ruler in French history. Became king in 1643 after death of father. 14 when started ruling. Took control of government himself when Mazarin died in 1661 (he was 22). Excluded nobles from councils weakening them. Devoted himself to helping France attain economic, political, and cultural brilliance. Controlled nobility and was a patron of the arts.

Joseph II

Most radical royal reformer. Son and successor of Maria Theresa. Ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. Introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press. Supported freedom of worship. Abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash. Nobles resisted. Undone after his death with many of his other reforms.

Legislative Assembly

New body; power to create laws and approve or reject declarations of war. King still held executive power to enforce laws. Split into 3 groups: Radicals on left side, Moderates in the center of the hall, and Conservatives on the right side of the hall.

Evangelista Torricelli

One of Galileo's students. Developed first mercury barometer, tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and prediction weather.

Jean Paul Marat

One of the most prominent Jacobins. Edited newspaper L'Ami du People. Called for the death of all those who continued to support the king.

Sans-culottes

Parisian workers and small shopkeepers wanted even greater changes to France; those without knee breeches".

Bill of Rights (England)

Parliament drafted this in 1689 to clear the limits of royal power. What a ruler could not do: no suspending of Parliament's laws, no levying of taxes without a specific grant from Parliament, no interfering with freedom of speech in parliament, no penalty for a citizen who petitions the king about grievances.

Restoration

Period of Charles II's rule was called this because he restored the monarchy.

Reign of Terror

Period of Maximilien Robespierre's rule.

Westernization

Peter's goal. Using western Europe as a model for change.

Robert Boyle

Pioneered use of scientific method in chemistry. Considered the founder of modern chemistry. Wrote The Sceptical Chymist (1661). Created a law that explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other.

Padre Miguel Hidalgo

Priest in small village of Dolores. Poor but well-educated. Believed in Enlightenment ideals. September 16, 1810- rang bells of village church. Issued a call for rebellion against Spanish when peasants gathered. Call is known as grito de Dolores (cry of Dolores).

Marie Antoinette

Queen of Louis XVI. Interfered in the government. Offered him poor advice. Member of the royal family of Austria, France's long-time enemy. Unpopular since she entered France. Spent so much money on gowns, jewels, gambling, and gifts that she came to be known as "Madame Deficit".

Catherine de Medicis

Real royal power of France after King Henry II died. Wife of King Henry.

Padre Jose Maria Morelos

Rebels' new strong leader. Led the revolution for 4 years. 1815- Creole officer, Agustin de Iturbide, defeated him.

Salons

Regular social gatherings held by women in mansions; philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas.

Catherine the Great (Catherine II)

Ruler most admired by the philosophes. Ruled Russia from 1762-1796. Read works of philosophes and exchanged letter with Voltaire. Ruled with absolute authority but also sought to reform Russia.

Boyars

Russia's landowning nobles who struggled for power.

Creoles

Spaniards born in Latin America; below peninsulares in rank. Could not hold high-level political office but could rise as officers in Spanish colonial armies.

Cardinal Richelieu

Strong minister appointed by Louis XIII. became, in effect, ruler of France . Had been a hardworking leader of the Catholic Church in France for several years. Tried to lead according to moral principles. Ambitious and enjoyed exercising authority. He took 2 steps to increase power of Bourbon monarchy: moved against Huguenots and sought to weaken nobles' power. Greatest obstacle was Hapsburg rulers. Involved France in the Thirty Years' War.

War of the Spanish Succession

Struggle that followed after England, Austria, Dutch Republic, Portugal, and several German and Italian states joined together to prevent union of the French and Spanish thrones in 1701.

Anders Celsius

Swedish astronomer who created another scale for the mercury thermometer. Showed freezing at 0 degrees.

National Assembly

Third Estate delegates name themselves this and passed laws and reforms in the name of the French people.

Tennis Court Oath

Third estate delegates found themselves locked outside their meeting room. They broke down door to an indoor tennis court, pledging to stay until they drew up a new constitution. This is what the pledge became known as.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Third great philosophe; passionately committed to individual freedom. Son of poor Swiss watchmaker. Won recognition as writer of essays. Strange, brilliant, and controversial figure. Disagreed with Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Argued that civilization corrupted people's natural goodness. Believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the "general will" of society- a direct democracy. The Social Contract- published in 1762 and he explained his political philosophy in this. His idea of a social contract differed from Hobbes's.

Estates

Three large social classes that French people were divided into under Old Regime.

Peninsulares

Top of Spanish-American society; people who had been born in Spain which is on the Iberian peninsula. Tiny percentage of population. Could hold high office in Spanish colonial government.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Toussaint's lieutenant. January 1, 1804- declared colony independent country. First black colony to free itself from European control. Called country Haiti.

Treaty of Utrecht

Treaty signed in 1714. Louis's grandson was allowed to remain king of Spain so as the thrones of France and Spain were not united.

English Civil War

War in 1642-1649. Supporters and opponents of King Charles fought it.

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

Was robust and athletic. Descended from king Louis IX. Inherited throne when Catherine and her last son died. The first king of the Bourbon dynasty in France. Decisive, fearless in battle, and clever politician. Many Catholics opposed him. Gave up Protestantism and became Catholic. Stabbed to death by a fanatic in 1610.

Great Fear

Wave of senseless panic rolled through France.

Simon Bolivar

Wealthy Venezuelan Creole. 1811- Venezuela declared independence from Spain. His volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Had to go into exile twice. August 1819- led over 2,000 soldiers on a march through Andes into what is now Columbia. Took Spanish army in Bogota by surprise because of direction and won victory. 1821- he had won Venezuela's independence. Marched south into Ecuador. Met Jose de San Martin.