History Exam 1

Matteo Ricci

-1552-1610 -Italian Jesuit priest -one of founding figures of Jesuit China Missions -his 1602 map of the world in Chinese Characters introduced the findings of European exploration to East Asia -considered a servant of God in Roman Catholicism -1582 arrived in Portuguese settlement of Macau to being missionary work in China -1st european to enter forbidden city in 1601 by Wanli emperor -Wanli sought his services in court astronomy and calendrical science -converted several prominent Chinese officials to catholics

Dutch East India Company (VOC)

-1602 organized into one national organization -empowered to make war or treaties, seize foreign ships, build forts, establish colonies, and coin money - all under loose government supervision -chief rivals: english -monopoly was far more effective than Portuguese -trading posts on Indian east coast, Bengal, mainland SEA, Formosa, Guangzhou, and Nagasaki -major focus was East Indies (especially Java) -success was due in part to highly able governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen -->fixed naval/administrative capital at Batavia in Western Java -turned a network of trading posts into a chain of strongholds/ruled this new commercial empire with an iron hand -drove hard bargains and eliminated rivals -many of local rulers began to regret willingness to trade with dutch over portuguese -interest centered in spice trade -considered 1st multinational cooperation in the world -ships had upperhand: more of them backed by merchant capital earned in trade, larger, more powerful, more maneuverable

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

-1772-1883 -Bengali -Hindu and Bengal renaissance began primarily by his work -mastered the english world then turned attention to Hindu/Indian tradition--> sought successfully for their own cultural identity and helped to restore the pride of educated Indians in their rich religious, philosophical, and literary heritage -founded a society - Brahmo Samaj - to pursue these efforts --> made a deep inspect on successive generations of Bengalis and Indians; members studies classical Indian texts --> revival of interest in the power/virtue of Indian culture tradition -worked especially in Calcutta to promote the similar education of young upper-class Indians, founding schools, libraries, and publishing jointly a number of journals/books

The Silk Road

-3 primary trade routes linked the subsystems: (all terminated in the eastern Mediterranean); Northern route (went up through the black sea and then overland through the Mongol empire all the way to China: Marco Polo ventured to China this way); Central route (through Baghdad then via the Persian Gulf into the Indian Ocean: access to spices and products of East/Southeast Asia); Southern Route (from Cairo, overland south to the Red Sea, and from there into the Indian Ocean) -linked most of Afro-Eurasia in the 13th century -remarkable that it existed at all -world system -each of trade circuits had a predominating group: Italians in european system, arabs in middle eastern circuit, and chinese in east asian circuit --> no one controlled the whole system -most rulers recognized that trade was valuable and encouraged/protected it -world in 14th century was polycentric (contained several regional systems) -Chinese brought manufactured goods, silk, porcelain, iron/copperwares: returned with spices, edibles, pearls, cotton goods, silver -Indians brought cotton textiles and returned with spices -began with Zhou dynasty and Chinese silk -exchange of culture: art, religion, philosophy, technology, language, science, architecture, and every other element of civilization

Thomas Macaulay

-British -1834-1838 lived in Calcutta and served on the British Supreme Council for India -Minute on Education -the admission of natives to high office must be effected by slow degrees -English as main/official language -wants to instruct Indians --> shouldn't fear them rising up to power due to education -1800-1858

Sinicization

-Chinese traders became more active and more numerous from -people of Burma and Siam were originally from south China; the spoken languages of both are distantly related to Chinese -Vietnam: acquired heavy overlay of Chinese civilization including writing, language, artistic, philosophical, and political forms; managed very much on Chinese bureaucratic lines, rulers even adopted the title of emperor -Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese freely south Chinese culture while resisting Chinese political control -the delta of Tongking became highly productive under a Chinese-style system of intensive irrigated -onion theory/jeepney -neo-confucianism -under rule of Le Thang-Tong --> ming administration/philosophical systems became official away (do away with counselors so emperor has direct control of administration through the 6 boards) -nam-giao:ming ritual of confucius sacrifice to the heaven place of blood oath of personal allegiance -patrilineal succession and primogeniture -emphasis on bureaucracy and moral righteousness -Ch'ing Code of China -tributary system -social hierarchy

Daoism

-Dao="the Way" -one of basic axioms = silence, even inaction -the observable, rational human world is not what matters; only the far greater cosmic world of nature matters -it is from the cosmos one must seek guidance -chief text= Dao De Jing (Classic of the Way) --> cryptic collection of mystical remarks whose meaning is unclear -much of text's contents is attributed to Laozi (The Old One) --> he debated Confucius -those who understand don't talk; those who talk don't understand -relax, go with the flow, stop trying to improve things -whatever is, is natural and hence good -Zhuangzi major philosopher --> relativism, mysticism, and amorality -merged with folk beliefs: earlier animism, worship of natural forces, belief in supernatural, and a variety of mystical practices -under Buddhism, priests, temples, and monastic order developed -bad habit of irresponsible hedonism (condemned by proper Confucians) -search for medicinal herbs and varied experimentation contributed importantly to the growth of Chinese medicine and other technologies -confucian when things went right, daoist when things went wrong/old/retired -passivism and laissez-faire -alchemy, magic, pursuit for elixirs of immortality

Caste System

-Hindu practice however separable from Hinduism as a nonreligious system that has evolved as a means of imposing some social order on an often-disrupted society -jati=caste community; connected by occupation, tend to marry only fellow jati members (endogamous), and in principle are forbidden to share food or water with other jatis -caste can be transcended by religious devotion -sadhu (Hindu holy man) has always been beyond caste -source of group identity and strength -rapidly losing force as India becomes increasingly industrialized, urbanized, and secularized -evolved as a sociocultural rather than religious practice -operated as a mutual benefit society, helping caste members who were in material trouble, settling disputes, and working as a common interest group on behalf of the welfare of all members -four varnas: brahmins (priests, scholars, teachers); kshatriyays (rulers, warriors, administrators); vaishyas (cattle herders, agriculturalists, artisans, merchants); shudras (laborers, service providers) -dalits (untouchables): outside varnas, their touch or even their shadow could define, performed services of cleaning and sweeping and disposig of the dead bodies of animals/people, tanning of leather from hides, and making of leather goods; ate meat (even beef) which if forbidden to higher-caste Hindus/Buddhists; lived in squalid, segregated ghettoes -highly flexible system -Sanskritization: process of rising in status by adopting the religious, dietary, and other practices of higher-status groups and by asserting higher status -individual is important primarily as a member of a group -caste was less a matter of religious than of social ordering -hierarchy it involved was less important than the day-to-day supporting functions in served, while at the same time made social mobility possible for group members -jatis spoke a common regional language and shared a common local culture while Brahmins have always been as widely distributed as Hinduism

Caliphate

-Islam -Mohammed's successors quarreled over who was to lead the community of the faithful-->split-->Sunni (followers of custom) who declared one of Mohammed's supporters the caliph (successor) and Shi'a who believed Mohammed's direct descendents inherited the role of imam (spiritual and political leader)(first imans where Mohammed's cousin Ali and Ali's two sons...children of Mohammed's daughter Fatima) -split resulted in a war -Sunnis generally acknowledge the caliph as a religious and political leader even when they were governed by more immediate rulers such as the Mughal emperors -most muslims in monsoon Asia were Sunni -Mohammed was the last of the prophets accepted by Islam -caliphate is an islamic state led by a caliph whose power/authority is absolute -caliphs are chosen through shura --> process of community consultation/election -Qur'an

Jainism

-Mahavira (Great Hero c 546-468 BCE) founded Jainism as an ascetic faith; he himself went naked and finally starved himself to death -reasserted the Hindu veneration for all living things -probably originated the concept of ahimsa -pious Jains wear face masks to avoid inhaling insects -do not engage in agriculture for fear of harming organisms in the soil -practice business -reaction against growing ritualization of Hinduism and dominance of priestly caste system of Brahmins -independent access to truth through mediation and self-denial without the aid of priests or ritual -taught equality of all in these terms, rejecting caste distinction and the hierarchy -dharma, karma, samsara, moksha, ahimsa -rejected folk panoply of Hindu gods but reaffirmed Hinduism's basic monotheism, its non personalized worship of the infinite/great chain of being

Surat

-Mughal international port -served as the Indian base for pilgrimage to Mecca -prosperity depended n Mughal protection/commitment of Mughal rulers to allow it to run its affairs free of state's intervention (as commercial partners) -hereditary merchant plutocracy = mahajan (great men) controlled local financial, commercial, and artisan activities; their agents dominated the surrounding agricultural hinterland (ensuring flow of rat cotton, indigo, tobacco, foodstuffs, and craft products) -grain merchants/moneylenders controlled the resident laborers/artisans who were organized into caste groups -elite of the community = sarafi (commercial financiers): represented family firms of different ethnic, sectarian, and caste backgrounds; broker representatives exchanged money, acted as paymasters, financed Mughal authorities/merchants, provided insurance, served as trustees for religious adn charitable enterprises; issued hundi (bills that were promissory notes guaranteeing payment over distances) -top of merchant hierarchy-nagarsheth (chief merchant-prince): negotiated on the mahan community's behalf with Mughal government/foreign traders by establishing their terms of participation in marketplace and predetermining value of merchandise

Chinese Protectorate System

-an administrative body responsible for the well-being of ethnic Chinese residents of the straits settlements during British Colonial Control -established in 1877 in Straits Settlement -mitigate the human rights violations of the coolie trade -coolie trade= merciless exploitation of coolies -establishment of civil servants conversant in Chinese Language, administered newly arrived coolie laborers, regulated secret societies, rescued female victims from prostitution, and contained venereal diseases

Indianization

-emergent Southeast Asian political elite found north Indian culture useful as a means to enhance their status above that of their dependents -close connection between India and Southeast Asia since time of Ashoka and first Buddhist Missions -influences continue to operate on SEA until present -highly varied region (Burma to Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines) has retained it own clearly recognizable social and cultural forms, preserved and evolved from their separate origins before the coming of Indian elements -only high culture (writing, various literary, artistic, political, and religious forms) came from India -forms of dance, music, literature, art, and dramatic versions of the great Hindu epics (the Mahabharata and the Ramayana) continue to dominate the culture of insular SEA -Burma, Siam, and Cambodia built Indian-Buddhist style temple complexes -spoken languages of Burma and Siam are written with an Indian-derived script -Burma and Siam have been profoundly shaped by the Indian models spread to them from Ashoka's time (Buddhism, Indian systems of writing, art, literature, symbols, ideas, kingship, and government) -kingdom of Funan had been partly indianized in its literature and political culture -Khmer king Yasovarman I began the building of the new capital, designed it with the help of Brahmans inited from India to legitimate his claim to divine kingship; city design reflected Hindu cosmology -Burma and Thailand accepted Indian cultural influences as they came without political objectives, ambitions, or strings --> local rulers invited Indian administrative advisers and priests as well as philosophers, artists, and musicians -Mons: sophisticated culture and political experience had original Indian forms that led to their domination of the court and culture at Pagan -Thais adopted Indian art forms, writing and political systems while accepting Buddhism -Borobudur involved Indian artists and sculptors along with Javanese artisans -Majapahit Kingdom= Hindu-Buddhist state -Philippines had faint impact from Indian writing systems and some aspects of the Hindu tradition

Akbar

-grandson of Babur -1542-1605 -one of India's greatest rulers and tried to build a fusion between Turkish, Persian, and Indian cultures -greatness of Mughal period rested on Akbar especially -under him Persian, the official language of court/government/and law, merged with the earlier language of the Delhi-Agra area to form modern Hindi -persian artistic and literary formed blended with earlier traditions in the north and enriched all of indian culture -reestablished firm central control in the north -agriculture and commerce flourish again -steady revenues and an efficient imperial administration enabled the building of a network of imperial roads to link the empire together -literature, music, and the graphic arts flourished under imperial patronage at both capitals (Delhi and Agra) - born into exile -immediately challenged upon accession-->defeated Hindu effort to drive out invaders -1562 drove out Hindu again at Panipat -married a rajput princess to begin a lifelong campaign to blend the many strands of India's cultural, regional and religious heritage -saw himself as an Indian ruler not as a foreign despot -1568 sacked Rajput capital and massacred the surviving defenders -1570 small remnant of Rajputs swore allegiance to him-->in return made a rajput one of his chief generals -four wives: 2 hindus, one christian, one muslim-->symbolically embracing India's religious variety -1573 raided/captured Surat (chief seaport of the west coast) -by 1581 added most of Afghanistan to empire -never could win permanent control of Deccan -15 provinces with governors and separate officials for revenue collection -abolished two hated taxes: on Hindu pilgrims traveling to sacred sites and on all Hindus as infidels (jizya or poll tax) -abolished enslaving of war prisoners/families, forbade forcible conversion to islam -Hindus were welcome to court -patronized Persian and Urdu art/literature and also appointed a court poet for Hindi -encouraged Hindu literature and art more generally -illiterate but "better read" than most -departure from orthodox islam-->revolt in 1581 that he suppressed-->could not accept the exclusive truth of 1 religion -realized compromise/cooperation work better than force -died from poisoning administered by his son Jahangir (world seizer)

Eurocentrism

-idea that all is good, progressive, and innovative starts only in Europe -europe = fountainhead -social darwinism -incorrect -Arthashastra (Maurya dynasty) first handbook for rulers with advice on how to seize, hold, and manipulate power; also deals with wise/human administration of justice -India: rudimentary algebra a numeration system using 9 digits and a zero, concepts of positive and negative numbers, worked out square and cube roots, solved quadratic and other equations understood the mathematical implications of zero/infinity, worked out the value of pi to 9 decimal places, and made important steps in trigonometry/sine functions/spherical geometry/calculus; solar-centered planetary system and a rotating Earth in orbit around the sun, game of chess, atomic theory of elements, extensive pharmacopoeia, function of the spinal cord/nervous system, successful surgery (cesarean section, complicated bone setting plastic surgery, and repair of damaged limbs); variolation against smallpox -Han: porcelain, water-powered mills, lacquer, technique of distillation, ships with watertight compartments/multiple masts/sternpost rudders/magnetic compasses, metallurgy double-acting piston bellows, wheelbarrow, square-pallet chain pump, circulation of blood

Eurasia

-largest continent -lines dividing Europe and Asia are more cultural/historical than physical -contains largest steppe and desert in the world -indo-european connection in language -development of modern west (europe) was partly due to east (asian) -typically connection between europe and india -2/3-1/2 population

Pirates in Asia

-many Asians regarded piracy as standard and legitimate political or commercial practices -Europeans introduced the concept of piracy as a criminal activity -revenue for local regimes along the Strait of Melaka/Vietnam coastlines came from commercial monopolies and port-polities that drew foreign traders -raiding (merompak) was a frequent occurence -served as a means of commercial competition, political warfare, tax collection, and way of establishing power -Chinese tried to reduce the danger by offering preferential trade status to port-polities that would guarantee ships safe passage to China's port in return for regular presentations of tribute at Chinese court -system never worked perfectly -wokou pirates=a combination of displaced Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese as wellas Malays, Chams, and Bugis sailors based in the eastern Indonesian archipelago -increasing dominance of European and Chinese trading vessels contributed to the decline of piracy

Monsoon Winds

-monsoon originally meant season or season wind (of Arab origin) -in summer, center of Eurasia (farther from the sea than any part of the globe) heats up rapidly and generates mass of hot air --> as it rises, cooler air, which in its passage across the water picks up moisture, is drawn in from the surrounding oceans --> on reaching land these maritime air masses release moisture as rain especially when they encounter hills/mountains -in winter, the flow of air is reversed as center of Eurasia is relatively little affected by the moderating influences of the seas thus cools rapidly and by december a mass of cold, heavy air begins to dominate the area (low temperatures but little or no rainfall) -arrival/duration of monsoon in spring/summer are notoriously unreliable -blows from southwest in summer -blows from northeast in winter -used for Indian Ocean trade

Zheng He

-muslim eunuch admiral of Ming dynasty -mounted 7 naval expeditions of Chinese fleets between 1405-1433 with up to 60 vessels -toured much of Southeast Asia, the east and west coasts of India, Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, the Straits of Hormuz, and East Africa -did not enter the Atlantic Ocean -brought back giraffes, zebras, and ostriches -many-decked ships carried up to 500 troops, cargoes of export goods (mainly silks and porcelains), and foreign luxuries (spices and tropical woods) -chief motive was political and maybe economical -ships=double hulls with up to a dozen separate watertight compartments -->bigger, faster than Portueguese caravels and Spanish galleons -1405 largest fleet the world had ever seen - 300 ships manned by 27,000 sailors

Battle of Plassey

-occurred after "Black Hole of Calcutta" --> 40/60 Englishmen died of suffocation -appeared English position in Bengal was over -new nawab, Sirajud-daulah, was offended by English actions (addition to the fortifications of Fort William) and overwhelmed imperial fire with army/war elephants in June 1756 -within 4 months, an expedition sailed from Madras under Robert Clive -January 1757 he retook Calcutta and then drove the French from their remaining bases in Bengal -with support from Indian groups, he then defeated the huge army of the nawab and this battle, some 75 miles northwest of Calcutta -English were now masters of Bengal -victory due in large part to Indian collaborations, including perhaps most importantly bankers who calculated that an english victory was more desirable -English paid their debts -leading Indian banker paid very large sums to troops on the nawab's side to persuade them not to fight -->the reserves that were to have swept the field at Plassey never came

Buddhism

-reaction against the growing ritualization of Hinduism and its dominance by the priestly caste of Brahims -urged independent access to truth through meditation and self-denial without the aid of priests or ritual -taught the equality of all in these terms, rejecting caste distinctions and the hierarchy -developed out of Hindu tradition and share HIndu beliefs in dharma, karma, samsara, moksha (nirvana), devotion, and ahimsa -Gautama Buddha born 563 BCE, son of a minor king, became an ascetic as an adult, wandered and taught for many years, acquired a number of disciples, founded a religious order, and died at about age of 80 --> story goes he was overwhelmed by the sufferings of mortal life, the emptiness of worldly pleasure, and the promise of ascetic devotion; 49 days tempted by Mara then achieved enlightenment -Four Noble Truths: 1: life is filled with pain, sorrow, frustration, impermanence, and dissatisfaction (dukkha) 2: all of this is caused by desire, by wanting, and by the urge for existence 3: to end suffering and sorrow, one must end desire, become desireless 4: desirelessness can be gained by the eightfold path of right conduct -right conduct of the eightfold path: kindness to all living things, purity of heart, truthfulness, charity, and avoidance of fault finding/hatred/envy/violence -worship of relics -conversion of Emperor Ashoka helped to transform Buddhism into a mass religion -many Hindus saw Buddhism reject of sensory world as lie denying and returned to their own religion's affirmations of life -Theravada Buddhism (way of the elders); remained closer to original faith;include more scope for the doctrine of good works as a meaning of acquiring merit; Southeast Asia -Mahayana Buddhism (the greater vehicle); new approaches to Buddhist practice for those who did not choose to renounce the world as monks/nuns; bodhisattvas and Buddha=supernatural god; magic overlay -buddhist art flourished -rejected folk panoply of Hindu gods but reaffirmed Hinduism's basic monotheism, its non personalized worship of the infinite/great chain of being

Yongle Emperor

-second Ming emperor -r. 1403-1424 -an able and conscientious administrator -stimulated the further expansion of trade (continued prosperity, new southern emphasis, maritime extensions) -commerce and city life grew rapidly -ports on southeast coast acquired new importance as links with colonies of overseas Chinese in Java the Philippines, Vietnam, and elsewhere in SEA -emperors that followed were less and less able or imaginative and tended to leave policy and administration of the intrinsically conservative Confucian bureaucracy -commissioned an immense encyclopedia of all knowledge on which 3000 scholars worked for five years -Japanese and Korean piracy prompted him to restore the Grand Canal and to abandon the coastal route by sea after 1415-->helped stimulate further increases in interregional trade and in artisan/other consumer goods production to a supply a now-enlarged market-->also stimulated the growth of cities along route (Suzhou became a national financial and commercial center near the canal's Southern end and was noted for its fine silk goods) -expeditions were stopped in 1433 due to the fact Yongle may have believed that he made his imperial point and the fact that is is unlikely that trade profits covered the costs-->another fact was Yongle moved the primary capital to Being in 1421 (Nanjing was kept as a secondary capital) to better command the chronically troubled northern frontier from an attempted revival of Mongol power/bring Ming into line with the hallowed tradition of a northern capital -personally led 5 expeditions out into the steppe to combat the Mongol revival -new Beijing was designed to make a statement of imperial power/majesty; Imperial City/Forbidden City; orientation of city was based on astronomical principles and followed throughout a north-south axis to reflect/draw authority from the supreme correctness of the universe

Confucianism

-seen more as a moral philosophy (set of ethical rules) than a religion -specifically avoids any concern with theology, the afterlife, or otherworldly matters -Most Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Spanish Confucians seem to have supplemented their religious diets with bits of Buddhism, Daoism, and Shinto -probably had more impact on belief ad behavior than any of the great religions -teachings contain much common sense about human relations, distinctive set of values, norms, and sociopolitical patterns -have temples, government-sponsored monuments to the doctrine, but lack prescribed ritual or organized priesthood -Confucius (son of minor official) with famous follower Mencius -key element: right relationships -people are born naturally good and naturally inclined to virtue but need education and the virtuous example of superiors to stay that way -human -heartedness, benevolence, respect for superiors, filial loyalty, learning as cures for chaos/formula for achieving the great harmony -force and laws are ineffective as well as unnecessary in a properly run society -provided little scope for metaphysical speculation, for the supernatural, or for concepts like sin/salvation -right to rebel against unjust rulers -self-development -natural world was seen as the model for the human world -enjoyment of living -human-centered and life-celebrating -developed out of a time of Warring State period in order to restore order/social harmony through individual morality

Vasco Da Gama

-set sail from Lisbon in 1497 with 4 Ships with India as objective -1498 arrived in Malindi after rounding the Cape of Good Hope --commandeered an Indian Gujarati pilot -May 1498 reached Calicut -when authorities tried to stall him, bombarded the town and took Indian Hostages (instigated Zamorin of Calicut against him) -got a cargo of spices to return in 1499 with 3000% profit (paid for costs 600x over) -1502 (mission of vengeance) returned to Calicut, which he again bombarded/defeated/destroyed to help create a monopolistic control of all trade -born 1460 Sines, Portugal -Prince John and Prince Manuel continued efforts of Prince Henry -warrior and navigator -connected trade from Mediterranean to Atlantic (opened up European commerce)

Janissaries

-sipahis (calvary) -sultan's standing troops -sultan's slave household -yenicheri "new troops" -ottoman troops "crack troops of empire" -advancement on battlefield filled foes with utmost consternation -recruited by means of devshirme: levy of male children from christian families of the Balkans, undertaken every 3-7 years, restricted solely to agricultural communities (urban families and families with only one male child were exempted) -were trained in martial arts -some were educated in the palace school as personal attendants for the sultan/as elite administrators -instructed in the muslim faith (typically became more zealous than muslim-borns) -potential to rise up in rank (one became a vizier) -first time using uniforms -carried firearms -trained to become members of a government and military regime dedicated to war and the propagation of faith

Tea Horse Road

-spanned from Sichuan and Yunnan provinces to southeastern Tibet -exchanged tea for horses or medicine -two major roads: the Sichuan-Tibet Tea-Horse Road and the Yunnan-Tibet Tea-Horse Road. -between Han and Tibet people originally -Kangding (in Sichuan) was the biggest trading transfer station -dangerous/risky journey -"the southern silk road"

Mehmed II

-the Conqueror -made the Ottoman Turks the dominant power in eastern Mediterranean - 1453: besieged and captured Constantinople (renamed it Istanbul) and made it new capital of empire -goal of naval and military hegemony -master of both shores of Bosporous -1477: galleys cruised in Venetian waters -1480: seized southern Italian port of Otranto -increase of control in Greece and Serbia -northern frontier was extended -1475: Tatar Khan of Crimea acknowledged him as overlord -pacification of east and central Anatolia; fierce resistance from Turcoman tribes (opposed establishment of centralized Ottoman administrative system); hostility from Sunni orthodoxy (against the syncretic folk-Islam of nomads) -1473 defeated Ah-Koyunlu Turcoman confederacy (Uzun Hasan) (had been turned to for asistance by Turcoman tribes/Sunni orthodoxy)-->temporarily stabilized a dangerously volatile frontier -by his death: his pace too demanding-->depleted treasury, mutinous army, and a civilian population seething with discontent

Babur

-the Tiger -1483-1530 -rebel govenor in Punjab asked for help from him -established as ruler of most of Afghanistan -mom: Chinggis Khan; dad: Timur -central asian turk -1526 his mounted Turco-Afghan troops defeated the numerically superior Lodi forces/war elephants at the battle of Panipat at Punjab -1527 routed the Rajput army which tried to reject him -1529 crushed Delhi sultanate's last effort to regain power -created the Mughal dynasty--> was to restore imperial grandeur in northern India for nearly 2 centuries -wrote the Baburnana (an account of his life) in the Persian-influenced Turkish language -died prematurely in 1530 after offering his life to God in exchange for that of his son Humayun who was deathly ill-->Humayun (1508-1556) was a weakling who was driven out of India in 1540 and died in his private astronomical observatory de to being lightheaded from opium

Upanishads

-the last of the Vedas chronologically (7th century) -deal mainly with the nature of the universe and the place of humans in it -involve a sophisticated metaphysics that is characteriscally Indian but a far cry from earlier Aryan anthropomorphic gods -asceticism and mysticism are seen as the chief paths for humans to realize wisdom and eternal truths -deal also with good and evil, law, morality, and human duty (often seen as core of classical Hinduism) -main ethical text is the Bhagavad Gita -->story of Prince Arjuna who is faced with a dispute over the succession to the throne,let by disloyal friends/family/teachers; his cause is just but can't bring himself to kill these people; Krishna appears and says bodily death does not mean the death of the soul and thus is unimportant; Yoga Upanishad -what is important is duty, action in accordance with duty, but without attachment, personal desires, or ambition -dharma -karma -ahimsa -moksha -samsara -braham -atman

Sati

-widow-burning -during Hindu renaissance wanted to reform this aspect of Hinduism (corruptions of Hindu tradition) -Brahmo Samaj society -British and Indian collaboration -vigorous hybridization -part of orientalist movement