History Of Christianity 1B

John Philip 1775-1851

Pax Britannica - British Hegemony brining about peace and stability 1815-1914) LMS Superintendent in South Africa 1819 Campaigns; Rights for the "Cape Folk" a mixed race population excluded from an all white franchise he switched the franchise from being all white to based on property owner ship so as to be more colour blind, Protection of peoples threatened by white settlement - incorporation into the Cape Colony people living on boarders between cape colony and northern boarder. Problems between settlers on boer land and korsa people a series of frontier war and particularly the 6th frontier war lead to division among missionaries. Both sides of dispute produce a huge amount of literature . Phillip travels back to london and advocates for korsa and recommends british extend their jurisdiction and create order. Under Pax Britannica

Russian liturgical traditions

o harmonic chants, incense, ornate church interiors meant to provide a vision of heaven and brought elegance o Onion-shaped domes and carvings of the churches o Luminous Beauty of the Russian icons e.g. the Virgin of Tikhon, o Austere monks 'anchorite monk' = reverence for nature, traditional peasant culture and otherworldliness o Church was meeting place of heaven and earth, supported tsarist autocracy but also a faith for the masses who were relatively untouched by Western sciences and - Tsar Nicholas II coroneted 1894

Luther factors for success (4)

- Skilled polemicist and preacher, more than 3,000 copies of his sermons were made, the repetition of preaching also helped to prevent Luther's core message from being supported, however different preachers mean that Lutheran views weren't distorted, zeal of preachers provoked wider listening this passionate listening in turn incentivised rulers to support Luther to prevent uprising. Robert Scribner promotes the idea of preaching being central to Lutheranism's success. Luther himself said 'word did it all'. - Charles V was largely absent from the Holy Roman Empire during Luther's climb to power Charles V could not concentrate on Luther while controlling so much land. (abesnt betwen 1521-29 for the French War, The Holy Roman Empire was massively in debt, was distracted by aggression from France and the Ottoman Empire meant he needed German support,) despite declaring in the edict of Worms Luther was an outlaw. Luther's fate was effectively left to the discretion of German princes and nobility who resented the imposition of Italian Authority - Luther was supported by German Nobility; Frederick the Wise, The Schmalkaldic league which formed in 1531 6 protestant princes signed a protest at the Diet of Speyer against attempts to stop Luther German Princes offered organisation, discipline and military support 50% of Germany was Lutheran by 1555 Church owned 30% of German land Luther's argument that monastic life wasn't necessary would mean this land would be returned to secular rulers Despite some of his teachings hinting at a class revolution during the peasants war Luther supported Secular rulers, removal of papal authority would increase secular authority as you couldn't appeal to the pope, Luther gave the task of reformation to rulers not the Church who he believed should only guide on spiritual matters, some were genuinely swayed by Luther's religious arguments and became devote Lutherans, Sense of Justice, Ban of Indulgences undermined rivals the successor of Frederick the Wise was a converted Luther worked with Duke Albert of Hohenzollern to convert Prussia and protected Luther during the German Civil War. organised a colloquy at Marburg in 1529 between Luther and Zwingli to discuss real presence no compromise was achieved and Zwingli cried. Phillip of Hesse used money from dissolving monasteries to open a Lutheran university at Marburg as well as hospitals and schools, Alliance of Hesse and Saxony was main support of Luther, influential in the diet of speyer and Schmalkaldic League, Phillip Melanchthon helped Luther by aiming to prevent extremisim and clarifying Luther's views into a clear doctrine 'Loci Communes' - Cities also played a role in the success of Lutheranism; They were controlled by individuals who often sympathized with Luther - Stephen Ozment and Euan Cameron support this view 51 imperial cities out of 65 became Protestant, higher degree of literacy, easier to buy pamphlets or hear sermons rumors and information spread faster so abuses would have been more widely recognized(ideas spread faster) eased the proliferation of Protestantism Cities often wanted to break from Italian control 50% of Germany Lutheran by 1555 In the 1530s Wurttemberg, Holstein, Pomerania, Brandenburg and Ducal Saxony became Lutheran States Peaceful Lutheran Reformations took place in Denmark, Norway and Sweden by 1540 resistance of Lutheranism through German civil wars showed its resilience - Mass appeal of Lutheran Doctrine - University of Wittenberg

What were Bonhoeffer's aims

To liberate Germany Preserve spiritual independence

Sistine Chapel

completed in 1481

Why were protestants reluctant to become missionaries until 2nd half of 18th century (4)

traceable back to Europe, Britain and America Voluntary societies without governmental monarch or synod financing . Protestants were busy infighting between dominations and engagement in civil war up until peace of Westphalia 1648 'Funeral of Bigotry ......it is a principle of the Missionary Society, that its design is not to send Presbyterianism, Independency, Episcopacy or any form of Church order and government (about which there may be difference of opinion among serious persons), but the glorious Gospel of the blessed God, to the heathen; and that it shall be left (as it ever ought to be left) to the minds of persons whom God may call into the fellowship of His Son from among them to assume for themselves such form of Church government as to them shall appear most agreeable to the word of God - 1796 first mission goes out Alexander Waugh Not to send out one form of Protestantism but simply the word of God. ' Argued that missionary work was for the apostolic age Also the argument of predestination argued that missionary work was either redundant or against the word of god.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer biography

• was a pastor and theologian who turned away from the safety of New York in 1939 to return to Germany when the outbreak of war seemed inevitable • . He returned to help Germany in its battle of liberation from Hitler and National Socialism. Since 1933 when the Nazis took power he was active in the struggle to keep the German Protestant church from coming under state control. • When he returned in 1939 he became involved in the plot to assassinate Hitler and helped to smuggle Jews out of Germany. Was a spy within the Abwher • He he was arrested in 1943 under suspicion of treason • In 20 July 1944 the assassination attempt failed and Bonhoeffer's fate was sealed as Hitler took a tact of revenge against all those suspected of involvement • Bonhoeffer was executed in 1945 at the age of 39

Evidence for religious depravity / Why is Bonhoeffer questioning his faith (4)

'Even those who describe themselves as Christians... do not in the least act upon it' 'This war didn't call forth a religious reaction' equal to that of previous wars Hitler's references to a God unsettled Bonhoeffer 'only a few 'last survivors of the age of chivalry', or a few intellectually dishonest ' 'how can Christ be the lord of the religionless as well'

What is christianity according to Bonhoeffer and good christian behaviour (6)

'What Christianity really is or who Christ really is' How does changing christian behaviour change the nature of christianity and Christ 'It is not the religious act that makes the Christian, but participation in the sufferings of God in the secular life' . Man is summoned to share in God's sufferings at the hands of a godless world All men do so, Christian and unbelieving. Christians stand by God in his hour of grieving. Christianity is repeatedly seen as a connection between him and the outside world in his imprisonment 'every morning and evening I read the bible' talks about silence as strengthening his connection to Maria and God. Bonhoeffer clearly sees it as his duty to oppose the wrong he sees being done by the Nazi Regime as a Christian. He justifies his actions through the 'just cause' inherent in Christianity. Christianity is very personal to Bonhoeffer not the 'I don't control my own faith attitude of the current church' 'what we would stake our lives on' 'antiquated controversies, especially those between the different sects; the Lutheran versus Reformed, and to some extent the Roman Catholic versus Protestant, are now unreal' God in everyday not miraculous living unreservedly in life's duties, problems, successes and failures, . One must completely abandon any attempt to make something of oneself In so doing we throw ourselves completely into the arms of God I thought I could acquire faith by trying to live a holy life, only by living completely in this world that one learns to have faith.. .

Bonhoeffer as a theologian

'worried by my theological thoughts' work didnt reach maturity an thus is at the root of diverse theological arguments Nelson 'Some of the most creative theological thinking of the 20th century'

Emergence of the nationalist Socialist Regime (10)

- Depression 1929. - Hitler and his party came to power 1933, from constitutional means -Traumatic 1919 versaille conference - They promised national regeneration, - Started by rounding up 'troublemakers' - 1935 Nuremberg Laws defined 'Jews' 'Half-Jews' = institutionalised segregation - Held impressive rallies e.g. Nuremberg Rally - Berlin Rally 1937 - Hitler spoke with passion of the glorious destiny of the German peopleappealed to the virtues of German rural farmers Blood, Race and Soil - Nazi pary recognised no religion, values outside of their own, Hitler raised as a Catholic but he was not one - Nazism proposed to defeat godless communism

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Ministers

1812 The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was among the first American Christian missionary organizations. It was created in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College. In the 19th century it was the largest and most important of American missionary organizations. 1812, the ABCFM sent its first missionaries to British India

Why did Soviets dislike Orthodox religion (3)

- For the Marxists religion was largely a support of the ruling classes and thus simply another facet to their oppression as a means to control the masses through priestcraft and superstition. An opiate. - Religion was Destined for the 'Dustbin of History' With the Revolution and the achievement of the classless society, the masses would be freed from the malign influence of the Churches. - All religion was attempted to be phased out yet Russian orthodox wasthe principal religion of the people. - Church and State were one in the Russian State, and the Tsar, or emperor, ruled by divine right. Orthodoxy shaped Russian History and Identity

Geneva and the French Mission

- Geneva was the powerhouse supplying the steam for the French Reformation as Calvin always strove to bring the Genevan reformation back to his native country - Printing (300,000 books at peak) - b) ministers - 1555-60 c200 > France; 1561 c100 - c) organisation begin in France 1555; Between 1555 and 1562 there went from being one church to 2,000 - d) model and refuge for exiles - Calvin, Beza + dominant French group in Geneva - Expansion - 1559 1st national assembly; Confession of Faith & Catechism

Britain as the First Industrial Nation (3)

- Great exhibition of London 1851 = showing off the products of the era, new and innovative pieces of technology, rather egotistical - Imperialism emerged - Military technology allowed this

Result of the First World War (6)

- 'Christ is with us' Peoples of all the warring nations were certain that God was on their side - Horrors of modern warfare, Massive Destruction and Casualties e.g. Dresden, naval blockades - Sinking of the Lusitania 1915 with the loss of 1,198 lives Both sides resorted to total warfare, directed at civilian populations as well as combatants on the field. The war grew steadily more brutal. - So many deaths in the name of national glory - Versaille Peace Conference 1919 The victorious powers of Great Britain, France, and the United States imposed a harsh peace settlement on the vanquished - By end of this war: German, Ottoman, Russian, Austrian empires had fallen, tide of revolution to sweep across Europe and engulf weakened populations - Influenza claimed further 10 million lives

The Confessing Church Movement

- Group associated with Swiss reformed pastor and theologian Karl Barth, who was teaching at the German University of Bonn when the Nazis came to power, he proclaimed that the Church must not be seduced into seeking to combine Christian teachings and Nazi racist nationalism, recognised dangers of Nazism, not possibility of both Christianity and Nazism, insisted that communion of Church must not be based on race but rather sacraments - Barmen Declaration May 1934 = recalled the German Church to the truths of Scripture, rejected the uniting of Christianity and nationalism in a new Confessional clause, return to 'Soulus Christus, sola scriptura, sola fide' = one price, one scripture, one faith - Barmen declaration used as basis of this movement, sought to preserve the integrity of the gospel from the distortions of Nazism and the German Christians - But many followers said they were not a political group, many actually professed support of Hitler, many said what they need is a strict separation of Church and State, felt that church should not interfere in the political affairs, did not take stand against persecution of Jews, Nazis dismissed them as not serious - Some, like Niemoeller was arrested when became too serious etc. - Exception: Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who did take a stand

What was christendom like pre-reformation (7)

- 1453 fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Empire, spreading fear of ottoman advance on Christendom, influx of Refugees - Papal Authority, infallibility. However there were several problems with the papacy particularly their abuses. failedConciliar movement pre-reformation moving to replace pope with councils. - Church as social centre, medieval architecture characterize by great age of Church building. Cathedrals; Parish churches - spread of parish system throughout Europe. Biggest buildings in cities/villages; - best materials - stone, marble; decoration - gold, silver, gems; lavish furnishings & equipment. Produce strong association of holiness - Key division in medieval society as clergy vs. laity, 'benefit of clergy' were tried in Church courts under canon law in England approximately one third of public were clergy*** Henry VI made it illegal to pretend to be ordained in hopes of trying to invoke the 'benefit of clergy' later Henry VIII made certain crimes 'unclergyable'. Elizabeth I made 'benefit of clergy' not before trial but after conviction to reduce the sentencing. - Sacraments; baptism, confirmation, marriage, ordination, last rites (extreme unction), mass, penance. Consecration of mass by a priest involves transubstantiation this was important as it was essentially arguing God was physically present on earth. Purgatory. Christ Passion and dramatic images, cult of Blessed Virgin Mary (e.g. Pieta statue), exaggerated role of saints (miracle workers, proof, protector, intermediary with God) , relics and pilgrimages (as penance and interaction) - Busy liturgical calendar

Luther chronology

- 1517 95 Theses - 1519 Leipzig debate - 1520 To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation [German] - On the Babylonish - Captivity of the Church [Latin]; - The Freedom of the Christian Man [German] - 1521 Diet of Worms; - 1521 Excommunicated - Emperor Charles V; - Frederick the Wise of Saxony allows Luther to hide in Wartburg Castle where he translated the New Testament - Married Katherine von Bora - War of woodcuts; propaganda

French Religious Wars 1562-98

- 1559 Death Henry II. Francis II King and Mary, Queen of Scots, Queen of France - 1560 Conspiracy of Amboise, attempt to capture King who died at end of year by Huguenots. They were apprehended and executed - 1561 Catherine de Medici ruling as Regent for her son Charles IX, Colloquy of Poissy - 1562 Massacre of Huguenots [French Protestants] at Vassy, start of warfare - Massacre by - 1572 St Bartholomew's Eve massacre Paris spread > rest of France. Gaspard de Coligny, Huguenot leader, assassinated. - 1574 Henry III corinated last of the Valois Roman Catholic - French Catholic Leauge formed by Henry I, Duke of Guise - 1588 Catholic League control Paris. - 1588 Assassination of Duke & Cardinal of Guise with King's connivance (Catholic) - 1589 Assassination of King Henry III by Catholic Leaguer. Protestant Henry of Navarre succeed - 1594 King Henry IV converts to Roman Catholicism - 1598 Edict of Nantes. Huguenots permitted limited worship & strongholds in South & West - 1610 Henry IV dies - King Louis XIII 1634 succeeds - 17c slow undermining Huguenot position. Cardinal Richelieu & King Louis XIII. - 1685 Revocation of Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV - many Huguenots into exile

Dutch Revolt 1566-1648 [80 Years' War]

- 17 provinces of Low Countries/Netherlands The 'Leo Belgicus' - 1555 Inherit by Philip II of Spain when Charles V abdicated. - 1566 'Iconoclastic fury' sweep Netherlands bring Duke of Alba (viceroy in Netherlands) & Spanish army & Council of Blood - 1572 Sea Beggars capture Brille; Revolt led by William of Orange - 1576 Sack of Antwerp & Pacification of Ghent [temporary unity in Netherlands] - 1579 Union of Utrecht & Union of Arras [split] - 1584 William of Orange assisnated - 1609 12 Year Truce of Breda tacit recognition of split a) north - modern Netherlands b) south -modern Belgium - Jan Van Oldenbarnevelt consolidated the Dutch republic in Northern provinces of Netherlands - 1618 Triumph of House of Orange-Nassau and Synod of Dort - Debate over predestination in Netherlands debated Calvinist doctrine and condemned the Remonstrant position. - Arminius [Christ died for all men] v Gomar [Christ died for the elect] Leiden Uni. - Rival political groups Remonstrants [support Arminius] v Counter-Remonstrants [oppose Arminius]. - 1618-19 Political crisis Counter-Remonstrants, led Maurice of Nassau [son of William of Orange] win & Jan Van Oldenbarnevelt [chief minister of Holland] executed for treason. - Synod of Dort called also have international observers from many Reformed Churches. Debated when God's decree of election had taken place i.e. before the Fall [supralapsarianism] or after the Fall [infralapsarianism] and set out a doctrine of absolute double predestination [election to salvation and to damnation]. - TULIP Total depravity of human nature Unconditional election of individual Limited atonement Irresistible grace Perseverance of the saints - 1648 Final peace as part of Peace of Westphalia - idea of co-existing soverign states - 17c Dutch Protestantism Age of trade, affluence and expansion for Dutch Republic. - More 'toleration' of other faiths e.g. Jews 1670 start 'Portuguese' Synagogue in Amsterdam. - Plain Churches - distinction between attending sermon and full member of church [under discipline and attend Lord's Supper] - 'Social welfare' e.g. Regents in Haarlem - both female and male - Household religion - teaching the bible & prayers

Churches in the Age of Revolution (4)

- A 'revolution of the mind' - French Revolution September Massacres = in September 1792, the streets ran red with alleged counter-revolutionaries murderd by the mob, the dead included 3 bishops and some 200 priests who were murdered as Christian priests, among the martyrs of the massacres was Saint Jacques-Alexandre Menuret - The Jacobin Revolutionaries, steeped in the thought of the radical enlightenment, worked to replace Christianity with new state cults of reason, including the Cult of the Supreme Being Other revolutionary cults emerged Also involved De-Christianisation Conservatism of the Church Social Christianity Churches and Democratic Nationalism

Social Christianity (3)

- A way of speaking to the working classes! This was about a growing understanding of the role of social environment in shaping character - Late 19th century Social Christians would portray the historical Jesus as a working man who came into the world to work radical social reform and could utter scathing criticisms of the rich and privileged - The Rerum Novarum of 1891 was an open letter issued by Pope Leo Xlll passed to all Catholic Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops and bishops that addressed the condition of the working classes, it supported the rights of labour to form unions, rejected socialism and unrestricted capitalism, whilst affirming the right to private property

Radical Reformations

- Andreas Karlstadt [c1480-1541] reforms in Wittenberg when Luther away. - Thomas Müntzer [c1489-1525] Link to Peasants' grievances in HRE - 1525 Peasant's Revolt 12 Swabian Articles - manifesto combine religious and economic demands. Defeat and repression. Müntzer executed 1525 - Luther distanced himself from this movement as his cause was religious freedom not social freedom - Bundschuh [peasant boot] banner was used in peasants revolt. - Luther condemn. Tract 'Against the Murdering and Thieving Hordes of Peasants' - 1535 radicals take over city Münster. John of Leiden become 'Tailor King' - communal property and polygamy. Was repressed severely. - Cages still suspended on St Lambert's church Münster where the Anabaptist leaders' bodies were hung, 1536. - The movement worried both Catholics and Protestants alike fearing that everything the Catholics had predicted about their descent into evil was true. - 'Anabaptists' Against infant baptism [general label] persecuted by everyone - Prot & Cath. - Survived & produced many different theological views [precursors Mennonites, Baptists, Pacifists etc]. - Protestantism split into groups - 'Magisterial reformers' [Luther, Zwingli, Bullinger, Bucer, Calvin] become v. conservative and afraid of social/political radicalism. Work with political authorities to achieve reformation. - Some unity Heinrich Bullinger [1504-75] Zwingli's successor at Zürich. Composer of the unifying Consensus Tigurinus 1549 - agreement Zürich, Bern & Geneva on sacraments, broaden to create non-Lutheran Protestant 'family'. - Bullinger = Reformation's 'Uncle Henry' who corresponded with everyone.

Luther key ideas

- Augustinian Monk - Sola Fide - rejection of Good Works - 'Always a sinner, Always penitent, Always justified' -

Calvin Chronology

- Born in France, Went to Geneva in 1536 but 1538-41 Exiled to Strasburg & Bucer - 1541 Called back to Geneva & Ecclesiastical Ordinances passed; - In 1555 he was defeated by Genevan Opposition - 1559 Calvin's institutes - Died 1564 buried in an unmarked grave - 1536-61 Successive editions of Institutes of - - Late 1540s -1550s Look bleak for survival of Protestantism, Charles V defeat Lutherans in HRE; Queen Mary Tudor bring England back to Roman Catholic Church; Persecution in France and Netherlands - 2nd generation of Protestantism = survival and expansion after 1555 - Emperor Charles V after Battle of Muhlberg, 1548, (Painting by Titian) - Peace of Augsburg, 1555, produced a religious settlement for the Holy Roman Empire.

Churches and Democratic Nationalism (2)

- By the early 20th century, the churches were increasingly active in the politics of the democratic nation-states e.g. 'God and Country' - But Churches could go too far in identifying themselves with the nation-state

German Christians (7)

- Captivated by Nazism, movement that supported the Nazi ideologies, sought to unite a German racism with a heroic, positive Christianity - Wanted to united the 28 provisional churches into one Evangelical Church under the service of the state, adhere to Nazi administrative policy - Mass Pro-Nazi Rally of German Christians (1933). - Social Christians had been asking to elevate common people, they saw this as their opportunity - Very anti-Semitic, believed that God commanded racial purity and created races, the New Testament taught how curse of God lay on Jewish race because they had crucified Christ, so Christ cannot die for the Jews For many German Christians, Hitler was a religious figure, a messiah for the German people, Martin Luther had not been successful to create German people so this figure was brought forward to bring renewal - Combined cross and Swastika = 'the Swastika on our breasts, the cross in our Hearts'

Changes to missions in 19th century (8)

- Changes occurring between 1790s and 1910, before it was artisan model borrowed from the Moravians, then start getting increasingly well trained and better educated type of mission, drawing in indigenous people became increasingly important, but sometimes increased education of Western missionaries prevented them to view natives as equals, start having more racial theory of them being inferior Henry Venn 1796-1873 Rufus Anderson 1796-1880 New types of mission emerging e.g. faith mission and student volunteer movement Women and mission Catholic initiatives

Outcomes of Age of Revolution (4)

- Growth of political democracy e.g. suffragettes - Growth of social democracy e.g. voting - Demands for social equality = growing sense that the state should use its taxation powers to redistribute wealth and to ensure greater equality, not only of rights, but of conditions - Democratic nationalism = uniting of democracy and nationalism could inspire a sense of dignity and collective self-worth, and a willingness to sacrifice for the good of others of the same nation - Dangers of democratic nationalism seen with Nazis, Stalin etc.

Voices from the Field 1910

- In 1910 in the General Assembly Hall there was a session based on enthusiasm of mission, yet despite all of this work, out of all 1216 delegates only 18 participants came from non-Western world 8 India, 4 Japan, 3 China, 1 Korea, 1 Burma, 1 Turkish. None were from pacific islands or Africa - Extensive contribution of indigenous agents but a wide variety of treatment, status and recognition of abilities meant that this depleted greatly - Impact of changing patterns of 19th century mission practice? - Reclaiming stories

Factors for the spread of protestantism

- Printing Press - Preaching and oral communication ; hymns - Political Support - Imperial Cities - Hamburg Bugenhagen Church Code 1529 - Princes - Phillip of Hesse wanted unity amongst protestants - Confession of Augsburg 1530 - Schmalkaldic League - Peace of Augsburg 1555 end of first wave Protestantism - Luther's 'Start up Kit' : German bible (1534); liturgy; hymns; catechism; biblical commentaries; sermons; theological tracts. - Similar organization of Lutheran churches - Organization of Phillip Melanchthon Loci Communes - Scandinavia - Kings of Denmark [include Norway] & Sweden adopt Lutheranism - Importance of 'lesser' reformers e.g. Martin Bucer in Strasburg

The Second Wold War and Subsequent Easing of Persecution (5)

- Nazi invasion of Russia 1941, Stalin relented his anti-Christian campaign, he was a pragmatist and recognised the usefulness of Orthodox Church - Killed around 30 million Russians - Stalin's War Propaganda = Stalin appealed to patriotism and national unity, there was a new toleration for the Orthodox Church and in 1943 Stalin agreed to the restoration of the Moscow Patriarchy, in return no criticisms of Soviet State - A remnant official church was allowed to exist proving their 'toleration' and a remnant of the former power showing subservience People found they could openly profess their faith, churches reopened - After 1945, Orthodox churches were allowed to remain open, by 1959 there were 11,000 churches opened and about 100 monasteries, supported Soviet policies and in return received toleration - Post-war reality didn't live up to expectation presented by war-time propaganda not the war to end all wars but the beginning of cold war. The Cold War brought a revival of anti-Christian campaign in Soviet Russia in late 1950s and early 1960s, state began closing churches, encouraged violence and even murders against Christian congregations BUT still people continued to believe

A New Beginning since 1988

- New liberalisation of Russian state, pressure on Orthodox churches was eased and there was a genuine freedom of worship, celebrations this year of 1000 years of Christianity - Former museums of Atheism restored of churches

Penitential System (7)

- Original sin and the propensity to sin inherent in man, - Confessors; specialised friars - Contrition, Confession Satisfaction (penance/restitution often involving mortification for monks), Absolution, - Sin as a debt to be repaid through good works, treasurey of merit - Purgatory, (Book of hours) 2nd chance a long route to heaven which involved punishment for sins, shortened by prayers and good works of those living - Indulgences; begin as remissions for penances link to pilgrimages and Crusades. -In 1476 the pope extended indulgences to souls in Purgatory meaning the living could buy them for their loved ones. This changed in nature and became a profitable side business of the church -(John Tetzel) 'As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, The soul from purgatory springs' this practice was abhorrent to slowing forming reformers

Swiss Reformation

- Parallel to Lutheran Reformation in HRE were Reformations in some of the cantons of Switzerland. - Zwingli in Zürich 1484 -1531 Humanist, basing his ideas upon Erasmus's New Testament he regarded the Bible as the sole authority (not pope). Reform implemented by Zürich City Council The presence of the city council made Zurich more susptible to change because the city council had power to enact change as it was self governing. - 1529 Colloquy of Marburg Zwingli and Luther meet to try and settle their differences to unite Protestantism, however they disagreed over the Eucharist 'This is my body' Luther - physical presence of body of Christ. Bread 'is' body. Consubstantiation [2 substances bread and Christ alongside each other, iron and fire in hot poker] Zwingli - spiritual presence of body of Christ. Bread 'signifies' body. Role of Holy Spirit. - Lord's Zwingli's Fidei Ratio, 1530, an appeal to Emperor Charles V justifying his stand at Marburg. Writes in latin the language of intelligencia. - This spread to other Swiss cantons - Divisions in Swiss Confederation. Wars 1531 Battle of Kapel - Zwingli is soldier and killed. - Divisions within Protestant cities e.g. rivalry Berne and Zürich. Even today the Vatican has Swiss Guard. Every Canton should defend their country. Lots of different reformations across Switzerland.

Renaissance Church (7)

- Pope Sixtus IV built sistine Chapel Spanish Inquisition Renaissance period of art literature and texts created the spirit of looking to the past to inform the present Raphael and Michaelangelo - Sistine Chapel (incorrectly put horns on Moses's head due to mistranslation of vulgate bible) Detail of Last Judgement with St Barnabas holding his flayed skin, the face on the skin is said to be Michaelangelo's. Detail of damned man - Julius II - Warrior PopeLeo X - Hanno his pet elephant was fed gold enriched medicine whilst people were starving. 'Julius Excluded from Heaven' Erasmus claimed Pope Julius II would not achieve salvation because of the war he'd caused - Criticism of deviation of contemporary church to early church's practices - Birth of Humanism - involved education in the classics rhetoric and persuasion and a method of studying texts which emphasised primary texts or 'ad fontes' oldest = closest to meaning, importance of historical context focus on Greek and Latin, sola scriptura, not a schismatic movement - 1520 Polyglot Bible in Greek - Erasmus - Latin and Greek New Testament 1516, with adages, aimed to increase availability of scripture as he saw the primary channel to god as being through scripture. Wanted to replace the monastic ideal with Christian Laymen stress internal & rational v external & ritual optimistic - possible follow 'philosophy of Christ'. E.g. Erasmus' friend Sir Thomas More For humanists external religion = 'superstition' and brings abuses e.g. exploitation of penitential system.

Calvin Successful

- Printing in Geneva - c300,000 books p.a. Most for France - Genevan model of reformation - exportable. - Education - 1559 - Comment on Geneva John Knox to Anne Locke, 9 Dec 1556 'this place [Geneva] whair I nether feir nor eschame to say is the maist perfyt schoole of Chryst that ever was in the erth since the dayis of the Apostillis. In other places, I confess Chryst to be trewlie preachit; but manneris and religioun so sinceirlie reformat, I have not yit sene in any uther place.' - Christian Religion - 'Conversion manual' a) doctrine b) ethics c) debates on controversial issues Major European influence through printed editions Swiss Reformations impetus for 'Reformed' strand Protestantism

The Atheist Campaign of the Soviet State

- Shattered unity of church and state, the new communist state emerging proclaimed opposition to Christian faith and wanted to end Orthodox church because it was seen as major support the old order - After 1921, the Russian Orthodox was subject to campaign to irradicate its influence, get rid of traditions associated with 'third Rome', tsarist Russia etc. - First Onslaught 1922-1926 -Second Phase 1928-1933 - Third Onslaught the Great Purges 1936-1939 However - In 1937, the Soviet State conducted a census relating to religious beliefs, despite knowledge of anti-Christian nature of the state, 55% of the population proclaimed themselves to be Christian so was not eradicated = religion carried on in secret

What happened in the Russian Revolution

- The First World War and the collapse of imperial Russia -February Revolution and October 1917 - Tsar and his family murdered 1918 - The communist victory in the Civil War of 1918-1921 = many priests killed, churches destroyed because the Russian Orthodox church supported the White Armies, (pro-tsarist armies ) - Vladimir Lenin 1870-1924, Marxist ideology of the classless society - Atheism = organised religion was largely a support of the ruling classes and a means to control the masses through priest craft and superstition, viewed Christianity as an opiate that kept lower classes in false consciousness, the Clergy had been supporters of exploitation of the masses by the powers that be - With the revolution and the achievement of the classless society, the masses would be freed from the malign influence of the churches, teachings about a future utopia on earth - Similar to French Jacobins, looked to the abolition of Christianity as progress towards equality etc.

Conservatism of the Churches in Early Nineteenth Century (3)

- The clergy found the new cities forbidding places where pastoral visiting was difficult and people often hostile - This related to wider issues surrounding clergy finding it difficult to relate to the working class - This in turn lead to a fear of socialism and revolution,leading to social christianity

Missions in the Pacific

- The pacific islands mission is characterised with indigenous people of one island taking the faith on to neighbouring islands - John Garrett "Diffusion of Christianity has been largely by contacts of Islanders with Islanders in everyday life. From the time of the first baptisms the churches struggled to be free, to embody their Oceanic ensigns and customs. Names of Islander pioneers ... resemble ensigns at mast heads. They indicate the presence of a long passenger list in the ships." - Converted Tahitians going to Hawaii, Somoa, Cook Islands - Methodists in Fiji because the faith was taken their from Tonga, problem with evangelisation of Somoa because they had strong links to Tonga so should have been Methodists, if pacific islanders enthused by Christian they have strong desire to share it with others - In Pacific Islands Christianity has two roots o By Presbyterians Tahitians to Hawaii (who took it to Micronesia) Samoa (who took it to New Caledonia, New Hebrides/ Vanuatu) and Cook Islands (who took it to New Caledonia, New Hebrides/ Vanuatu o Tongans to Fiji (to Papua Soloman Islands and New Guinea) o John Williams part of new generation of recruits to consolidate success, , had expected bigger islands found them to be small, so sailed through many islands attempting to plant new mission stations o 'I cannot content myself within the limits of a single reef'

De-Christianisation (3)

- Took place in France as a result of policies conducted by various governments in France between start of revolution 1789 and the Concordat of 1801 - Goal of the campaign ranged from the public reclamation of the massive amounts of land, power and money held by the Catholic Church to the termination of Catholic religious practise and of the religion itself - Concordat of 1801: Napoleon agreed to a Concordat (treaty) between his empire and the Roman Catholic Church, the Church was restored but it lost most of its pre-Revolutionary property and was subjected to considerable state control

Germany War and Holocaust (7)

-Germany invades Poland 1939 Hitler and the Nazi regime eased pressure on sporadic persecution of Churches, especially after a poll in 1939 shows that 95% of the German people described themselves as Christian, so Nazis recognised that increased persecution during war would make it more divisive, outbreak of the war the people were caught in dilemma = should they support effort or criticse the war of aggression? Most supported the war, accepted horrors of warfare - Most German soldiers were Christians, mant Nazi Soldiers believed that God supporting their Wars e.g. the SS 'Gott mitt uns' thought God was with them, even amid their war crimes and atrocities - Christians offered little opposition to mass persecution in the Final Solution: the Extermination of the Jews as sorted out in the Wannsee Conference 1942 no evidence that the Nazi regime would have collapsed internally through resistance by German people - In occupied territories in the East e.g. Poland, Russia etc. the churches were desecrated, the clergy usually just murdered even in German communities in Poland - 50 million lives in the Second World War - o Father Bernhard Lichtenberg o Pastor Heinrich Gruber. offered resistence

Can you apply modern perspectives to Kikuyu debate (7)

-Not that ancient history -State intervention is not a thing of the past in intimate health -male circumcision still exists -White mans burden /Imperialist view -Discredits the understanding of outsiders -Kenyatta wrote quite extensively in his description of the ceremony about precautions taken to lessen pain and risk however by modern standards these still seem to fall extremely short. It is extremely difficult to understand the complexity of this controversy in hindsight, as both the cruelty of genital mutilation and the oppression of colonial regimes make it difficult to sympathise with either side. However, there are still people alive today that experience this and it is not in the too distant past. Similarly state and religious intervention in women's bodies and reproductive health is still very much a current issue. Intolerance of Scottish mission only served to create a divide What is the best approach understanding or strict? Reaction of Scottish missionaries Conflation of the circumcision with other parts of the ceremony means that 'Best way to tackle the problem was through education and not by force of an enactment' fundamental disagreement surrounding what the problem was 'mere bodily mutilation' - Kenyatta

What is Kikuyu debate (8)

. The complex disagreement arose in 1929 as the Church of Scotland, with limited support from the government, launched an attack against the Kikuyu cultural practice of initiation. The initiation ceremony involved educational teaching to instruct the initiates on adult tribal life, supposedly crude dancing, oath swearing, symbolic rituals and most problematically a circumcision operation, called 'irua' (which translates to mean pain) However, the interaction between the Kikuyu and the CSM was extremely complex as many Kikuyu saw the missionaries as an extended arm of colonialism and the British run government. their abhorrence for the brutality of genital mutilation was construed as an attack on their cultural heritage and tribal infrastructure itself. In 1929, the CSM made a strong stand against female circumcision making its members swear an oath ('a particularly solemn undertaking in Kikuyu culture') this sparked massive outcry and response. There were massive protests and boycotts of both churches and schools and CSM members decreased by approximately 90%, The Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) were a main proponent of this break with foreign missionaries, strongly advocating the independent school system which developed as a result. Offering an alternative to what was seen as an indoctrination attempt of the CSM Although tensions mostly eased after 1929 the bitterness of the controversy was remembered. Played out on innumerable different spheres 'female circumcision was no more than an emotional peg on to which a far wider area of social discontent could readily be hung' Wellbourn separate churches would have evolved

American Revolution

1775-1783 involved colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies maintaining by force of arms their refusal to submit to the authority of the King and Parliament Great Britain, founded the independent United States of

Church Missionary Society

1799 he original proposal for the mission came from Charles Grant and George Uday of the East India Company and the Rev. David Brown, of Calcutta, who sent a proposal in 1787 he Society for Missions to Africa and the East (as the society was first called) was founded on 12 April 1799

British and Foreign Bible Society

1804 is a non-denominational Christian Bible society with charity status whose purpose is to make the Bible available throughout the world The Society was formed on 7 March 1804 by a group of people including William Wilberforce and Thomas Charles to encourage the 'wider circulation and use' of the Scriptures

Historians perspectives on missionaries (2)

Brian Stanley Two phase attitudes to empire (Christian historian) Claims of Humanity 1792-1860 Spread gospel at all costs, intervention of Britain as a solution, protector of indigenous peoples Protection to Annexation 1860-1895, imperial competition between powers, link between gospel and slavery advocating formal institutions and colonisation less confidence in indigenous authority and institutions. Andrew Porter "Missions thus saw themselves much of the time as 'anti-imperialist' and their relationship with empire was ambiguous at best." doesn't mean indigenous population see it the same way. Missionaries are both insiders and outsiders of white settler culture. White missionaries in colonies were outsiders. If you are thinking about missionaries as a tool of imperialism it is the weakest and most inefficient arm of that body.

Church and the Jewish Question (4)

Barnettn - ' in an April 1933 essay, the first to address the new problems the church faced under the Nazi dictatorship. called upon the church to defend the victims of state persecution , his defense of the Jews was marked by Christian supersessionismThe history of the suffering of this people, loved and punished by God, stands under the sign of the final homecoming of the people of Israel to its God," would be resolved ultimately through the conversion of the Jews. He never explicitly abandoned this view, which was widespread throughout the Christian church—even in the ecumenical circles that became most active in helping the Jewish refugees of Nazism The church, he wrote, must fight evil in three stages: question state injustice the second was to help the victims of injustice halt the machinery of injustice.

Early Protestant Missions (9)

Brazil - Jean de Léry 1557-8 writing History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Also Called America (1578) sent as a parstor to colonists from Huguenot France. Didn't succeed in large conversion India- Danish at Tranquebar from 1706, comparable to Spanish colonisation . Involvement of monarch. SPCK 1709 set up missions in Scotland and sent a press to Tranquebar. Have to employ staff due to labour shortage. New England-John Elliot from 1640s always looking to learn languages and translate bible. 'Praying towns' entire Christian convert towns 14 towns until king phillips war hit them severly. Algonquin Moravians -1727 fd. Church of the Brethren, 1731 Commissioned by King of Denmark West Indies, Greenland. Became exemplary. Early experiment which was then copied. Often written about before the beginning of missions, inspiring. Moravian Missionaries went out and integrated to societies as workers although this didn't really work in non-colonialist societies David Brainerd 1740s, Worked in NY NJ and Pennsylvania . Made about 70 converts. Separate village settlement model removing people from their current societies. Died young (29) having achieved partial success. An Account of the Life of the Late Reverend Mr. David Brainerd (1749), Father-in-law Jonathon Edwards & John Wesley famous preacher prints diary creating a spiritual classic. Baptist Missions William Carey 1792: (Missions in India 1793) An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen. 1792 23 versions of New Testament NB Melville Horne 1762-1841 Anglican: Sierra Leone Letters on Missions (1794) Sent by sierra Leone company David Bogue 1750-1825 [Presbyterian] reasonably radical Thomas Haweis 1734-1820 [Anglican/ Countess of Huntingdon Connexion] Chaplin to aristocrats, has influence with powerful people. Wouldn't be ordained by Church as a whole body.

French Revolution

Fall of Bastille 1789 Oath of the National Assembly Execution of King Louis XVl 1793 Jacobin Republic of Virtue Revolutionary Citizen Armies e.g. the French Revolutionary Army lead by Napoleon Bonaparte Coroneted as Napoleon l Emperor of the French 1804 He claimed to be the expression of the popular sovereignty, the will of the people, a claim that future dictators would repeat He fell from power in 1815, was imprisoned on the island of St Helena in the South Atlantic - Further revolutions of 1848 = series of political upheavals throughout Europe, often democratic in nature to overthrow the feudal system

First Onslaught 1922-1926 (6)

First Onslaught 1922-1926 as communist leaders sought to destroy Christianity as moral, spiritual force, in Marxist doctrine, not forcibly repressed but just gradually left, communist state would not allow religious education but rather atheist, BUT the church should have been left alone but the leaders were not willing to let it make a gradual death o Famine of 1921 following war, communist regime seized upon this to strike on church and demand that treasures of the church be handed over to the state and sold for famine relief = effective strategy, the state could strip altars and interiors (weakening their appeal as places of worship) whilst getting valuable objects but church was doing some stuff for famine o Patriarch Tikhon, head of Russian Orthodox Church issues pastoral letter to all churches in Russia permitting churches to make gifts of objects and icons granted they didn't have liturgical significance, but also said that if the State seized church treasures without permission then it would be an act of sacrilege, the Soviet State defined this as treasonous and used this to actively move against the Orthodox Church Lenins Death 1924 radicalize communists o Many leaders were shot for circulating that letter, and others tried e.g. - Trial of Veniamin Metropolitan of St Petersburg 1922 shot - According to soviet constitution there was to be a strict separation of church and state and yet freedom of worship Religious proselytising and education was illegal. In theory everything else should have been left alone yet in reality they wanted to root out Christianity early not having time to wait for it to die out - 1923-6 50 bishops murdered

British Evangelical Abolitionism

From 1780s Sierra Leone fd. Providence of Freedom The area was first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who arrived off the coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, accompanied by some English tradesmen The Slave Trade Act 1807 or the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807, was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed on 25 March 1807, The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (citation 3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73) was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire The Niger expedition of 1841 was mounted by British missionary and activist groups in 1841-1842, . The British government backed the effort to make treaties with the native peoples, introduce Christianity and promote increased trade. Thomas Fowell Buxton [1786-1845] Role of legitimate trade (replace slavery) writes a book providing examples of cruel slavery. If you could open up to other kinds of trade therefore empire may need to expand. He was adamant you need to introduce Christianity and commerce and possibly empire 'My object is to open up traffic along the banks of the Zambesi, and also to preach the Gospel. The natives of central Africa are very desirous of trading, but their only traffic is at present in slaves, of which the poorer people have an unmitigated horror; it is therefore most desirable to encourage the former principle, and this open a way for the consumption of free productions, and the introduction of Christianity and commerce.' David Livingstone, Cambridge Lectures 1857

Nazi Church Policies (6)

Hitler intended to use German Christianity as far as it was useful. was prepared to use these Christians to consolidate power but then dispose of them when they were no longer useful, Nazi youth groups encouraged not attending church . Hitler wanted to reduce church to a powerless husk - Hitler viewed German Christians with contempt, the aim in the long term was eliminate Christianity, by end of 1930s - So moved to impose state control over Church 1933 = Catholic church agreed not to resist Nazi politics in return for freedom to worship, Nazis united German churches into the German Evangelical State Church, new constitution, was to elect its own bishops eg. the Reich Bishop, Ludwig Mueller 1933, imposed Arian clause on Evangelical church requiring dismissal of all non-Aryans from Church office, Christianity based on racial purity - Promotion of non-Christian beliefs e.g. racist teachings - Nazis made use of persecution to terrorise and silence Christians, especially clergymen, usually on a local level by party officials on pastors who preached against Nazi policies etc. some sent to concentration camps o Martin Niemoeller arrested and imprisoned for resisting Aryan clause o Jane Haining was a Scottish Christian teacher in school in Budapest with Jewish children, her crime was crying for not wanting to sew yellow stars onto her children o Around 1,300 protestant pastors 1933-1939 arrested, most released

How did missionaries think about race? and how did attitudes change

How did missionaries think about "the heathen"? Typically either in two archetypes Noble Savage; Exotic // classical, elegent good looking, similar to ancient greek and romans Natural man (E.g. Rousseau) Monogenesis single origin of humanity (Adam & Eve) Potentially capable but lacks advantages of Christianity & education often compared to early Christians Or the Ignoble Savage Exotic - wild, ugly Like a child, Polygenesis (Sons of Noah & curse of Ham) Need to be civilised first, then converted even once converted will need sustained conversion, reverse of providence they have been cursed as sinful populations, them and us mentality From the 1830s onward there were several changes Classification - Dumont D'Urville Typically racial classification Polynesian Light skinned more intelligent Melanesians dark skinned less intelligent Campaign against slavery in U.S. Disappointments blamed on 'the people' 1850s Scientific theory: Robert Knox, The Races of Men (1850) "Race is everything. Civilisation depends upon it." Charles Darwin, The Origin of the Species (1859) The White Man's Burden- by Rudyard Kipling

Why did Missionaries challenge Kikuyu customs (2)

In comparison, the missionary view of the initiation ceremony was remarkably different. They saw the circumcision as unnecessarily brutal and posing serious risks to women's health, they also disapproved of the sexual crudity of the ceremony and saw the entire cultural practice as sinful and savage. In addition to this the sexual repression of the era made it difficult for frank discussion to take place and made several of the teachings and rituals inherent in the ceremony abhorrent.Indeed, neither side make any attempt to discuss the effect of the operation on sexual enjoyment, Leaky briefly mentions an auxiliary operation involving keloids which supposedly increase pleasure but it is unclear for whom.

Tahiti 1796 LMS

Instructions Rev Thomas Haweis sent 30 men mostly artisans very few women a few priests only sporadic contact with any colonies, nearest colony was a ex-penal colony not a new colony until 1830 (Newzealend) due to reluctance of Britain to take control of somewhere so far away. This was know to the LMS They planned to settle under what they believed to be a single indigenous monarch (noble savage idea) 'The missionaries must make the natives sensible that in settling among them, they have no unreasonable demands to make, no claim of ambition, arrogance, or avarice- that they are disposed to acknowledge with the fullest integrity, & respect the dominion of the natives over their island, & all its products, & the subordination previously established....[and] show willingness to place confidence in their justice and generosity.' These ideas persist until the 1820s Questions for missionary candidates in 1820: 'Do your principles lead you to yield all due respect and subjection to the civil authorities instituted in the country to which you may go, and consider it your duty to abstain from all interference in the political concerns of such country?' In 1798 an American ship wanted to exchange guns for provisions and LMS attempted to intervene scared that arms would destabilise their peace with Tahitians. Tahitians made them strip naked as punishment and 9 settlers left in fear, remaining missionaries became more subservient ] Tahitians also had faced difficulties with diseases spread from the crews of ships that had previously docked there. The natives saw this as retribution from the gods, and they were very suspicious of the crew Henry Nott attempted building a relationship with the new king, Pomare II. Nott did not see his first convert until he had been in Tahiti 22 years, Pomare II. Nott learned the language and worked with Pomare II on translating the Bible into the Tahitian language. they managed to convert the King who took over the whole island Pomare II of Tahiti [c.1782-1821] thus creating a Christian society. They introduce the trappings of a Christian monarch e.g. crowns divine rights. This becomes a trope of symbiosis with missionaries forging close relations with higher-ups .

Missionaries and indigenous teachers

John Williams Patteson Bishop Crowther 1807-1891 William Koyi

Ulterior motives for reform in Kikuyu debate (7)

Kenyatta writes that their 'secret aim is to disintegrate social order', there were also such issues as labour and land as the initiation required 3-4 months without working and the land held by new churches and schools which many believed played a large role in the CSM's perspective. Ultimately Thomas writes that colonial powers 'sought to balance demands for African land and labour against the need to maintain political control and to fulfil the "white man's burden" of civilizing the 'barbaric'' both of which were accomplished by their attack on female circumcision. Furthermore, in certain areas initiation was not criminalized but enforced by government administrations at a younger age to combat the rise in abortions, directly disobeying the intentions of London, and outlining the issue for some Europeans not to be the practice itself but the age. officials in London and Nairobi abandoned efforts to criminalize clitoridectomy and instead adopted a policy of gently discouraging the practice through education and propaganda. Administrators in the politically peripheral area of Meru, however, vitiated this policy by enforcing initiation at an earlier age to combat abortion. Their reliance on police-organized mass excisions, and women's clandestine performance of second excisions illustrate the forceful character yet superficial scope of colonial authority in rural Kenya. state interventions surrounding female initiation enabled male administrators to partially subvert the authority of women's councils and to situate themselves as guardians of 'the Meru'. - Thomas 'Until 1929 the issue of female circumcision had been pretty well ignored... no uncircumcised women in the church' - Murray Pro-natalism

Bonhoeffer Optimism / Hope (9)

Largely contested whether Bonhoeffer's optimism was due to strength of hope or in an attempt at reassurance to his loved ones and peers. 'marvellously quiet' 'she is not to grieve but to be brave' (is this the attitude he himself attempts to project) 'You needn't worry about me I'm getting on uncommonly well' - This is substantiated by Latmiral 'allowed small concessions' 'Most of them were decent or even good. I think that Dietrich's long stay among them had had an influence on them' '. What is happiness and unhappiness? It depends so little on the circumstances; it depends really only on that which happens inside a person' If his optimism was merely a guise of reassurance then we would expect his writings to friend Eberhard to be slightly less jolly in tone which is partially true 'I'm 'radiating so much peace around me', and that I'm 'always so cheerful', - so that the feelings that I sometimes have to the contrary must, I suppose, rest on an illusion...' . doom- I'm firmly convinced that, by the time you get this letter, great decisions will already be setting things moving on all fronts. ' 'I hear many people wishing each other a happy Easter' --- 'Easter will comfort her' Also very empathetic 'do not begrudge anyone who is .on duty here - it's a hard job' More hopeful than his peer Latmiral - 'tragic fate of German people' The Nazis had a fanatically tragic will to involve everyone in the catastrophe.

Industrial Revolution (5)

Late 18th early 19th Century - Transformed our relations with nature e.g. industrial facilities in green environments - Dark, satanic mills took over the scenery - New machinery in textile production - Introduction of the factory system brought a rigorous factory life, and a new wave of discipline e.g. the time clock gained significance, reinforced working class - The emergence of industrial cities - Issue of urban crowding - Cities became places of heavy drinking, drugs, crime, casual violence, prostitution, polluted water, contaminated food and over-crowding - Still, places of culture and dynamism (provided you had the money to experience these aspects) Britain as the First Industrial Nation

Leaky's perspective on FGM Kikuyu (4)

Leaky offers a unique perspective on the controversy, as the child of Scottish missionaries brought up in Kikuyu society 'his playmates were Kikuyu boys and he was initiated into the Kikuyu tribe along with his Kikuyu peer group'. His work addresses missionaries or 'reformers' of genital mutilation but attempts to carve out a middle ground of compromise on both sides and drastically undermine the concerns of both sides in the process, while trying to offer insight into the Kikuyu perspective. He writes that controversy is 'result of opposition of certain sections of the native community' placing blame 'constructive criticism to bear on the attitude of reformers' placating tone -'I do not intend to go into great deal' do not approve of the forms of sex allowed by the Kikuyu He primarily sees the problem with female circumcision and initiation ceremonies as the product of changes brought about by missionary and colonialist intervention. Namely these include higher dowry expectations 'excessive price at which girls are sold as wives to mission boys' leading to more premarital sex more unmarried pregnancies and higher prostitution which all lead to a higher risk of pregnancy before the circumcision and thus higher risk of death in child birth, not to mention leaky views these as severe social problems in their own right. Leaky also cites the new wave of under qualified women performing the operation as it became more clandestine as a factor increasing the risk. Although Leaky doesn't mention it explicitly Kenyatta has also attributed the appearance of 'maladies such as syphilis' to the arrival of Europeans increasing the risk in the operation and sex in general. He advocates for a modified version of the ceremony which would be acceptable to both sides incorporating the educational and ceremonial aspects of initiation but omitting the more brutal circumcision, however it is unclear to what extent he recommends or discourages different forms of circumcision.

Murray on Kikuyu (2)

Murray writes 'missionaries found it very difficult to deal with sexuality celebrated in the female rituals' and often the 'orgiastic' dancing is villainised by missionaries. 'Until 1929 the issue of female circumcision had been pretty well ignored... no uncircumcised women in the church' - Murray

CMS in Buganda 1877

Muteesa II of Baganda CMS in Buganda 1877 Missionaries forming alliances but not with a single monarch but a strata of Elite young men. Responding to appeals. Initally invited to stay by ruler of Buganda, Kabaka 1884 to 1888 & 1889 to 1897 who wanted a plurality of religion. Intellectual ferment. The CMS mission particularly appealed to elite young men. James Hannington and other converts are killed massive Persecution 1888 and civil war. They won and this also becomes a theme where missionaries become involved in a local dispute and call on british support and thus end up with deep colonial ties. The Uganda Martyrs are a group of 23 Anglican and 22 Catholic converts to Christianity in the historical kingdom of Buganda, now part of Uganda, who were executed between 31 January 1885 and 27 January 1887. British Anglican missionaries arrived in the kingdom of Buganda in 1877 (a situation which gave rise to the death of the Uganda Martyrs) and were followed by French Catholic missionaries in 1879.[16] The British government chartered the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) to negotiate trade agreements in the region beginning in 1888.[17]:51-58 From 1886, there were a series of religious wars in Buganda, initially between Muslims and Christians and then, from 1890, between ba-Ingleza Protestants and ba-Fransa Catholics.[18] Because of civil unrest and financial burdens, IBEAC claimed that it was unable to "maintain their occupation" in the region.[19] British commercial interests were ardent to protect the trade route of the Nile, which prompted the British government to annex Buganda and adjoining territories to create the Uganda Protectorate in 1894.[17]:3-4

How did Missions decide where to go? (4)

Naval power "Discoveries" Providence Duty/ guilt Romance 19th Century Patterns of exploration, settlement, colonisation & spheres of national political influence all contribute to the location of mission stations British: North America, India, Burma, Ceylon/Sri Lanka, Pacific, Africa French: Indo China, North Africa [Sahara to Sudan] Later Pacific and Africa Belgians:Congo Dutch:Indonesia American: Pacific

How did Missions decide who to send (5)

People with great faith (developed questionnaire in latter days originally pastors recommend who is suitable and available). Not necessarily about status or education level as it was thought it was a simple message which those with a small amount of education could communicate, missionaries were predominantly working class 17 out of the 24 CMS missionaries before 1815 were German, as they failed to find those which were ordained. Sending artisan workers advantages of culture and language but a greater difference between them and the indigenous population Women exposed to Polynesian sexual laxity and thus progressed from wives to single women to professional missionaries. Working in missionary field allowed women greater responsibility

Explanations for Bonhoeffer 'religionless' society (7)

Religious people speak of God when human knowledge ends, too lazy, dues ex machina, now superflous . 'this explanation has weakened' as boundaries are pushed Not abstract moves away from traditional definition of omnipresent omniscient omnipotent. focus on salvation 'the world is in some degree made to depend on itself and left to its own devices, and that's the mistake.' Hasn't the individualistic question about personal salvation almost completely left us all 'indepenent of nature' once surrounded by nature now by organization. God was conquerer of nature now obsolete 'The time when people could be told everything by means of words, whether theological or pious, is over, and so is the time of inwardness and conscience - and that means the time of religion in general. ' the foundation is taken away from the whole of what has up to now been our 'Christianity' Surge of false christianity 'All men do so, Christian and unbelieving' religionless because of worlds horrors or worlds horrors are a result of religionlessness

Second Phase 1928-1933

Second Phase 1928-1933 associated with rise of Stalin's totalitarian regime o He introduced the Five Year Plan 1928-1933 for rapid industrialisation and willing to adopt any means to do this, forced collectivisation of agriculture involved forced break up of farms and organisation of large cooperative farms run by communist party officials, took food from the countryside to support growing industrial populations established by economic planners o Resisters were executed and deported to camps, resulted in famine in rural Russia, the famine resulting from Stalin's enforced collectivisation of agriculture claimed an estimated 10-30 million lives o Took opportunity to close churches, execute priests. THousandas of priests were scapegoated as they were believed to be inciting resistance Also beginning of propaganda war of 1930s

How can you defend Kikuyu Practices (6)

The Kikuyu perspective of initiation was a cultural practice of paramount importance, shaping and dictating interaction between both genders in a formative way, consolidating an age group and their position within the tribal hierarchy. The ceremony also strengthened the tribe against outsiders by involving the swearing of an oath to protect its secrets from others. The Kikuyu also believed that the medical risks of circumcision were extremely exaggerated by westerners as only the severe cases ended up in the European hospitals, however their point surrounding the overestimation of deaths begs the question whether any deaths should be tolerated? There was additionally arguably a theological basis to their argument due to what Leaky refers to as a misunderstanding of the Kikuyu language in early translations of the bible the virgin Mary was interpreted to be circumcised as the Kikuyu word for virgin meant unmarried but circumcised.

Historical sources in Kikuyu debate (3)

Sources are only written by men none by people who actually experienced it Gendered situation Some sources tend to ignore whilst others explore Male ceremony changed female was much trickier Inherently gendered as 'physical virginity' , a major issue in FGM is not applicable to men Blame for infections and serious health risks rest with women either new wave of unexperienced female doctors or incorrect care for wound by the girl or her supervisor Leaky is also only told things from men wouldn't have heard from women

David Livingstone 1813-73

South Africa 1841-52 1st expedition 1852-56 Britain 1856-58 (already quite well known through printing letters in missionary magazine) Lectures, 1857 (causes him to become quite famous) Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 1857 (earned £8,500 and made a member of the royal society and allows him to leave LMS and finance himself) 2nd/ Zambezi Expedition 1858-64 cfc Britain 1864-65 (less well received) 3rd/ Final expedition and death. (he gets lost and exciting death, does more for his fame) Primarily concerned with Slavery and abolition

How was missionary work and empire interrelated

The Duff Lectures 1923 by J N Ogilvie- Would not the steady progress of Empire-expansion ultimately have incorporated these territories, without any help from missions being required? The question is occasionally put by those who would discount the service done to the Empire by Christian Missions, in respect of its territorial expansion; but it is not difficult to answer." A hypocritical veneer masking imperial exploitation? An aspect of colonial control, destabilising previously thriving communities? -'Things fall apart' Is the Christian mission a Trojan horse which simply destabilises society / opium for the masses, a precursor to colonisation Working beyond empire - Alliance, survival and local elites - Tahiti 1796 LMS South Sea Missions: from chiefs to kings - John Thomas of the WMMS & Taufa'ahau in Tonga ...He dedicated Tonga (that is, Pouono in Vavaʻu) to God in 1839, assuring support from the missionaries. -David Livingstone's Expeditions 1858-64 & 1866-73, Blantyre Mission 1876, relied heavily on making good relations and based survival on relating securely to a legitimate local authority. -CMS in Buganda 1877 Some structures are still in place today and had ability to endure. These kind of relations became much more rare later in the 19th century as imperial influence meant that local allies felt they were vying for power theme where missionaries become involved in a local dispute and call on british support and thus end up with deep colonial ties. Working within empire- Slavery, protection & civilisation In some areas mission was completely excluded Exclusion e.g. no mission under E.I.C until 1813 Charter act of 1813 asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Indian territories held by the Company; renewed the charter of the company for a further twenty years, but deprived the company of its Indian trade monopoly except for trade in tea and the trade with China required the company to maintain separate and distinct its commercial and territorial accounts opened India to missionaries Allowed but with conflict - e.g. West Indies prosecution of John Smith 1823 for fermenting a slave rebellion Due to campaigning against slavery Within empire and arguing for expansion LMS John Philip and Pax Britannica in Southern Africa David Livingstone - Christianity and commerce British Evangelical Abolitionism

Age of Revolutions (4)

The Rise of the idea of a democratic revolution idealising popular sovereignty The American Revolution 1775-1783 French Revolution 1789 Industrial revolution

Imperialism

The Scramble for Africa Annexation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914 In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it had increased to 90 percent of the continent, Leopold II of Belgium . - Congo The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884-85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided Britain, France, Germany, Portugal Belgium a response to unjust Belgium aggression in Congo No Africans present. Once a country has been claimed nationals from the claiming country flood in

What should the church be according to Bonhoeffer (8)

The church is the church only when it exists for others' (Who are 'others' jews?) 'Should give away its property to those in need'(Similar to soviet demands of church, however unlike soviet German church was given a lot of property by the state and thus to severe its ties would need to return it) 'share in secular problems' 'not dominating but helping' 'human example' 'not abstract argument' Faith should be personal not 'i don't control my own faith' Church should not exist at boundaries but in the centre much like a physical church which is not on peripheries but in the centre of town so as to 'reserve some space for god' not through 'exploitation of human weakness' not in death and guilt but in life and strength

Explain Protestant enthusiasm toward missions (13)

They were criticizes by Catholics for not engaging in missionary work 'the Great commission' Jesus's instruction to his apostles to spread the message of Christianity (Matthew 28:16-20) 19 "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations," Argued that missionary work was for the apostolic age. Moravian Examples Evangelicalism Conversion experience - for everyone, religious experience narrowed to a single moment of assurance Recounting & activism (after I changed my life I went on too...) outward pushing effect. John Wesley and George Whitfield -Methodism Revivalism Pan-evangelical ecumenism = less in-fighting between denominations. Step back from hyper-calvinist double predestination which saw missionary work to some extent futile more concern surrounding conversion and a people led conversion of others rather than a Divinely led conversion of others Similar logic to Spanish, God's gift of empire comes with religious responsibility of the people (interpreted as divine providence) Colonial acquisitions Travel and technology also interpreted as divine providence Millenarianism the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society, after which all things will be changed.

Third Onslaught the Great Purges 1936-1939

Third Onslaught the Great Purges 1936-1939 o Stalin's campaign for crushing any possible resistance to his policies, among the disappeared were thousands of priests, nuns and lay Christians, many of whom perished in the Siberian labour camps, many charged with Christian propaganda from 1920s even teaching children Christianity o Many deported into camps were women termed nuns and they were treated especially harshly. o In 1914 there were some 80,000 Orthodox churches and chapels in Russia, but in 1941 according to official statistics there were 4225 churches or chapels in Russia o In 1914 there were over 57,000 Orthodox priests in Russia but in 1941 there were about 5600 Orthodox priests o According to Alexander Solzhenitsyn the Orthodox clergy were familiar sights in the Gulag camps - during purges 40 orthodox bishops were shot 7 disappeared. Around 10,000 monks, nuns etc were killed. - 1914 40,000 christian schools 1941 no Christian schools

Totalitarianism (11)

Totalitarianism emerged out of the grievances of the Great War, and the desire to redress those grievances through the power of the statePessimism, disillusionment, cynicism, loss of respect for human life, from this emerged new style of politics with new vision of the state - Single-party state- Single all-encompassing ideology - Extreme nationalism politicians willing to sacrifice individual human rights for overall national honour The totalitarian state did not see limits to its power, control man's hopes, loves, values, to mobilise population for national renewal, power, revival, expansion etc. - Secret police to control and intimidate population - Control of all media of communication - Charismatic leaders - Total state control over all social institutions - Burning of 'immoral' books and 'unpatriotic' Embraced a belief in statism (the supreme power of the state), 'nothing above the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state' (Mussolini) o Benito Mussolini (fascist state in Italy), Joseph Stalin (soviet communism in Russia), and Hitler All 3 of these states: aim to create single-party state, single all-encompassing ideology (reject pluralism), o Christian churches would have to become non-Christian in order to place state as ultimate truth and guidance

William Koyi 1846-86 Xhosa Evangelists to Malawi

Very hard working meritocracy only 4 candidate o Using indigenous agents, idea of indigenous people having better health in the field and better at language acquisition o From Lovedale to Livingstonia July 1876 o He was very good translator, understood how to negotiate way of mission, understood smaller and subtler cultural points e.g. 1885 realised that the indigenous people needed to pray for rain o Had 2 nicknames, one was Mtusane (bridge builder), Umteleleli (advocate), both suggesting he was resourceful, efficient etc. o Was he valued by white colleagues? Mostly no, in the period he was active a white ordained doctor would have received 300 pounds salary, Koyi was on around 40, later on 100 and finally when another black colleague arrived he was on 130 = sense of indigenous labourers being worth less o Dr Walter Angus Elmslie, head of Livingstonia Mission 1886 said that 'this station will be served by Europeans' criticised Koyi This station will be served by Europeans. I would have no more Kaffirs. They are not far enough removed from the idea of all the natives that they need to see their friends about every three months. I enjoy working with them, but I do not much like to hear so much about their sacrifices in staying here.

Tonga WMMS

Wesleyan Methodist Reverend Walter Lawry in 1822. In 1845, the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator Tāufaʻāhau united Tonga into a kingdom. He held the chiefly title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, but had been baptised by Methodist missionaries with the name Siaosi ("George") in 1831. In 1875, with the help of missionary Shirley Waldemar Baker, he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy; formally adopted the western royal style; emancipated the "serfs"; enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom of the press; and limited the power of the chiefs. Tonga became a protected state under a Treaty of Friendship with Britain on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. The treaty posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901-1970). Under the protection of Britain, Tonga maintained its sovereignty, and remained the only Pacific nation to retain its monarchical government (unlike Tahiti and Hawaiʻi). The Tongan monarchy follows an uninterrupted succession of hereditary rulers from one family.[citation needed]

How did Missionary societies relate to their homelands (5)

even in missionary societies national committees blossomed local auxilaries juvinile collections for missionary work, collection boxes young people encouraged to go the equivalent of chugging for missionary societies Also sold posters by churches. establishing prejudices and judgements at home Stories of success created standards which later missions had to adhere to. Themes; spiritual plight, material conditions, straightforward call to spread the word of God, Great wrongs out in the wider world which need addressing, sense of national honour to set things right in the world.

Kenyatta on Kikuyu (6)

a member of the KCA , and future first president of an independent Kenya, wrote that missionaries believed they could use churches and schools to 'mould the children in the way favourable to the missionary attitude' Kenyatta writes that their 'secret aim is to disintegrate social order', Kenyatta has also attributed the appearance of 'maladies such as syphilis' to the arrival of Europeans increasing the risk in the operation and sex in general. 'mere mutilation'

The Orthodox Church and Tsarist Russia (6)

had been mainly missionaries from Greek Orthodox Church bringing it to Russians 988-989 by Missionaries from Constantinople, - Wooden Churches of Novgorod later Steep-roofed wooden churches, with the onion-shaped domes and carvings - Kievan State fell to Mongol invadors, dominated until about 1450 with the rise of the new Russian state based on Moscow, 'the Third Rome' - In 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, this gave birth to the view of Moscow as the third Rome (ancient Rome had been first but corrupted by papacy, then Constantinople but this had been conquered, so thought Moscow had been raised up by God, the true centre of Christianity) 'The first Rome collapsed owing to its heresies, the second Rome fell a victim to the Turks, but a new and third Rome has sprung up in the north, illuminating the whole universe like a sun .... The first and the second Romes have fallen, but the third will stand till the end of history, for it is the last Rome.' Monk Philotheus, circa 1530 - Peter the Great 1689-1725 took the Orthodox Church firmly under the control of the Tsarist state, and thus a clear unity formed, leading to Orthodoxy and nationalism, uniting peoples into the single faith - From this, Church and State were one in the Russian State, and the Tsar ruled by divine right = autocratic authority - Key feature of Russian orthodoxy autocracy and nationalism - Religious Procession in Kursk Province (1880-1883) - Pan-Slavism = 19th century movement for the uniting of the Slavic peoples under Orthodoxy and Russian leadership - Fyodor Dostoevsky wrote of the Russian people being ruled by Church and state through mystery, magic and authority - Lots ofLiturgical traditions

London Missionary Society

he London Missionary Society was a missionary society formed in England in 1795 by evangelical Anglicans and various nonconformists. It was largely Reformed in outlook, with Congregational missions in Oceania and Africa, although there were also Presbyterians (notable for their work in China), Methodists, Baptists and various other Protestants involved. It now forms part of the Council for World Mission (CWM).

John Coleridge Patteson

o Anglicans have long tradition of working with CMS o Was Bishop of Melanesia 1861 symbolic of new Anglican idea that it will reach out as church into islands beyond New Zealand o Begins working out in similar way, setting up schools for missionaries training scholars to be evangelists, goes out to areas and picks up likely looking young men, takes them to 'Winter School' in Lifou New Caledonia, teaches them and sends them back to their home culture to the evangelist there o Sets up St Johns College in Auckland, St Andrews College, Kohimarama St Banrnabas' College Norfolk Island and educates these men in the closest similarity to English public schools, so that they will be young gentlemen, moulds them into 'Patteson's Boys' = solution to the idea that the indigenous climates were not suitable for white people o I have the fullest belief in the capacity of these races & with a very strong conviction that we must by our treatment of them & life with them prevent their acquiescing in the idea of their own inferiority, inability to help themselves etc....I always regard them as the permanent, ourselves as the transient element in the mission.."

Women as Missionaries

o If you look at proestant women missionaries, distinction in how they are used after mid 19th century o From 1812-1860 mostly wives and teachers (who were mostly single women), emphasis on Christian homes demonstrating correct way to be wives and Christian mothers, domestic tasks o After 1860-WW2 get a professionalization of women, idea of 'women's work for women' recognition that some societies where difficult for men to reach women, need to set aside Western women to go and do that work, increasingly get women qualified as proper teachers, nurses, even doctors, trying to 'advance' status of women in the other countries o By 1900, 40 denominational women's societies in USA in 100,000 churches, more women doing faith missions than men

John williams

o John Williams part of new generation of recruits to consolidate success, , had expected bigger islands found them to be small, so sailed through many islands attempting to plant new mission stations o 'I cannot content myself within the limits of a single reef' o Went with Raiatean missionaries Cook Islands & Niue, Samoa, New Hebrides/ Vanuatu o Made use of what he describes as 'native teachers', he died on the mission fields and his death and sorrow led to waves of enthusiasm back home that prompted lots of missionary trips so did good for the cause o Began his first experiments in 1821 to the Cook Islands, recognised the need for a vessel, trained 2 teachers Papeiha and Tiberio, later found that native ritual idols had been destroyed on the island o Papeiha married into high ranking family, consolidated position and at same time spread the word, managed to foster personal ties while support the faith, shows importance of indigenous missionaries o Williams was a great self-publicist, lecturer, had giant watercolours he would show at talks to depict transformation of pacific islands o 1830 Samoa o 1839 Vanuatu

- Student Volunteer Movement

o More liberal, social gospel oriented, drawing people into faith in this way o Strand that was about radical suvice between Christians and non-Christians o Wave of enthusiasm for activism in the world and for mission, great confidence that this was the moment, coinciding with improvements of learning under leadership of J R Mott 1865-1955, if Christians could energise themselves this might be the time o 'Evangelisation of the world in this generation', so spreading the message as fast and far as possible o Tended to be non-denominational, ecumenist o Promoted social gospel o Sense of intellectual collaboration, excitement about the future and possibilities

Faith Missions

o Radical reinterpretation of people collaborating to fund themselves and go on own missions, this takes it further o Started with J Hudson Taylor 1832-1905 who was initially Methodist, wasn't satisfied and wanted to introduce new features, wanted to take away all control from missionary boards etc. and wanted to move towards radical voluntarism, people would find group for themselves and go out 2 by 2 supported only by prayer and resources of immediate supporters o China Inland Mission: 1855 they should go INLAND deep into non-colonial areas without the governmental support, go into areas controlled by China o Should adopt the customs of the local areas, accept practice of countries, local dress o Promoted evangelism first, less emphasis on schools and hospitals (unlike CMS), just about preaching

Catholic Changes to missions in 19th century (5)

o Renewal in Catholic mission as well following the death of Napoléon 1821 , Jesuits resume for new era of activity 1814, sacred congregation for the Propagation of the Faith reconstituted 1817 so new aims of Catholic to revitalise the movement o New orders founded e.g. 1868 Missionaries of Our Lady of Africa = White fathers, approximate numbers of Catholic missionaries o Approximate number of Catholic missionaries worldwide: 1800 - c. 300 1920 - c.7, 500*

- Bishop Crowther 1807-1891, as discussed, first African Anglican Bishop

o Samuel Adjai Crowther made bishop 1864 o Liberated by British navy after being a slave o Was part of the Niger Expedition of 1840s, after this expedition he was taken to England for further studies and then ordained o 1857 sent him back to the Niger, was very successful at forming relationships in new territories and so 1864 ordained o By 1880s he was beginning to have trouble, his authority to govern church in Nigeria was undermined by new generations of English missionaries who didn't appreciate his lifestyle and expertise, begin to criticise Crowther for not being stern o Crowther rides out this criticism, but when he dies he is replaced by a white bishop, so essentially an experiment that ends - 1888 Mojola Agbebi Native Baptist Church

Paris Peace Conference at versaille 1919 (4)

o The powers of Great Britain, France and the United States imposed a harsh peace settlement on the vanquished especially on Germany o Germany was stripped of territory, populations and natural resources, to pay indemnities to powers, made vulnerable to future occupation and humiliation if it did not pay these o Other countries also felt treated unjustly e.g. Russia stripped of territory that Germany had conquered in the war, Soviet Russia communist regime stigmatised, fear of communism from other countries lead to hostility towards Russia o Italy also felt alienated = denied territorial gains it was promised in the war by allies, Italians were angry, hostile Only 'white russians were allowed at peace conference

- Rufus Anderson 1796-1880

o Worked in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mission o By 1832 in charge of all of their work, famous for propounding a doctrine called the 3 Self Model; self-government, self-support, self-propagation o Anderson talked of St Paul and how he passed on churches responsibility to others for self-government, self-support and self-propagation = suggests they can be financially independent o Similar argument to Venn but with scriptural grounding o Missionary societies found this difficult to put into practice

Henry Venn 1796-1873 changes in missions

o involved in earliest CMS missions, honorary secretary 1841-1872 had strong emphasis on equal capacity of British people and converts of the people they met, against sending white missionary bishops, started encouraging having black figures as leaders of own churches and the question of black bishops was raised o With Sierra Leone Pastorate 1861 start having black people within the field, after advocating for African leadership and clergy, had opposed idea of sending ANY more white missionary bishops, liked idea of Africans leading own church o Described missionaries as scaffolding, not needed once the project was complete o Get the consecration of first black bishop Samuel Adjai Crowther 1864 o Some white missionaries refused to serve under Crowther, but Venn was so keen on insistence that he began to advocate for the separation of indigenous church a Yoruba leadership based church

Thomas on Kikuyu (5)

thousands strong protests were part of the 'most significant periods of anticolonial resistance in central Kenya'. colonial powers 'sought to balance demands for African land and labour against the need to maintain political control and to fulfil the "white man's burden" of civilizing the 'barbaric'' both of which were accomplished by their attack on female circumcision. Bayart, a scholar of African Society has frequently associated African politics with 'politics of the belly' to explain the centrality of hunger and resources as a political issue. Thomas expands this writing there is a 'politics of the womb' has played a decisive role in political upset. This is very clearly seen in the excessive involvement of church, state and society in women's bodies even today and the political and social aspects drawn into an originally religious debate regarding female maturity and sexuality. state interventions surrounding female initiation enabled male administrators to partially subvert the authority of women's councils and to situate themselves as guardians of 'the Meru'. - Thomas 'contradictory and gendered nature of the colonial state's efforts to fulfill the 'moral obligations' of imperial rule and secure local political control'