Honors American History Peace and Prosperity Vocab
Interstate Highway Act
-authorized the building of a nationwide highway network -was signed by President Eisenhower in 1956 -41,000 miles of expressionways -the new roads, in turn, encouraged the development of new suburbs farther from the cities -made high-speed, long-haul trucking possible, which contributed to a decline in the commercial use of railroads -towns along the new highways prospered, while towns along the older, smaller roads experienced hard times -they system helped unify and homogenize the nation -as John Keats observed in his 1958 book, The Insolent Chariots, "our new roads, with their ancillaries, the motels, filling stations, and restaurants advertising Eats, have made it possible for you to drive from Brooklyn to Los Angeles without a change of diet, scenery, or culture"
Shared Privacy
-included both low-cost rental units and single-family homes -all the streets were curved to slow traffic, presenting a pleasing sweep of space -gave residents maximum privacy and space for yards
Television
A powerful new advertising tool -the first 1-minute commercial was produced in 1941 at a cost of $9 -in 1960, advertisers spent a total of $1.6 billion for ________ ads -by 2001, a 30-second commercial during the Superbowl cost an advertiser $2.2 million -had not only become the medium for mass transmission of cultural values, but a symbol of popular culture itself -early sets were small boxes with round screens -programming was meager, and broadcasts were in black and white -the first regular broadcasts reached only a small part of the East Coast and offered only two hours of programs per week -post-WWII innovations such as microwave relays, which could transmit television waves over long distances, sent this industry soaring
Ray Kroc
A salesman who paid McDonald's $2.7 million for the franchise rights to their hamburger drive-in -in April 1955, he opened his first McDonald's restaurant in Des Plaines, Illinois, where he further improved the assembly-line process and introduced the trademark arches that are now familiar all over the world
Franchise
A strategy for business expansion in which company that offers similar products and services in many locations -this term is also used to refer to the right, sold to and individual, to do business using the parent company's name and the system that the parent company developed -in the decades since Ray Kroc opened his first restaurant, this business strategy has become all but a way of life in the United States---today, nearly 3,000 companies operate over 500,000 businesses throughout the country--1/3 of all U.S. retail series -these businesses today provide a wide array of goods and services, from car maintenance, to tax services, to hair care -in an attempt to tap into the international market, hundreds of these were established overseas by hundreds of U.S. companies -fast-food restaurants developed some of the first and most successful of these companies---McDonald's is the one with perhaps the greatest global reach---started it all when the McDonald brothers developed unusually efficient service, based on assembly line measures, has more than 13,000 ____________, now operates over 18,600 ___________ in dozens of countries around the world--they simplified the menu, featured 15-cent hamburgers, and mechanized their kitchen -helped standardize what people ate
Jazz
A style of music characterized by the use of improvisation -musicians like Miles Davis, Sonny Rollins, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, and Thelonius Monk played this kind of music -these artists entertained audiences of all races
White Collar
A description characterizing lower-level professional and management workers and some highly skilled laborers in technical jobs -during the 1950s, businesses expanded rapidly -by 1956, the majority of Americans no longer held blue-collar, or industrial jobs -more people worked in higher-paid positions--clerical, managerial, professional occupations -these types of positions tended to perform services in fields like sales, advertising, insurance, and communications, unlike blue-collar workers, who manufactured goods for sales
Postwar Economic Problems
After WWII, these problems arose: -rising unemployment rates -skyrocketing prices (during the war, OPA had halted inflation by imposing maximum prices on goods) -American workers were earning less than they had earned during the war **to halt runaway inflation and to help the nation convert into a peacetime economy, Congress eventually reestablished controls similar to the wartime controls on prices, wages, and rents
The Other America: Poverty In The United States
After living among the nation's poor across America, Michael Harrington published this shocking account -starkly illuminated the issue of poverty -he not only confirmed that widespread poverty existed but also exposed its brutal reality
Slush Fund
A fund often designated for corrupt practices, such as bribery
Interstate 57
A mammoth mall built just off the highway of Illinois' Park Forest caused the original shopping area to decline -causing Park Forest to still struggle to revive its central shopping area
Planned Obsolescence
A marketing strategy used by manufacturers i which they purposely designed products to become obsolete (to wear out and become outdated) in a short period of time, in order to encourage consumers to purchase more goods -carmakers brought out new models every year, urging consumers to stay up-to-date -because of this, Americans came to expect new and better products, and they began to discard items that were sometimes barely used -some observers commented that American culture was on its way to becoming a "throwaway society"
Beat Movement
A movement centered in San Francisco, LA, and New York City's Greenwich Village, that expressed the social and literary nonconformity of artists, poets, and writers -the word "_______" originally referred to "weary", but came to refer as well to a music beat -followers of this movement, called beats or beatniks, lived nonconformist lives, tending to shun regular work and sought higher consciousness through Zen Buddhism, music and sometimes drugs -many pf these poets and writers believed in imposing as little structure as possible on their artistic works, which often had a free, open form -they read their poetry aloud in coffeehouses and other gathering places -works that capture the essence of this era include Allen Ginsberg's long, freeverse poem, Howl, published in 1956, and Jack Kerouac's novel of the movement, On The Road, published in 1957, which describes a nomadic search across America for authentic experiences, people, and values -novelist Jack Kerouac's On The Road published in 1957 and sold over 500,000 copies -many mainstream Americans found this lifestyle less enchanting -Look magazine proclaimed "there;s nothing really new about the beat philosophy. It consists merely of the average American's value scale-turned inside out. The goals of the Beat are not watching TV, not wearing grey flannel, not owning a home in the suburbs, and especially-not working" -nevertheless, the beatnik attitudes, way of life, and literature attracted the attention of the media and fired the imaginations of many college students
Rock 'n' Roll
A musical style that added electronic instruments to traditional blues music, creating rhythm and blues -in the early and mid-1950s, Richard Penniman, Chuck Berry, Bill Haley and His Comets, and especially Elvis Presley brought this type of music to a frantic pitch of popularity among the newly affluent teens who bought their records -the music's heavy rhythm, simple melodies, and lyrics, featuring love, cars, and the problems of being young, captivated teenagers -many adults condemned this type of music, saying that the new music would lead to teenage delinquency and immorality -in some cities, this type of music was banned in concerts -despite controversy, television and radio exposure helped bring this music into the mainstream, and it became more acceptable by the end of the decade -record sales, which were 189 million in 1950, grew with the popularity of this music, reaching 600 million in 1960 -African-American music had inspired the birth of this genre -many of the genre's greatest performers were- like Berry and Penniman- African Americans
Dixiecrats
A number of Southern Democrats who formed the States' Rights Democratic Party, and nominated their own presidential candidate for the Election of 1948--Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina -discontent reigned at the far left of the Democratic spectrum as well---the former vice-president Henry A. Wallace led his supporters out of mainstream Democratic ranks to form a more liberal Progressive Party
National Congress of Native Americans
Because the government was reeling from the Great Depression, it wanted to stop subsidizing the Native Americans. Native Americans also took the initiative to improve their lives. In 1944, they established this policy, having two goals in mind: (1) to ensure for Native Americans the same civil rights that white Americans had, and (2) to enable Native Americans on reservations to retain their own customs -during World War II, over 65,000 Native Americans left their reservations for military service and war work -they became very aware of discrimination -when the war ended, Native Americans stopped receiving family allotments and wages -outsiders also grabbed control of tribal lands, primarily to exploit their deposits of minerals, oil, and timber
Critics
Complained that television had negative effects on children and displayed stereotypical portrayals of women and minorities -women appeared in stereotypical roles, and male characters outnumbered female characters three to one -African Americans and Latinos barely appeared on screen at all -claimed that Television portrayed an idealized white America, omitting references to poverty, diversity, and contemporary conflicts like the struggle of civil rights against racial discrimination -complained how television glorified the historical conflicts of the Western frontier in hit shows such as Gunsmoke and Have Gun WIll Travel -the level of violence in these popular shows led to the growing concerns about the effect of television on children
TV Dinners
Complete, ready-to-heat individual meals on disposable aluminum trays -made it easier for people to eat without missing their favorite shows
Braceros
Mexican workers that were brought to America to work when so many men and women were gone from home during World War II that there weren't enough workers. -many Mexicans had become US citizens during the 19th century, when the US had annexed the Southwest after the War with Mexico -these Mexican workers had crossed the border -when the US entered into WWII, the shortage of agricultural laborers spurred the federal government to initiate, in 1942, a program in which these Mexicans, also known as hired hands, were allowed into the US to harvest crops -hundreds of thousands entered the US on a short-term basis between 1942 and 1947 -when their employment was ended, they were expected to return to Mexico, however many remained in the US illegally---in addition, hundreds of thousands of Mexicans entered the country illegally to escape poor economic conditions in Mexico -in 1954, the US launched a program designed to find and return undocumented immigrants to Mexico--between 1953 and 1955, the US deported more than 2 million illegal Mexican immigrants
Mass Media
Means of communication that reached large audiences -television was the prime example that developed at high speed---first widely available in 1948, reached 9% or American homes by 1950 and 55% of homes by 1954 -in 1960, almost 90%-45 million- of American homes had television sets -TV was the entertainment and information marvel of the postwar years this period of rapid expansion for TV was the "golden age" of television entertainment-often meant comedy
Drive-Thru
Fast-food restaurants catered to the car culture by offering drive-up service. Waitresses wearing fancy uniforms or roller skates added to the fun or front-seat dining
Hound Dog
Few examples highlight the influence African Americans had on rock 'n' roll-and the lack of credit and compensation they received for their efforts-more than the story of Willie Mae "Big Mama" Thornton --in 1953, she recorded and released the song "_______ _______" to little fanfare -she received a mere $500 in royalties -only three years later, Elvis Presley recorded a version of the tune, which sold millions of records -despite her contributions, Thornton reaped few rewards and struggled her entire career to make ends meet -Willie Mae "Big Mama" Thornton is remembered as the first artist to record "______ __________"
Checkers Speech
Richard Nixon's emotional speech in which he replied to the charges pressed that stated he had been profiting from a secret slush fund set up by wealthy supporters -spoke to an audience of 58 million, and exhibited masterful use of television -he denied any wrongdoing, but he did admit to accepting one gift from a political supporter -claimed the gift was "a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate, that he'd [the political supporter] sent all the way from Texas. Black and white spotted. And our little girl—Tricia, the six-year-old—named it Checkers" -this speech saved Nixon's place on the Republican ticket
Dick Clark
Host of American Bandstand -his show displayed young performers playing music ranging from doo-wop to hard-driving rhythm and blues -the songs they sang underscored themes of alienation and heartbreak
Hollywood
The film industry of the United States -as more people stayed home to watch TV, producers feared this industry would crumble as less and less people went to movies -however, it didn't crumble--instead, it capitalized on the advantages that movies still held over television-size, color, and stereophonic sound (which surrounded the viewer and was introduced in 1952) -by 1954, more than 50% of movies were in color--color television did not become widespread until the next decade -in 1953, 20th Century Fox introduced CinemaScope, which projected a wide-angle image on a broad screen---also tried novelty features: Smell-O-Vision and Aroma-Rama piped smells into the theaters to coincide with events shown on the screen -three-dimensional images, viewed through special glasses supplied by the theaters, appeared to leap into the audience
Jackie Robinson
The first African American player in the major league of baseball. His actions helped to bring about other opportunities for African Americans. -took a brave step when he turned the Brooklyn Dodgers into an integrated baseball team in 1947 -unhappy fans hurled insults to him from the stands -some players from opposing teams tried to hit him with pitches or to injure him with the spikes on their cleats -received death threats -he endured all the adversity, when in 1949, he was voted the National League's most valuable player -later became the first African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame -after WWII, a wave of racial violence erupted in the South--many African Americans, particularly those who had served, demanded their rights as citizens
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
The government agency that regulates and licenses television, telephone, telegraph, radio, and other communication industries -allowed 500 new stations to broadcast
Elvis Presley
The unofficial "King of Rock 'n' Roll" -first developed his musical style by singing in church and listening to gospel, country, and blues music on the radio in Memphis, Tennessee -when he was young, his mother gave him a guitar, and years later he had four dollars of his own money to record two songs in 1953 -Sam Phillips, a rhythm-and-blues producer, discovered him and produced his first records -in 1955, Phillips sold his contract to RCA for $35,000 -his live appearances were immensely popular, and 45 of his records sold over a million copies, including "Heartbreak Hotel," "All Shook Up," "Don't Be Cruel," and "Burning Love" -although Look magazine dismissed him as "a wild troubadour who wails rock 'n' roll tunes, flails erratically at a guitar, and wriggles like a peep-show dancer," his rebellious style captivated young audiences -girls screamed and fainted when he performed, and boys tried to imitate him
Suburbs
They embodied the American dream of an affordable single-family house, good schools, a safe, healthy environment for children, and congenial neighbors just like themselves
James Dean
United States film actor whose moody rebellious roles made him a cult figure (1931-1955) -had a self-confident indifference that made him the idol of teenagers -died in a car accident at 24 years old
Edward R. Murrow
Veteran radio broadcaster who introduced on-the-scene news reporting with his program See It Now, and interviewing, with Person To Person -westerns, sports events, and original dramas show on Playhouse 90 and Studio One offered entertainment variety -children's programs, like The Mickey Mouse Club and The Howdy Doody Show attracted loyal fans
Dream Woman
Was depicted in the 1950s in advertising and on TV as doing constant housework, but always with a smile. -the American dream of a happy and successful life seemed within the reach of many people
National Housing Act of 1949
Was passed to provide "a decent home and a suitable living environment for every American family" -this act called for tearing down rundown neighborhoods and constructing low-income housing -later, the nation's leaders would create a new cabinet position, Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to aid in improving conditions in the inner city -although dilapidated areas were razed, parking lots, shopping centers, highways, parks, and factories were constructed on some of the cleared land, and there was seldom enough new housing built to accommodate all the displaced people -for example, a barrio in LA was torn down to make way for Dodger Stadium, and poor people who were displaced from their homes simply moved from one ghetto to another -some critics of urban renewal claimed it had merely been urban removal
Subsidizing
financial assistance given by a government to a person or group to support an undertaking regarded as being in the public interest
Radio and Movies
Although TV turned out to be wildly popular, these types of entertainment survived, but instead of competing with television's mass market for drama and variety shows, radio stations turned to local programming of news, weather, music, and community issues--the strategy paid off -during the decade, radio advertising rose by 35%, and the number of radio stations increased by 50% -from the beginning, television cut into the profitable movie market -as more people stayed home to watch TV, the number of movie-goers decreased by nearly half
Milton Berle
American comedian who attracted huge audiences with The Texaco Star Theater
Little Richard
An African American rock-n-roll singer and recorded hit songs in the 50's including Tutti Fruiti -rhythm-and-blues performer -real name: Richard Wayne Penniman -helped change rhythm and blues into a new musical genre—rock 'n' roll -was born poor -wore flashy clothes on stage, curled his hair, and shouted the lyrics to his songs -used a lot of energy to perform -his music became a prominent part of the American culture in the 1950s, a time when both mainstream America and those outside it embraced new and innovative forms of entertainment
Chuck Berry
An African-American rock 'n' roll musician and composer, who influenced many musicians of the 1950s and 1960s, including the Beatles and Bob Dyan. -he is as much known for his "duck walk" as for his electric guitar-playing heard on hit records including "Johnny B. Goode" and "Maynellene"
Fair Deal
An extension of Roosevelt's New Deal, in which Truman included proposals for a nationwide system of compulsory health insurance and a crop-subsidy system to provide a steady income for farmers -after his victory, Truman continued proposing an ambitious economic program -in Congress, some Northern Democrats joined Dixiecrats and Republicans in defeating both measures -however, Congress still supported Truman in some ways, as it raised the hourly minimum wage from 40 cents to 75 cents, extended Social Security coverage to about 10 million more people, and initiated flood control and irrigation projects -Congress also provided financial support for cities to clear out slums and build 810,000 housing unites for low-income families -despite these social and economic victories, Truman's approval rating sank to an all-time low of 23% in 1951 -the stalemate in the Korean War and the rising tide of McCarthyism, which cast doubt on the loyalty of some federal employees, became overwhelming issues -Truman decided not to run for re-election--the Democrats nominated the intellectual and articulate governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois to run against Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower
Miles Davis
An innovative African American jazz trumpeter and composer who continued to blaze musical trails throughout his career
Baby Boom
An unprecedented population explosion occurring as soldiers returned from WWII and settled into family life -during the late 1940s and through the early 1960s, the birthrate (number of live births per 1,000) soared in the United States -at the height of this population explosion, in 1957, one American infant was born every seven seconds---a total of 4,308,000 that year -resulted in the largest generation in the nation's history -contributing to the size of this generations were many factors, including the reunion of husbands and wives after the war, decreasing marriage age, desirability of large families, confidence in continued economic prosperity, and advances in medicine -had a tremendous impact not only on child care but on the economy and the education system as well -in 1958, toy sales alone reached $1.25 billion -during the decade, 10 million new students entered elementary school -the sharp increase in enrollment caused overcrowding and teacher shortages in many parts of the country -in California, a new school opened every seven days
Election of 1948
As the election approached, opinion polls gave the Republican candidate, New York governor Thomas E. Dewey, a comfortable lead -refusing to believe the polls, Truman poured his energy into the campaign, calling the Republican-dominated Congress into a special session and challenging it to pass laws supporting such elements of the Democratic Party platform as public housing, federal aid to education, a higher minimum wage, and extended Social Security coverage--none of the laws he proposed were passed, so he took his campaign to the people -Truman traveled from one end of the country to the other, speaking from the rear platform in a sweeping "whistle-stop campaign" -day after day, people heard the president denounce the "do-nothing, 80th Congress" -Truman's campaign worked, he won the election in a close political upset -the Democrats gained control of Congress as well, even though they suffered losses in the South, which had been solidly Democratic since Reconstruction
Automobile
As the industry of this vehicle bloomed, it stimulated production and provided jobs in other areas, such as drive-in movies, restaurants, and shopping malls -they also created new problems for both society and the environment---noise and exhaust polluted the air, accidents that claimed more lives every year, traffic jams raised people's stress levels, and heavy use damaged the roads -because cars made it possible for Americans to live in the suburbs, many upper-class and middle-class whites left the crowded cities -jobs and businesses eventually followed them to the suburbs -public transportation declined, and poor people in the inner cities were often left without jobs and vital services -as a result, the economic gulf between suburban and urban dwellers and between the middle class and poor widened
Benjamin Spock
Author and pediatrician who wrote Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care -many parents raised their children according to the guidelines devised by him -published his book in 1946, and it sold nearly 10 million copies during the 1950s -in it, he advised parents not to spank or scold their children -encouraged families to hold meetings with their children in which they can express themselves and their feelings -he considered it so important for mothers to be at home with their children that he proposed having the government pay mothers to stay home
Betty Friedan
Author of the groundbreaking 1963 book about women and society, The Feminine Mystique -described the problem of how women were feeling isolated, bored, and unfulfilled with their lives -said: "For the first time in their history, women are becoming aware of an identity crisis in their own lives, a crisis which... has grown worse with each succeeding generation... I think this is the crisis of women growing up-a turning point from an immaturity that has been called femininity to full human identity."
Quiz Shows
Began with the $64,000 Question in 1955, they were created by adopting a popular format from radio and adding big cash prizes -Twenty-One made a star of English professor Charles Va Doren--he rode a wave of fame until 1958, when a former contestant revealed that producers had been giving contestants the right answers to heighten the dramatic impact----followed by a scandal when a congressional subcommittee confirmed the charges -most of these soon left the air after that
GI Bill of Rights
By the summer of 1946, about 10 million men and women had been released from the armed forces -many settled down to rebuild their lives -to help ease veterans' return to civilian life, Congress passed this law in 1944 -also known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act -encouraged veterans to get an education by paying part of their tuition -guaranteed veterans a year's worth of unemployment benefits while job hunting -offered low-interest, federally guaranteed loans -millions of young families used these benefits to buy houses and farms or to establish businesses -with the help of this bill, many veterans and their families moved in and cultivated a new lifestyle
Consumerism
Buying material goods -by the mid-1950s, nearly 60 percent of Americans were members of the middle class, about twice as many as before WWII -they wanted, and had the money to buy, increasing numbers of products -came to be equated with success -one new product after another appeared in the marketplace, as various industries responded to consumer demand -Newsweek magazine reported in 1956 that "hundreds of brand-new goods have become commonplace overnight" -consumers purchased electric household appliances-such as washing machines, dryers, blenders, freezers, and dishwashers in record numbers -with more time to fill, people invested in recreational items--televisions, tape recorders, and the new hi-fi (high-fidelity) record players -bought casual clothing to suit their suburban lifestyles and power lawn mowers, barbecue grills, swimming pools, and lawn decorations for their suburban homes
Richard Nixon
Californian Senator -Eisenhower's running mate for the presidential election after Truman decided not to go for president again -he was accused of profiting from a secret slush fund set up by wealthy supporters -he decided to reply to the charges in an emotional speech
Native Americans
Continued to fight for their rights and identity. -from the passage of the Dawes Act, in 1887, until 1934, the policy of the federal government toward Native Americans had been one of "Americanization" and assimilation -in 1924, the Snyder Act granted citizenship to all Native Americans, but they remained second-class citizens -In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act moved official policy away from assimilation and toward Native American autonomy. Its passage signaled a change in federal policy -received job training from the Bureau of Indian Affairs to help them settle in urban areas
Stereotypical
Conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified
Harry Truman
Despite his lack of preparation for the presidential job, he was widely viewed as honorable, down-to-earth, and self-confident -he had the ability to make difficult decisions to accept full responsibility for their consequences -as the plaque on his White House desk read, "The Buck Stops Here" -faced two major challenges: dealing with the rising threat of communism, and restoring the American economy to a strong footing after the war's end -also had to address the issues of strikes--facing higher prices and lower wages, 4.5 million discontented workers, including steelworkers, coal miners, and railroad workers, went on strike in 1946 -although he generally supported organized labor, he refused to let strikes cripple the nation -he threatened to draft the striking workers and to order them as soldiers to stay on the job -he authorized the federal government to seize the mines, and he threatened to take control of the railroads as well -appeared before Congress and asked for the authority to draft the striking railroad workers into the army--unions gave in -put his presidency on the line for civil rights -wished for "equality of opportunity for all human beings" -in 1946, he created a President's Commission on Civil Rights---following the group's recommendation, he asked Congress for several measures including a federal anti-lynching law, a ban on the poll tax as a voting requirement, and a permanent civil rights commission--Congress refused to pass these measures, or a measure to integrate the armed forces--so, he himself took action -in July 1948, he issued an executive order for integration of the armed forces, and ordered an end to discrimination in the hiring of government employees -the Supreme Court also ruled that the lower courts could not bar African Americans from residential neighborhoods -his actions on civil rights represented the beginnings of a federal commitment to dealing with racial issues -many Americans blamed him for the nation's inflation and labor unrest -was nominated for President again in 1948
Urban Poor
Despite the portrait painted by popular culture, life in postwar America did not live up to the "American dream" -in 1962, nearly one out of every four Americans were living below the poverty level -many of these poor were elderly people, single women and their children, or members of minority groups, including African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans
Jonas Salk
Developed the breakthrough of a vaccine for the crippling disease poliomyelitis (polio, which was one of the most feared diseases in the 1950s-has paralyzed FDR) -it was among the medical advances that saved hundreds of thousands of children's lives, and drugs to fight and prevent childhood diseases like typhoid fever -in response to his vaccine, the government sponsored a free inoculation program for children -the vaccine was extremely effective -thanks to him, by 1974, only seven new cases of polio were reported in the country (also with the help of Albert Sabin's new oral vaccine)
80th Congress
Disgusted by shortages of goods, rising inflation, and labor strikes, Americans were ready for a change -this political party asked the public, "Had enough?" -in the 1946 elections, they won control of both the Senate and the House of Representatives for the first time since 1928 -ignored Truman's domestic proposals -in 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act over Truman's veto---this bill overturned many rights won by the unions under the New Deal
Racial Gap
Disparities between various ethnic groups -in other musical genres besides rock, singers like Nat "King" Cole, Lena Horne, Harry Belafonte, and many others paved the way for minority representation in the entertainment fields -throughout the 1950s, African American shows were mostly broadcast on separate stations -by 1954, there were 250 radio stations nationwide aimed specifically at African-American listeners -African American stations were part of radio's attempt to counter the mass popularity of television by targeting specific audiences -these stations also served advertisers who wanted to reach a large African-American audience -it was the black listeners-who had fewer television sets than whites and did not find themselves reflected in mainstream programming-who appreciated the stations the most -African American radio was referred to as "race radio" -at the end of the 1950s, African Americans were still largely segregated from the dominant culture--this ongoing segregation and the racial tensions it fed would become a powerful force for change in the turbulent 1960s
Petroleum
During WWII, the U.S. government had rationed gasoline to curb inflation and conserve supplies, but afterwards, an abundance of both imported and domestically produced ____________-the raw material from which gasoline is made-lead to inexpensive, plentiful fuel for consumers -easy credit terms and extensive advertising persuaded Americans to buy cars in record numbers -in response, new car sales rose from 6.7 million in 1950 to 7.9 million in 1955 -the total number of private cars on the road jumped from 40 million in 1950 to over 60 million in 1960
Women
During the 1950s, the role of homemaker and mother was glorified in popular magazines, movies, and TV programs, like Father Knows Best and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet -homemaker was described as a role that was "the key figure in all suburbia, the threat that weaves between family and community-the keeper to the suburban dream" -in contrast to the ideal portrayed in the media, some women were not happy with their roles; they felt isolated, bored, and unfulfilled -according to one survey in the 1950s, more than one-fifth of suburban wives were dissatisfied with their lives -the percentage of women college students in the 1950s was smaller than in the 1920s -the number of women working outside the home rose steadily during the decade--by 1960, almost 40% of mothers with children ages 6-17 held paying jobs -having a job didn't necessarily contribute to a woman's happiness -a woman's career opportunities tended to be limited to fields such as nursing, teaching, and office support, which paid less than other professional and business positions did -earned less than men for comparable work -although increasing number of women attended four-year colleges, they generally received little financial, academic, or psychological encouragement to pursue their goals
Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz
Early situation comedians who began an enormously popular run of their comedy I Love Lucy, in 1951
Suburbia
In 1945 and 1946, returning veterans faced a severe housing shortage -many families lived in cramped apartments or moved in with relatives -in response to this crisis, developers like William Levitt and Henry Kaiser used efficient, assembly-line methods to mass-produce houses -Levitt, who bragged that his company could build a house in 16 minutes, offered these homes in small residential communities surrounding cities for less than $7,000 -Levitt's first postwar development--rows of standardized homes built on treeless lots--was located on New York's Long Island and named Levvintown -these homes looked exactly alike, and certain zoning laws ensured that they would stay the same -despite the rigid conformity, Americans loved the openness and small-town feel to the these planned lots
Dwight D. Eisenhower
In 1951, he ran as the Republican candidate -known as "Ike" -former general from WWII -campaign accessories expressed his popularity and projected an upbeat political mood -during the campaign, the Republicans accused the Democrats of "plunder at home and blunder abroad" -to fan the anti-Communist hysteria sweeping over the country, Republicans raised the specter of the rise of communism in China and Eastern Europe, and they criticized the growing power of the federal government and the alleged bribery and corruption among Truman's political allies -his campaign hit a snag, however, when newspapers accused his running mate, Californian Senator Richard M. Nixon, of profiting from a secret slush fund set up by wealthy supporters -in November 1952, he won 55 percent of the popular vote and a majority of the electoral college votes, while the Republicans narrowly captured Congress -his style of governing differed from that of Democrats--his approach, which he called "dynamic conservatism", was also known as "Modern Republicanism" -he called for government to be "conservative when it comes to money and liberal when it comes to human beings" -followed a middle-of-the-road course and avoided many controversial issues, but he could not ignore civil rights, which gained national attention due to court rulings and acts of civil disobedience in the mid-1950s -he did not assume leadership on civil rights issues, but he accomplished much on the domestic scene -shortly after becoming president, he pressed hard for programs that would bring around a balanced budget and cut in taxes -during his two terms, Ike's Administration raised the minimum wage, extended Social Security and unemployment benefits, increased funding for public housing, and backed the creation of interstate highways and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare -won reelection in 1956
Termination Policy
In 1953, the federal government announced that it would give up its responsibility for Native American tribes -this new approach eliminated federal economic support, discontinued the reservation system, and distributed tribal lands among individual Native Americans -in response, the Bureau of Indian Affairs began a voluntary relocation program to help Native Americans resettle in cities -was a dismal failure, however -although the Bureau of Indian Affairs helped relocate 35,000 Native Americans to urban areas during the 1950s, they were often unable to find jobs in their new locations because of poor training and racial prejudice -they were also left without access to medical care when federal programs were abolished -in 1963, the policy was abandoned
Rosa Parks
In a landmark act of civil disobedience a year after Brown V. Board of Education, this black seamstress refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man -her arrest sparked a boycott of the entire Montgomery, Alabama, bus system -the civil rights movement had entered a new era
White Flight
In the 1950s, millions of middle-class white Americans left the cities for the suburbs, taking with them precious economic resources and isolating themselves from other races and classes -at the same time, the rural poor migrated to the inner cities -between the end of WWII and 1960, nearly 5 million African Americans moved from the rural South to urban areas -the urban crisis prompted by this flee had a direct impact on poor whites and nonwhites -the cities lost not only people and businesses but also the property they owned and income taxes they had paid -city governments could no longer afford to properly maintain or improve schools, public transportation, and police and fire departments-and the urban poor suffer -while poverty grew rapidly in the decaying inner cities, many suburban Americans remained unaware of it -some even refused to believe that poverty could exist in the richest, most powerful nation on earth -each year, the federal government calculates the minimum amount of income needed to survive-the poverty line -in 1959, the poverty line for a family of four was $2,973, in 2000, it was $17,601
Conglomerates
Major corporations that include a number of smaller companies is unrelated industries -many white-collar workers performed their services in large corporations or government agencies -some of these corporations continues expanding by forming these -an example is International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT), whose original business was communications, and bought car-rental companies, insurance companies, and hotel and motel chains -through this diversification, or investment in various areas of the economy, ITT tried to protect itself from declines in individual industries -other huge parent companies included American Telephone and Telegraph, Xerox, and General Electric
Credit
Many consumers made their purchases using this method, and therefore did not have to pay for them right away -The Diner's Club issued the first _________card in 1950, and the American Express card was introduced in 1958 -people bought large items on the installment plan and made regular payments over a fixed time -home mortgages (loans for buying a houses) and automobile loans worked the same way -during the decade, the total private debt grew from $73 billion to $179 billion -instead of saving money, Americans were spending it, confident that prosperity would continue
Leisure
Most Americans of the 1950s had more time than ever before -employees worked a 40-hour week and earned several weeks' vacation per year -people owned more labor-saving devices. like washing machines, clothes dryers, dishwashers, and power lawn mowers, which allowed for extra free time -in 1953, Americans spent more than $30 billion on leisure goods and activities -Americans also enjoyed a wide variety of recreational pursuits-both active and passive -millions of people participated in fishing, bowling, hunting, boating and golf -even more fans attended baseball, basketball, and football games-others watched professional sports on television -Americans devoured books about cooking, religion, DIY projects, and homemaking, as well as mystery, romance, and fiction novels -popular authors included Ernest Hemingway, John Steinbeck, Daphne du Maurier, and J.D. Salinger -book sales doubled, due in part to a thriving paperback market -circulation of popular magazines like Reader's Digest and Sports Illustrated steadily rose, from about 148 million to more than 190 million readers -sales of comic books also reached a peak mid 1950s -3-D comics and 3-D movies were two of the many fads that mesmerized the nation in the 1950s -some car owners spent their free time maintaining their automobiles for the daily commute to work or for the annual family vacation on any one of the nation's 22 new interstate highways
Transportation
Most Americans were able to work in cities but live away from the city due to new highways and the availability and affordability of automobiles and gasoline making commuting possible -the lifeline of suburban growth a half century ago, and it continues to spur expansion today -by early 1960s, every large city was surrounded by suburbs--of the 13 million new homes built in the 1950s, 85% were built in the suburbs -suburban living made owning a car necessary -most new suburbs, built in formally rural areas, did not offer public transportation--people had to drive themselves to work -many of the schools, stores, synagogues, churches, and doctor's and dentist's offices were not within walking distance of suburban homes -with access to cars, affordable gas, and new highways, more and more Americans hit the road, flocking to mountains, lakes, national parks, historic sites, and amusement parks for family vacations -Disneyland, which opened in California in July 1955, attracted 3 million visitors the next year
Increase In Spending
Most economists who had forecast a postwar depression were proved wrong because they had failed to consider consumers' pent-up accumulation of needs and wants -people had gone without many goods for so long that by the late 1940s, with more than $135 billion in savings from defense work, service pay, and investments in war bonds, Americans suddenly had enough money to go buy everything from automobiles to houses -after a brief period of postwar economic readjustment, the American economy boomed -the demand for goods and services outstripped the supply and increased production, creating new jobs -many Americans prospered in the 1950s in what was called "the affluent society" -the Cold War also contributed to economic growth--American defense spent high and people were employed, and foreign-aid programs like the Marshall Plan provided another boost--by helping other nations recover from the war, the US helped itself by creating strong foreign markets for its exports
Car Ads
Not just for transport, cars were marketed for fashion and fun -they used words like "fresh" and "frisky"
Longoria Incident
One of the more notorious instances of prejudice against Mexican Americans involved the burial of Felix Longoria -he was a Mexican-American WWII hero who had been killed in the Philippines, and the only undertake in his hometown in Texas refused to provide his family with funeral services -in the wake of this incident, outraged Mexican Americans stepped up their efforts to stamp out discrimination -in 1948, Mexican American veterans organized the G.I. Forum -meanwhile, activist Ignacio Lopez founded the Unity League of California to register Mexican American voters and to promote candidates who would represent their interests
Urban Renewal
Program in which cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private members, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, build new roads and utilities, and turn the land over to private developers. -Most African Americans, Native Americans, and Latinos in the cities had to live in dirty, crowded slums -one proposed solution to the housing problem was this
Social Conformity
Some American workers found themselves becoming standardized as well -employees who were well paid and held secure jobs in thriving companies paid a price for economic advances---a loss of individuality -businesses did not want creative thinkers, revels, or anyone who would rock the corporate boat -in The Organization Man, a book based on a classic 1956 study of suburban Park Forest, Illinois, and other communities, William H. Whyte described how the new, large organizations created "company people" -companies would give personality tests to people applying for jobs to make sure that they would "fit in" the corporate culture -companies rewarded employees for teamwork, cooperation, and loyalty and so contributed to the growth of conformity, which Whyte called "belongingness" -despite their success, a number of workers questioned whether pursuing the American dream exacted too high a price, as conformity replaced individuality -contributed to achieving job security---took a psychological toll on some Americans who resented having to repress their own personalities, and it enabled people to provide their families with the so-called good things in life
Automania
Suburban living made owning a car a necessity -spurred local and state governments to construct roads linking the major cities while connecting schools, shopping centers, and workplaces to residential suburbs
Divorce
Tensions were created in changes in men's and women's roles after the war contributed to a rising rate of this marriage dissolution -traditionally, men were the breadwinners and heads of households, and women were expected to stay home and care for the kids -during the war, about 8 million women, 75 percent of whom were married, entered the paid work force--they supported their families and made important household decisions -many women were reluctant to give up their new independence when their husbands returned -although many women did leave their jobs, by 1950 more than a million war marriages ended in divorce
Brown v. Board of Education
The most significant judicial action that occurred in 1954 in Topeka -ruled public schools must be racially integrated
California
The state that exemplified auto-mania above all the rest in the U.S. -by the late 1990s, citizens owned more cars, held more driver's licenses, and traveled more miles on their roads than the people of any other state -the center of this automobile culture was Los Angeles -contributing to the importance of the automobile was the south of this state's suburban lifestyle -this dependence on cars had contributed to problems of air pollution and traffic jams---the state is addressing these problems by reviving public transportation system and promoting the use of electric cars that produce no pollution -the more cars there were, the more roads were needed
Teenagers
They often drove around familiar neighborhoods ending up at popular meeting places to see and be seen -for the first time after WWII, their age was recognized as important and a unique developmental stage between childhood and adulthood -the booming postwar economy made it possible for them to stay in school instead of working to help support their families, and allowed their parents to give them generous allowances -American business, particularly the music and movie industries, rushed to court this new consumer group -comic books, pimple creams, and soft drinks were a few of the products aimed at those in this group who had money to spend -Hollywood produced movies especially for them---Rebel Without A Cause, produced in 1955, told the story of a troubled youth driven by anger and fear, and it starred teen hearth-throbs James Dean and Natalie Wood -A Life magazine survey showed that, during the 1950s, teens spent $20 million on lipstick alone -in 1956, a total of 42,000 drive-in movie theaters-heavily visited by youths- took in one quarter of the year's total box-office receipts -college enrollments more than doubled between 1946 and 1960 -a weekly credit payment for a record player was $1 -those seeking a collective identity found it in rock 'n' roll, a fresh form of music that delighted teenagers and enraged their parents
Advertising
This industry capitalized on consumerism by encouraging even more spending -it was everywhere: in newspapers, magazines, radio, television, billboards along the highways -prompted people to buy goods that ranged from cars to cereals to cigarettes -spent about $6 billion in 1950; by 1955, the figure was up to $9 billion -since most Americans had been satisfied their basic needs, this industry tried to convince them to buy things they really didn't need -"Psychiatrists say that people have so much to choose from that they want to help-they will like the package that hypnotizes them into picking it" - executive vice-president of the Package Designers Council Gerald Stahl -it was about the hypnosis into the package designing -more and more, executives turned to psychology to create new strategies for selling -appealed to people's desire for status and "belongingness" and strive to associate their products with those values -sales of TV Guide, introduced in 1953, quickly outpaced sales of other magazines
Homogenize
To make the same or similar
Discrimination
Treatment based on class or category rather than individual merit.
Drive-In
Young suburban families piled into their cars to see a movie at one of the country's 5,000 or so drive-in theaters
Alan Freed
a Cleveland, Ohio radio disc jockey who was among the first to play rock 'n' roll music in 1951 -the audience was mostly white but the music usually was produced by African American musicians -Freed's listeners responded enthusiastically -he began promoting the new music that grew out of rhythm and blues and country and pop -he coined the term rock 'n' roll, a name that has come to mean music that is both black and white-music that is American