Honors Biology Semester 2 Final

Greg Mendel

"Father of Genetics." Conducted an experiment in the 1850s where he mixed tall and short peas together. He discovered that each organism gets one gene from each parent and passes a gene to offspring.

Uterus

"Womb" where the baby grows and where the fertilized egg implants.

Griffith's Experiment

(1928) 1. Put smooth bacteria into a mouse which killed it. 2. Put rough bacteria into a mouse which didn't kill it. 3. Put heat-killed smooth bacteria into a mouse which didn't kill it. 4. Put heat-killed smooth and rough bacteria into a mouse which killed it.

Avery's Experiment

(1944) repeats Griffith's experiment except uses enzymes to get rid of different macromolecules in the bacteria. DNA is the only time when the mouse lived.

Hershey-Chase Experiment

(1952) Put radioactive markers on bacteriophage. P32 was used to mark DNA, and S35 was used to mark protein. They put the bacteriophage on a cell and tracked that only the DNA got in

Haploid

- 1 of each chromosome - In human cells, these cells have 23 chromosomes except in gametes.

Diploid

- 2 of each chromosome - In human cells, these cells have 46 chromosomes except in gametes.

Blood type O

- Blood formed by ii - A and B antibodies - Receive: O - Donate: A, B. AB, O

Meiosis Variation

- Helps evolution work 1. Independent Assortment 2.Random Fertilization 3. Crossing over -Meiosis cells must fuse during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote, before any new growth can occur. Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA. Together, meiosis and fertilization generate genetically distinct individuals in populations

Sex Linked Trait

- When a trait is coded for on X chromosome - Men only need one recessive to have that phenotype

Blood type A

-BLOOD formed by I-A I-A, or I-A i - B antibody - Receive: A, O - Donate: A, AB

Blood type AB

-Blood formed by I-A I-B - no antibody - Receive: A, B, AB, O - Donat: AB

Blood type B

-Blood formed by I-B I-B, or I-B i - A antibody - Receive: B, O - Donate: B, AB

Meiosis

-Makes gametes (sex cells) (sperm/egg) -Cuts DNA in half by taking 1 of 2 chromosomes inherited by parents -Mitosis x2 -Fertilization combines 2 gametes to get back to full amounts -Produces 4 haploids

Differences Between Meiosis and Mitosis

-Metaphase 1- lines up in homologous pairs -Divides twice - Results in 4 different cells with 1/2 DNA instead of Mitosis (2 identical cells with all DNA)

Jobs of DNA

1) Store Information - the instruction manual, has a code. 2) Copy Information - pass from cell to cell, S phase. 3)Read and Use Information - decoding, use information.

DNA Replication in Prokaryotes

1. 1/1000 of DNA in eukaryotes 2. 1 main circular chromosome 3. 1 origin 4. 2 replication forks

DNA Replication in Eukaryotes

1. 1000x times DNA of prokaryotes 2. linear chromosomes 3. hundreds of origins

Meiosis Process

1. Starts with a pairing of homologous chromosomes, separates each pair, produces two daughter cells (each with 1 set of chromosomes or diploid). 2. Sister chromatids separate, results in four haploids.

Segragation

2 alleles separate when gametes are made (tt(TT) proves segregation).

Codiminance

2 dominant traits at the same time on the organism, there are different spots showing each trait. F-BF-B = black feet F-OF-O = orange feet F-BF-O = black feet with orange spots

Replication Fork

A Y-shaped point that results when the two strands of a DNA double helix separate so that the DNA molecule can be replicated.

Bottleneck Effect

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population. (example of genetic drift)

Mutagen

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

Heart Attack

A condition in which blood flow to part of the heart muscle is blocked, causing heart cells to die

Autoimmune Disorder

A condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against the body's own tissues. Thus results B/T cells attacking your own cells.

Pathogen

A disease causing agent.

Diaphragm

A dome-shaped, muscular partition separating the thorax from the abdomen in mammals. It plays a major role in breathing, as its contraction increases the volume of the thorax and so inflates the lungs.

Oviduct/Fallopian Tube

A female organ that connects the ovary to the uterus. The egg moves through this and is a prime location for fertilization.

Ovary

A female organ that produces eggs.

Cervix

A female organ that seals off the uterus during pregnancy. During birth, mussels open this up to allow the child to exit. When not in birth, the cervix is closed but allows sperm to pass.

Vagina

A female organ where sperm are deposited and in the birth canal.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe.

Operon

A group of genes operating (regulating) together.

Antigen-Presenting Cell (APC)

A group of immune cells that mediate the cellular immune response by eating pathogens and holding up the antigen to teach the immune system what to fight.

Species

A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.

Epididymus

A male reproductive organ that connects to the Vas Deferens to the testis. This is also a place for sperm storage and where sperm finish developing.

Seminal Vesicle

A male reproductive organ that is a pair of glands near the vas deferens and produces semen.

Vas Deferens

A male reproductive organ that is a tube connecting the epididymus to the urethra.

Urethra

A male reproductive organ that is a tube leading from the urinary bladder to the penis.

Seminiferous Tubules

A male reproductive organ that is narrow, coiled tubules that are the actual site of sperm production in the testis.

Scrotum

A male reproductive organ that is the external sac that contains the testis. This helps regulate the temperature. - Located outside the body because sperm needs to be produced at lower than body temperatures. - Very sensitive area to ensure the safety of the testes.

Bulbourethral Glands

A male reproductive organ that is the two glands below the prostate that produce semen.

Testis

A male reproductive organ that produces sperm.

Prostate

A male reproductive organ that surrounds the neck of the bladder and produces semen.

Esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach and is used for food.

Substitution

A mutation in which a nucleotide or a codon in DNA is replaced with a different nucleotide. Result can be invisible or really bad.

Homologous Pairs

A pair of chromosomes of the same type, one from each parent that line up in Meiosis I.

Two-Trait problem

A problem that specifically looks at two traits at one time (TTRR x ttrr). Solve: factor each trait separately and then multiply the fractions.

Random Fertilization

A source of genetic variation caused by the unlimited number of possible sperm & egg combinations. (1/8.4 million x 1/8.4 million = 1/70 billion)

Independent Assortment

A source of genetic variation where chromosomes line up on either side during Meiosis I creating genetic variation.

Crossing Over

A source of genetic variation which is the process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis (randomly occurs at multiple locations).

Promoter

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.

Codon

A specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid.

Inducer

A specific small molecule that binds to a prokaryote's repressor protein and changes the repressor's shape so that it either can or cannot bind to the operator. This molecule can inactivate and activate the repressor in an operon.

Angioplasty

A surgical repare of a blood vessel where a balloon like structure is placed into the blood vessel, inflated, deflated, and removed to expand a blood vessel blocked by fat deposits.

X-ray Crystallography

A technique that Rosalind Franklin used which was diffraction of an X-ray beam to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.

Semen

A thick fluid containing sperm and other secretions from the male reproductive system which the sperm swim in.

Respiratory Surface

A thin and moist surface that ic covered with capillaries across which oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse during respiration; the thin walls of alveoli in the lungs provide this surface.

Antigen

A toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.

Tricuspid Valve

A valve that is situated between the Right Atrium and Right Ventricle. High pressure in the Right Ventricle closes this valve preventing blood to enter the Right Atrium.

Genotype

Actual genetic makeup of a gene (Tt).

Trachea

Air passageway; has cartilage rings to help keep the air passage open as air rushes in; branches into right/left bronchus.

Bronchioles

Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.

Gene Pool

All the genes, including all the different alleles for each gene, that are present in a population at any one time.

B Cells

An APC that, when activated, floods fluids with antibodies (handcuff pathogens), completes clonal selection, and developed memory B cells.

Antibody

An antigen-binding protein, produced by B cells, that binds with an antigen to prevent it from infecting cells (handcuffs pathogens).

Mass Extinction

An event during which many species become extinct during a relatively short period of time. - Usually and environmental event - When evolution can't change fast enough to keep up with the environment.

Simple Mendelian Inheritance

An inheritance pattern involving a simple, dominant/recessive relationship that produces observed ratios in the offspring that readily obey Mendel's laws.

Mouth

An input of air good for breathing in big volume.

Bypass Surgery

An operation in which blood flow is restored through the creation of a diversionary channel. (Bypasses the fat deposits to allow blood to flow smoothly)

Aquired Characteristics

An organism can pass on traits it needs/uses to its offspring.

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait. Always shows dominant (Tt).

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits (tall/short).

Protein Synthesis

Anticodon is used to call an amino acid. They are attached with tRNA. When the codons match, the tRNA releases the amino acid and adds it to a polypeptide chain.

MHC

Antigen holders embedded in the cell membrane.

Clonal Selection

Antigens bind to receptors, causing B/T cells to copy themselves.

Splicosomes

Are proteins involved in the removal of exons and the splicing together of introns. Occur because you can come up with similar proteins with the same code. They cut out different introns.

Pulmonary Artery

Artery carrying deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

Non-Specific Defenses

Attack or block any antigen not recognized as "self." Doesn't target a specific pathogen.

Purines

Bases with a double-ring structure which include Adenine and Guanine.

Pyrimidines

Bases with a single-ring structure which include thymine and cytosine.

Theory of Natural Selection Evidence

Biogeography, Age of Earth/Fossils, Comparative Anatomy and Embryology, Genetics and Molecular Biology, and Testing Natural Selection all provide evidence for this.

White Blood Cells

Blood cells that perform the function of destroying disease-causing microorganisms.

Veins

Blood going back towards the heart, valves to keep the blood moving in the right direction, muscles squeeze things through the veins

Pulmonary Vein

Blood vessel that delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Coronary Arteries

Blood vessels that branch from the aorta and carry oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to the heart muscle.

Analogous Structures

Body parts that share common functions but have different evolutionary histories and structure. (example: wing of bee and wing of a bird)

Artificial Selection

Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits, like breeding bigger cows instead of small cows

Platelets

Cause clot formation. Stick to broken blood vessels starting scab formation.

Pharynx

Cavity at the back of the mouth (throat) that is the last place for food and air together.

Macrophage

Cells that are released when damage is detected to remove antigens.

T Cells

Cells that attack infected cells in the body. They also activate more B Cells and memory T Cells.

Red Blood Cells

Cells that carrie oxygen in hemoglobin. These cells lose organelles when they mature to carry more hemoglobin which carries oxygen. These cells only live for roughly 4 months.

Mutation

Change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information. Occurs because DNA polymerase is not perfect.

Evolution

Change in a population's gene pool.

Founder Effect

Change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population. (example of genetic drift)

On the Origin of Species

Charles Darwin's book that explained how various species evolve over time and only those with helpful adaptions can survive and reproduce

How Ribosomes read RNA code

Code is read by ribosomes 3 bases at a time. Start code is AUG. Different anticodons call different amino acids

Regulator (Repressor) Gene

Codes for the production of the regulator (repressor) protein.

Exhale

Collapses ribs/relaxes diaphragm to reduce lung volume and push air out.

Transcription Factors

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription. Created by environmental conditions to regulate if gene is made

Cardiopulmonary System

Contains the heart, lungs, and blood. Jobs include: - Obtain and get O2 to cells (lungs/heart/blood) - Get nutrients to cells (heart/blood) - Remove Co2 (heart/blood/lungs) - Remove metabolic wastes (heart/blood/kidneys)

Greg Mendel Experiment

Crossed pea plants using true breeding. TT x tt or Tall x Short. The first phase resulted in 400 tall: 0 short and the second phase resulted in 300 tall: 100 short.

4 Nitrogenous Bases

Cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine

DNA Ladder

DNA fragments of known sizes used to determine the size of the unknown DNA fragment. (standard where we know the amount of base pairs)

4 Types of Chromosomal Mutations

Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, Translocation

Wallace

Developed a similar theory to Darwin on how species change. Darwin was presented with his theory and rushed to publish On the Origin of Species before Wallace.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene (T=tall / t=short).

Antiparallel

Direction that the strands of DNA are facing.

Avery's Discovery

Discovery that revealed that DNA is the transforming factor in Griffith's experiment.

Septum

Divides the right and left chambers of the heart.

Dominant vs. Recessive

Dominant only needs one allele to show, recessive needs 2 recessive alleles. Dominant overpowers recessive allele.

Malthus

Economist who who postposed that humanity was nearing overpopulation among humans. - Supported Darwin because he could propose that their was overpopulation among species which allows for the strong to survive and the weak to die out.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Egg Hormones

Telomeres

Ends of DNA in eukaryotes. They are hard to copy because there is nothing to anchor it down.

Charles Darwin

English naturalist known as the "Father of Evolution" who traveled on the H.M.S. Beagle and studied plants and animals of South America and the Pacific Islands. He wrote the book On the Origin of Species which explained the theory of Natural Selection which set forth his theory of evolution.

Helicase

Enzyme that "unzips" DNA in replication.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that adds nucleotides onto the DNA templates after the helicase has unzipped and unwinded. Only works in 1 direction.

Restriction Enzymes

Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides.

Telomerase

Enzyme that helps copy ends of DNA by adding on sections of nucleotides rather than a lot at a time -turned off in adults (might be because of aging) -cancer cells activate it because it allows for fact cell division

RNA polymerase

Enzyme that unzips DNA and adds RNA nucleotides to one side (doesn't need helicase). Whens its done, mRNA can be read by ribosome and DNA will rezip

Antigens

Foreign substances that trigger the attack of antibodies in the immune response.

Directional Selection

Form of natural selection in which individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the end of the curve. (causes the curve to move horizontally)

Stabilizing Selection

Form of natural selection in which individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end of the curve. (causes the top of the curve to move towards the center and rise)

Temporal Isolation

Form of reproductive isolation in which two or more species reproduce at different times.

Geographic Isolation

Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains or bodies of water leading to the formation of two separate subspecies.

Behavioral Isolation

Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations develop differences in courtship rituals or other behaviors that prevent them from breeding.

Point Mutation

Gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed.

Memory Cells

General term for cells that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.

Homeotic Genes

Genes that determine the body layout of an organism and tell where each part of the organism should be located. These activate your genes to grow and small changes can result in big body layout changes.

Code

Genetics read three mRNA bases at a time.

Hutton

Geologist who proposed that Earth was extremely old (deep time) and was transformed by slow change. - Supported Darwin because it allowed for evolution to take long periods of time like Darwin as suspected.

Lyell

Geologist who proposed uniformitarianism which was small changes can explain big changes. - Supported Darwin because he only had to explain one basic idea for his theory to make sense.

Background Extinction

Gradual process of a species becoming extinct as a result of not surviving competition with other species.

Specific Defenses

Immune functions directed against identifiable bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other infectious agents.

Bacteriophage

Kind of virus that infects bacteria by injecting DNA into it.

Enhancer

Landing site for transcription factors.

Half-life

Length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. - This and the fossil record provided evidence of the age of the Earth.

Mitral Valve

Located between the left atrium and the left ventricle (also called the bicuspid valve).

Plasma

Makes up 55% of blood and is mostly water (yellowish fluid). Dissolves everything in blood.

Penis

Male reproductive organ.

1st Part of Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation (emptying uterus of nutrients and blood) Low Estrogen means uterus is not being maintained. Allows for high FSH and LH. FSH stimulates follicles and ovaries to prepare an egg. This raises Estrogen because it is made by the ovary. Higher Estrogen decreases FSH which causes menstruation to stop. Estrogen level goes above critical level and causes a spike in FSH and LH. Spike in FSH and LH causes ovulation (releases egg). Also decreases estrogen under critical level. -High LH works on follicle to make corpus luteum [releases progesterone (makes sure uterus is ready for pregnancy)]

mRNA

Messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome.

Relative Dating

Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock.

Multiple Alleles

More than 2 choices. Example: Human blood type.

Polygenic Traits

More than one gene affects a single trait. Example: Skin color, labs, etc.

Frame Shift Mutations

Mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide.

Disruptive Selection

Natural selection in which individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle of the curve.

Incomplete Dominance

Neither allele completely takes over, BLEND. RR-1 x R-1R-1 = 2/4 pink, 2/4 white

2nd Part of Menstrual Cycle

No Pregnancy: Decreasing LH stops maintaining corpus luteum which lowers progesterone levels. Lower progesterone levels stop maintaining the uterus which results in the cycle starting over. Yes Pregnancy: The embryo formed from the fertilized egg and sperm makes HCG which maintains the corpus luteum.

Inflammatory Response

Nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection. This reaction causes blood, fluids, and macrophages to be released from the blood vessels to reach the inflamed tissue.

Global Variation

One of Darwin's observations which was the Ostrich, Rhea, and Emu who all lived on different contents, but lived in similar environments and had many similarities. (Worldwide but Similar)

Variation in Time

One of Darwin's observations which was the similarity between the Mastodon fossil and the elephants. This expressed that over time animals change into new species yet similarities can be seen.

Local Variation

One of Darwin's observations which was the variation of finch beaks in the Galapagos Islands. These local species were near each other yet different. (Local but Different).

Vena Cava

One of two large vessels (superior and inferior) that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart after blood is pumped through the body.

Urinary Bladder

Organ that stores urine and is connected to the urethra.

True Breeding

Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety because it crosses two homozygous organisms.

Introns and Exons

Parts of RNA. Introns are removed by spliceosomes and stay in the nucleus. Exon's are removed and exit the cell with cap and tail.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change followed by no major changes.

Structure of DNA

Phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar(deoxyribose), and Nitrogenous base. (nucleotide monomer)

Nose

Preferred input of air that goes through nose-filters, warms air, and moistens air.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant unless one or more factors cause the frequencies to change. This is a math formula for proving natural selection.

Convergent Evolution

Process by which organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments yet have different ancestors. (same traits through different ancestors)

Natural Selection

Process by which organisms with variations that are most suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest.

Co-evolution

Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other. (humming bird and flower)

Lamarck

Proposed that evolution resulted from the inheritance of acquired characteristics by a single organism (animals evolved by using certain traits more). -This delayed Darwin's publishing because Lamarck was made an embarrassment by the public's response. However, this was the first person to propose that evolution occurred.

Left Ventricle

Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and throughout the body (Thick Muscle).

Genetic Drift

Random change in allele frequency caused by a series of RANDOM chance occurrences that cause an allele to become more or less common in a population (not natural selection). Smaller populations see this more often because there is a higher probability due to lower numbers in the population.

Right Ventricle

Receives blood from the right atrium and pumps the blood through the pulmonary artery and into the lungs.

Atrioventricular Node (AV Node)

Receives impulse from SA node and slowly passes the signal to the ventricles causing them to contract

Menstrual Cycle

Regulates timing and process of roughly 28 days: releasing an egg, preparing uterus for pregnancy, and emptying the uterus if there is no pregnancy.

Vestigial Structure

Remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species. (example: hipbones in dolphins)

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome long with proteins.

Blood

Roughly 4-6 liters of this is located in an adult. This moves oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, immune system, hormones, etc. around. Clots wounds for recovery. Regulates body temperature by opening blood vessels to cool off. Contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Chargaff

Scientist who discovered that the A% = T%, and the C% = G%

Reproductive Isolation

Separation of a species or population so that they no longer interbreed and evolve into two separate species.

Ozaki Fragments

Short fragments of DNA that have to be synthesized on the lagging strand.

Capillaries

Site of exchange, tiny in order to diffuse blood/nutrients in and out of them, lose blood pressure.

Genetic Equilibrium

Situation in which allele frequencies in a population remain the same.

Gradualism

Slow and steady evolution.

Dendritic Cells

Specialized cells that patrol the body looking for antigens that produce infections.

Homologous Structures

Structures that are shared by related species and that have been inherited from a common ancestor. These may have different functions. (example: wing of a bird, leg of a horse, forearm of a human)

RNA Translation

Synthesis of proteins (polypeptide chains) from the reading of mRNA.

Cytotoxic T Cells

T cells that destroy infected body cells or cancerous cells.

Flagella

Tail on the sperm that beats back and forth for propulsion.

Left Atrium

The chamber that receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps it into the Left Ventricle.

Skin Color

The darkest gradient is all dominants. The graph is a curve with the medium amounts of dominants as most common.

How does DNA replication work?

The double helix is unwound and each strand acts as a template for the next strand. Bases are matched to synthesize the new partner strands.

Speciation

The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

Aorta

The large artery that carries blood from the heart to be distributed by branch arteries through the body.

RNA Processing

The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.

Transcription

The organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA.

Sinoatrial Node (SA Node)

The pacemaker of the heart. AV node doesn't fire until SA node fires. -sets the heartbeat rate -located in the right atrium -causes atria to contract -squeezes blood into ventricles

Tetrads

The paired chromosomes consisting of four chromatids. Form when homologous pairs line up in Meiosis I.

Midpiece

The portion of the sperm that contains lots of mitochondria to produce ATP for flagella to propel the sperm.

Head

The portion of the sperm that contains the DNA and enzymes needed to drill into the egg.

Replication

The process of making a copy of DNA by unwinding the DNA, unzipping the DNA, and filling in the blank bases with free nucleotides.

Radiometric Dating

The process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products.

Rosalind Franklin

The scientist that used X-ray crystalography (diffraction) to discover the double-helix structure of DNA.

Aortic Valve

The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.

Follicle

The shell protecting the egg in the ovary where the egg develops. Luteinizing Hormone takes the broken follicle and turns it into the corpus luteum.

HMS Beagle

The ship Charles Darwin sailed on during his expeditions in South America and the Pacific.

Lagging Strand

The strand that has DNA polymerase facing away from it, so the nucleotides are in Ozaki fragments.

Leading Strand

The strand that has the DNA polymerase facing toward the replication fork

Biogeography

The study of where organisms live now and where their ancestors lived in the past. - Closely related by different (finch beaks) - Distantly related but similar (ostrich, emu, rhea)

DNA Electrophoresis

The technique by which DNA fragments are placed in a gel and charged with electricity. An applied electric field then separates the fragments by size, as part of the process of creating a genetic profile.

Lateral Gene Transfer

The transfer of genes from one species to another other than reproduction. (common among bacteria and shown in Griffith's experiment)

Hershey and Chase's Discovery

This discovery helps support that DNA is transforming factor.

Griffiths Discovery

This discovery revealed that there was a transforming factor of instructions from one organism to another.

Lymph System

This system returns fluid that gets out of the circulatory system (storm sewer). This fluid reenters the circulatory system near the vena cava and drips into the right atrium (low pressure). No pump, requires muscle movement. This system also screens for pathogens and cancer cells at lymphatic nodes.

HEP

Three types of restriction enzymes that cut DNA into different palindromic sequences. (Harvested from bacteria that use it as defense against viruses)

Alveoli

Tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood.

Single Gene Trait

Trait controlled by one gene.

Polygenic Trait

Trait controlled by two or more gene.

tRNA

Transfer RNA; type of RNA that matches amino acids to specific RNA sequences.

Lungs

Two large respiratory organs inside the chest where the blood picks up oxygen and loses carbon dioxide. - Don't have muscles (rely on pressure to inflate/deflate them)

Homozygous

Two of same allele (TT or tt).

Homozygous Recessive

Two recessive alleles, only time phenotype is recessive.

Bronchi

Two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carries air into the lungs.

Hydrogen Bonds

Types of bonds between nitrogenous bases.

Radioactive Phosphorus

Used to tag DNA in Hershey and Chase's experiment.

Radioactive Sulfur

Used to tag protein in Hershey and Chase's experiment.

Estrogen and Progsterone

Uterus/Pregnancy Hormone

Pulmonary Valve

Valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. When pressure is built up in the Pulmonary Artery, the valve closes.

Arteries

Vessels that move blood away from the heart, strongest and thickest because of high pressure and withstand heartbeat.

Larynx

Voicebox; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords.

How we get nucleotides?

We get it from eating food. Our digestive system breaks down the DNA from the food we eat into individual nucleotides, and they are used to attach to DNA templates.

Sexual Selection

When individuals select mates based on heritable traits such as a large peacock tail.

Adaptive Radiation

Where groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill new or vacant niches in their communities.

TATA Box

Where the RNA polymerase starts in the eukaryotic cells and assists in gene regulation in eukaryotic cells.

Cap and Tail

added to RNA to help it get into a ribosome and protect it in the cell

Termination Sequence

cause RNA polymerase to fall off

promoter

landing strip for RNA polymerase. Bookmark

Types of RNA

mRNA - messenger: carries code from nucleus to ribosome rRNA - ribosomal: makes ribosomes (with proteins) tRNA: transfer - bring in amino acids based on mRNA code

RNA transcription

make an mRNA copy of one side of the DNA code

Right Atrium

receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

sugar: Ribose form: single strand (not a helix) bases: U - uracil A pairs with: U Function: carry the code

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

sugar: deoxyribose form: double helix bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine A pairs with: T Function: Holds the master copy