How and why did Black Americans fight for civil rights, 1917-55?

Contextual info to segregation

13th Amendment - 1865 - abolishment of slavery and allowed 'freedom'. Lincoln's constitutional successor, Andrew Johnson, was a former slave trader in Tennessee. Restored self-government to Southern states.

Famous Plessy vs. Ferguson Case

1896 - Homer Plessy (7/8 white) decided to test JC laws by sitting in a white only railroad car. When told the conductor he was AA, he was asked to move to black only car. Refused, and was arrested. Later found guilty of breaking Louisiana's segregation laws. Plessy was tried and convicted by Judge Ferguson. Then appealed to Supreme Court, but lost case. In process, Supreme Court made segregation legal, so long as facilities were kept 'separate but equal'. Helped to sustain JC laws.

Life in South

1917 = hard for black Americans. Faced legal restrictions at every turn. Booker. T Washington was a famous black American who advocated accepting segregation. Had a significant following, esp amount better off black Americans. Also had white support: they felt he saw how many Southerner whites fear black Americans gaining equality. Under segregation, black Americans educated in black schools and colleges. Black teachers paid less and schools often dilapidated and poorly equipped. Black children did learn and went on to become doctors, lawyers and teachers, proving that black people were as intelligent as white people, which many Southerners denied.

Changing patterns and approaches 1955-68

1955 onwards, CRs campaigners were very aware of the issue of putting themselves in the public eye and choosing their causes, and the people involved, very carefully. 1955 - a piece of local action in Montgomery, Alabama suddenly became big news as the media's imagination was caught by the combination of a stubborn city government, a charismatic leader, and a determined black population.

Jim Crow laws

Slavery gone, and Southerners felt less in control of black people in South. Introduced laws on segregation as a different form of control. State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in Southern U.S. Enacted after Reconstruction period, remained in force until 1965. By 1917, the South had a large number of laws known as JC laws, which segregated every aspect of life. It was called 'the permanent system' or 'the final settlement'.

Lynching and KKK

Some whites felt segregation wasn't enough, that black people needed terrorising into obedience. 1915-1930 = there were lynchings of 65 white men and 579 black men, mostly in South. They did not need to have committed a crime; sometimes those doing the lynching didn't have a specific accusation. There were photographs of crowds of men and women grinning happily besides corpses. 1955 = 14 year old Emmett Till, visiting relations in South from Chicago, was lynched for talking with a white women, allegedly asking her for a date. Attracted a lot of publicity and caused shock, even in South. 1915 = KKK, a white supremacist organisation revived as success of 'Birth of Nation' film which presented them like heroes, was against any non-WASP group, esp blacks. Anti-communist, anti-immigrant, racist. Members all over USA; by 1925, estimates of member ranged from 3-8mil. In South, it was more likely to include people with real political power, e.g. state governors, and social power, e.g. state policemen and army. Wore white robes and hoods, keep identity secret. Women klan members seldom took part in more violent Klan activities, such as lynchings. Brought up their children as white supremacists and, especially in rural communities, created an anti-black environment that even non-Klan people felt too intimidated to regret.

Great Migration 1917-32

There was a wave of black migration from the South to the North and East, mainly to cities. Driven by 2 national circumstances: extreme discrimination in South and the USA's entry in WW1 and the subsequent demand for labour in North. Many blacks left unemployed in South after heavy rains and the boll weevil that flourishes in wet condition ruined cotton crops in 1915/16. By 1920, almost 40% of AAs in North were living in Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati and Columbus, Ohio. Eastern cities with biggest growth inc. NY, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. Mostly industrial towns and black Americans were drawn there for the work, as well as to escape the South. Began as USA entered WW1 = rising need for workers in munitions factories in North. Factory owners advertised in Southern newspapers for workers. Press campaigns to persuade AAs to take jobs in North were fairly extensive. Offered housing, free transport North and good wages. People were encouraged to migrate by friends and family who had already migrated north, who could offer them a place to stay, or help finding work.

Background to The Montgomery Bus Boycott

Campaigners had challenged segregation of buses in Montgomery at regular intervals since a boycott in 1900. Black passengers had to sit at back of bus, standing if allocated seats were full. Had to give up any seat to white person. 1954: B vs BOE - ruled segregation in schools illegal. 1955: Emmett Till murder Casual racism by drivers Driver refusing to give change 1954 = Women's Political Council in Montgomery warned the mayor that several local organisations, inc NAACP were considering a bus boycott. Chose case carefully. Two women were arrested for refusing to give up their seats in 1955, but were rejected by NAACP bc of the use of the opposition might make of their circumstances: Claudette Colvin, 15 year old arrested in March, unmarried and pregnant. Mary Louise Smith, 18 year old arrested in October, came from poor family and father had drink problem. Many black people in Montgomery felt that their cases should be taken up, however.

The March on Washington - 1963 August

Chaired by A. Philip Randolph twice. March for jobs and freedom. More than 200,000 marchers, black & white. Involved a wide range of CR groups = SNCC and NAACP put alongside their rivalry, black and white groups across country urged to attend, and elaborate arrangements were made to ensure a harmonious event. Include white and black people = thoroughly desegregated show of unity. 1/3 of marchers were white. Rise awareness of issues. Symbolic Demonstrate unity and peace Not opposed by Kennedy administration once assured peaceful nature --> demonstrated increasing sympathy. Gov given element of control. Christian groups prominent. Impressive occasion - succeeded in getting across positive image of CRM. MLK - 'I have a dream' - included many eloquent visions and much effective imagery, and used skills as preacher to tie in biblical quotations. He was conscious of Christian unity expressed at meeting, but went even further down the road of religious solidarity. Kennedy administration already considered CRs legislation, after troubles at Birmingham, but the march gave the president extra leverage to urge support for reform. Climate of opinion prevailing - possible for real change. Kennedy met with over 1500 leaders. Possibility of the end of segregation. Provoked more opposition from SOUTH. In Sep 1963 - 3 weeks after march, 4 black children in Sunday School were killed in bomb attack on a black Baptist Church in Birmingham.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott

1 Dec - Rosa Parks, respectable, dignified 42 year old woman and NAACP member, was arrested for sitting at front of bus. The NAACP's lawyer took her case. Following day, the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was formed to organise boycott. A newly appointed Baptist minister, MLK, was chosen as leader. Right man in right place at right time. MIA leafleted and held meetings to publicise arrest and boycott. Organised taxis and other transport to get people to work if couldn't. 5 Dec = boycott begun. Over 75 percent bus users were black and 90 percent of them stayed away. Boycott lasted for 380 days. King was careful to follow the rules of non-violent protest and to keep media informed about events. Media interest grew as boycott went on. The city government penalised taxi drivers for taking fares; the MIA organised car pools. Homes of King and NAACP leader E.D. Nixon were firebombed; begged protestors to stay calm and not riot. The city gov imprisoned King and several others for conspiracy to boycott; carried on. some boycotters lost jobs; carried on. By this point, the boycott had a huge amount of publicity and SC had to do something. 13 Nov 1956 - ruled bus segregation unconstitutional. 21 Dec 1956, black people started riding buses again - desegregated buses. Boycott had worked. HOWEVER, long fight had hardened racial divide. In next local elections white candidates who favoured segregation were elected. Just 3 days after desegregation, King's home was firebombed and snipers shot at black passengers in white seats (at least one, a pregnant women, was wounded in both legs. Black people went on riding. Took several years for violence against desegregation to calm down.

The Greensboro sit-in (1960)

1 Feb = 4 black students were into a Greensboro department store, bought some supplies, went to the segregated lunch counter and waited to be served. Kept waiting until store shut. Kind of protest wasn't new; what happened next was the students came back. Next day = 30 students joined them; day after, nearly all seats were occupied by black students. White youths came to heckle and the media filled with images of calm, well-dressed black students sitting waiting to be served while a crowd of white louts yelled, blew smoke in faces or poured food over them. The shop finally shut due to bomb scare, but it was too late. The issue wasn't education or housing or schooling - IT WAS FREEDOM AND EQUALITY FOR BLACK AMERICANS IN DAILY LIVES.

Freedom rides

1961 = CORE and SNCC carried out series of freedom rides in South, organised by James Farmer of CORE. Were to test 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that segregation of interstate transportation facilities, including bus terminals, was unconstitutional as well. Freedom riders knew that, the deeper into South they went, the less likely it was that this would have happened and the more likely it was they would meet with a violent reception. Farmer said they planned the rides with intention of provoking a crisis, knowing publicity would change world's perception of USA. Felt desperate measures like these was only way to get gov to enforce legislation, not just pass it. First two buses = attacked and riders, black and white, were beaten up at several stops. At Anniston, Alabama = one of buses was firebombed after it was chased down by about 50 cars, some police cars. All riders got off alive, but media coverage showed shocking levels of violence. Buses kept coming. Freedom riders ere imprisoned in Birmingham and beaten up in Montgomery; three were killed, but others kept riding.

Black Power

1965 = Stokely Carmichael, leader of SNCC, set up Lowndes County Freedom Organisation in response to black feeling that, even if they had a vote, why vote for white Southerners? Group used panther symbol & slogan 'Vote for the Panther, then go home'. June 1966 - James Meredith (who integrated uni of Mississippi as student in 1962) led the MARCH AGAINST FEAR through Mississippi. Shot on 2nd day. King took over, urging multiracial non-violent behaviour. Carmichael = non-violent wasn't working! Wanted SNCC and CRMs to radicalise and exclude white campaigners. Suggested slogan to replace the now-traditional cry of 'Freedom' into 'Black Power!'. Symbol was raised arm and a clenched fist. Famously used in 1968 by some black athletes who won medals at Olympics.

Fellowship for Reconciliation

A peace-based organisation founded in 1914. Many of its members were Quakers.

The rules of non-violent protest

A set of rules was developed by civil rights organisations, such as NAACP, for these demonstrations. Demonstrators dressed as well as they could, look respectable. Weren't loud or abusive. Didn't fight back if attacked. Tried to show that they supported the government and were looking to the gov to support them. E.g. collected petitions and took them to local and federal gov representatives. Tried, by protests, to show the evils of segregation and persuade whites, ordinary and in gov, to change views of black people, share outrage and fight for change. Demonstrators of period were all ages, but predominantly black. CORE was unusual, at the start, in deliberately having black and white members working together.

Gains for Black Americans in WW2

AAs did not benefit much from the war-induced boom that began in 1939; white workers were given preference. May 1941 - A. Philip Randolph, who had led successful protest by railway workers, threatened a strong 100,000-strong all-black march on Washington unless Roosevelt banned discrimination in the army and in defence factories. Roosevelt's Executive Order 8802 for non-discrimination in defence work, overseen by a Fair Employment Practices Committee, stopped the march. Many complaints made to the committee, but equality was only patchily implemented, due to pressure from opponents of equal rights. Order did not deal with military segregation but, as the war went on, the military and the factories needed more people so AAs could push for equality. Summer of 1942, 3 percent of defence workers were black; 1944, risen to 8. Wartime migration to North was even higher than the migration of the 1920s. Influx of black workers = resented. 1943 - outbreaks of racist violence and strikes by white people over having to work with them. Led several towns to set up race relations committees to investigate improvements as strikes and riots damaging war effort. 2 AAs were elected to Congress during war - William L.Dawson in 1943, and Adam Clayton Power Jr 1945. Shortage of workers also meant white skilled workers had to allow black people to be trained in these skills. Worked side by side, and some whites saw that black people could do skilled work, could think, could be friends. Courage of black soldiers fighting in war changed attitudes of many white soldiers. Affected reaction to post-war civil rights efforts, but a survey at the end of war shows that many whites were still racist, supporting HOUSING SEGREGATION and saying that JOBS SHOULD BE GIVEN TO WHITES FIRST.

Northern Crusade, 1966

After 1964 = King began focus on North, visiting the badly provided, overcrowded black ghettos. Summer of 1966 = 20 major riots in city slums all over USA. King announced NORTHERN CRUSADE to improve slums by setting up tenant unions, improving working conditions and teaching young people about non-violent protest. Began w/ Chicago, where over 800,000 AAs lived, mainly in ghettos (which Mayor Daley had denied existed in 1963). Campaign focused on Chicago, as with Birmingham in 1963. Petered out = MLK claimed significant gains, but other saw no permanent change. Harder to get political support for social issues than segregation. MLK's relationship w/ media turning sour; accused them of trying to make non-violent campaigners make militant statements, like Carmichael, or wouldn't be reported. 1967 = took up issues of poverty in general, beginning to plan POOR PEOPLE'S CAMPAIGN with a march and a camp in Washington (similar to Bonus March camps of 1932). As part of his support for poor workers, he supported a strike of Memphis sanitation workers in March 1968. Was assassinated while on this campaign... 4 APRIL 1968.

Freedom Summer, 1964

An election year SNCC decided to push for voter registration, sending large numbers of volunteers to South. They had had some volunteers in South from start, to encourage black people to register and to train them to pass the voter registration tests, but it was slow going. They sent 45 volunteers, mostly young, white and able to pay their own way (and afford bail to get out of jail) to Mississippi. SNCC volunteers teamed up with local organisations for the task; most local volunteers were black. 20 June - first batch of students set out. Next day - 3 volunteers disappeared - 2 white, 1 black. They were found dead 6 weeks later. By the end of the summer, there had been 3 more murders, 35 shooting incidents, countless beatings. About 17,000 black people tried to register to vote that year, only 16000 accepted.

Organisations set up

As well as protesting, black church organisations set up support systems for black citizens during Great Depression. There was more of this support in North and mostly in cities bc more churches and more people to donate their relief work. In Harlem, Father Divine of the Peace Mission church groups set up restaurants and shops that sold food and supplies to black people at a lower cost than white-run shops. Women's organisations were set up, such as the Housewives Leagues that began in Detroit and spread across the country. The Housewives Leagues mounted 'Don't Buy Where You Can't Work' campaigns to boycott stores in black districts until they hired black workers. It was activism within segregation, but it was taking the initiative, nevertheless.

MLK, Jr.

Became face of black American civil rights. Some saw this as unfair. Worked hard, but so did many others. Spoke well, but so did others. He got the media attention and they didn't, and more attention he got, the more prominent he became. Very media conscious. 1957 = set up Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). King refined the non-violent protest rules with an eye to creating the best possible impression IN THE MEDIA. 1) Must always be clear who the OPPRESSOR IS and WHO IS THE OPPRESSED. Never give the media the image of a violent black American, harms the cause. 2) GETTING ARRESTED, as publicly as possible, and going peaceably = GOOD PUBLICITY. King was arrested many times, and wrote articles and gave interviews from jail about CR cause. Before a protest, campaigners were taught how to go limp if police tried to move them from a sit-in. 3) Accept as many white people as you can on your protests. King was happy to meet with white officials who might help CR cause, even though some blacks criticised this.

Did federal government intervene in South?

Black people lost political power as lost chance to vote, and this took them a step back from equality. Federal government also hindered black equality. 1896 = the Supreme Court, in Plessy v Ferguson, had ruled that, despite 14th Amendment, segregation was possible if provision was 'separate but equal'. Ruling was used to support many other cases of segregation. Separate was seldom equal; only way to prove it was to take every case of inequality to court. President Wilson, a Southerner, had no problem with segregation. President Harding spoke out against lynching and broadly in favour of civil rights. Even addressed 30,000 segregated people at Uni of Alabama on evils of segregation. However, both he and Coolidge were committed to a policy of laissez-faire. They could express an opinion and try to influence behaviour but would not enforce legislation. When Depression hit, the federal gov was focused on correcting that and civil rights issues slid even further out of sight.

Protesting against New Deal

Blacks protested about their treatment during ND. Sometimes they had more support from communist and other left-wing groups that supported equality than from black civil rights organisations. 1931 = the NAACP turned down the case of nine young black men framed for raping two white girls on a train near Scottsboro, Alabama. Communist lawyers took the case instead, uncovered a conspiracy and the men were found no guilty. In early 1930s, Birmingham, Alabama had 6 black American members and over 3000 black American communists. Communists in Northern cities also championed the cause of all workers and demanded that relief funds should be allocated equally between blacks and whites. The black press followed these campaigns and other applauded them. The association with communists gave opponents of black civil rights another stick with which to beat the civil rights movement.

Why fight for civil rights?

End of WW1: Black Americans found that they still had to struggle for equality. Met with discrimination, violence, and segregation. Extreme in South, especially Deep South, but still bad cases in North and West. Expected to live in own part of town (worst part), living, shopping, and schooling their children there. 'Last hired, first hired' - lowest paid jobs. Segregation helped by the fact that having worst jobs and being less well paid pushed people into poorest parts of town. Discrimination reached government. 1913 = President Wilson introduced segregation in government offices and the While House. Violence common. 1919 = about 25 anti-black race riots, often set off by police injustice, 100s killed. Worst of these 'Red Summer' riots was in Chicago, not South.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Established in 1910 and organised many of the legal actions against segregation in USA.

Malcolm X (1925-65)

Family was among ones terrorised by KKK and father murdered. Fatherless family moved to Harlem after KKK burned down home in 1929. Mother = became mentally ill. Got into trouble and went to prison in 1946. "All Negroes are angry, and I am the angriest of them all" Told by English teacher that he should not become a lawyer - not suitable job for black man. Prison = met Elijah Muhummad and converted to Islam. 1952 = joined Nation of Islam, a black Muslim group, and took name Malcolm X. Believed = non-violent had had its day and, in one of speeches, it was ballot or bullet. Within year of leaving prison, opened own temple in Boston. Preacher his message to AAs that they should use whatever force necessary to get message across. Claimed that if a man should lay a hand on you then you should take him to the 'cemetery'. Believed white people should not be involved in CRM, or that white politicians would ever do more than they were forced to do to advance it. Saw MLK's cultivation of white politicians in hope of getting legislation passed as useless. Disagreed that you should fight racism with peace. Only force would bring change. Assassinate in 1965 - months before, his position was beginning to shift. He had several meetings with King and his radicalism seemed to be softening. Believed violence against white man was not always answer. All men equal. Returning to America after visiting Muslim countries in 1964 - NOI not happy with changed position. Received death threats, and house firebombed in 1965. One week later, made a speech in NY in front of 100s of people. Shot 16 times minutes into speech by 3 members of NOI.

Campaigning in the South

Focus of CRs campaign shifted to Deep South, where it was often very clear who was the oppressor and who was the oppressed. Many Southerners saw nothing wrong with racism/segregation/violence. The campaigners wanted to exploit this, and expose the results of these attitudes to the gov in Washington and to the world. Campaign focused on integrating those schools, unis and colleges that were still, despite B vs BOE ruling, segregated. Particular schools were targeted, in areas where the NAACP had a strong following and the local black communities, as in Montgomery, had dedicated leaders and members. Families were chosen carefully to apply to these schools. In most cases, the school boards chose a few black children out of the many who applied. Same applied to colleges and unis.

Split of CRM (Black Power) & Black Panthers (1966)

From 1965 - movement split. No marches were all CRM worked together. BPM wasn't coherent force - many groups, some more radical. Panther symbol adopted by Black Panthers in 1966. BPs worked in black communities, keeping order, but also organising community projects such as free breakfasts for schoolchildren. 10 point programme = decent housing + black history courses at uni. Fact that they wore a uniform and carried guns that attracted gov's notice, not community work. Some radical groups wanted separation, either within USA or by leaving country. (e.g. Back to Africa movement). Most worked on a local level, and this was where they got the best results. BP students pressed for more black staff and courses on black history. BP workers set up radical trade unions to push for black jobs, equal pay, and equal job opportunities. Ideas behind BP radicalised many of the long-established civil rights groups in longer term, even NAACP. If these groups didn't radicalise, they became more pragmatic, seeking local solutions, such as when leader of NAACP in Atlanta accepted slowing of segregation in 1973 in return for more control over black schooling. It was an acceptance that white attitudes to integration meant a generation of black children were integration in schools, but not getting an education. What was needed = improve things, not just to work for long term and future.

Impact of Pres Truman on CRM (1945-53)

Had been member of KKK at 36. Supported civil rights. Proposed anti-lynching, anti-segregation and fair employment laws in 1954, but failed to push them through Congress. Civil right measures difficult to get through = almost always blocked by opposition from Southern delegates and lukewarm support from North. 1946 = set up President's Committee on Civil Rights, which called for equal opportunities in work and housing; also urged federal support for CR. Truman urged Congress to support this. Committee wrote a report that argued it was job of Federal gov. to protect and advance rights of all Americans. - report called 'To secure these rights.' Was groundbreaking. Black Americans wanted to keep their wartime gains and push for greater equality. Truman ON THEIR SIDE but his Cold War focus meant he concentrated more on FIGHTING COMMUNISM than CR. Earlier collaboration between AAs and communists meant that at least one black organisation, the National Negro Congress (civil rights group that has some communist members when set up, but pursued CR issues) ended up on government list of suspect organisations. 1948 = Truman issued executive order desegregating the military and all work done by businesses for gov. He was in an election year and aware of value of black vote but also severely shocked by outbreaks of racist violence against returning black soldiers across country, some even still in uniform in which they had fought for their country. Truman's overall achievement in CRs were limited.

Little Rock, Arkansas (1957)

Had racist governor = Orval Faubus = but there were integrated schools in some towns. Little Rock integrated buses in 1956. 1957 = 9 black children were selected to attend the previously all-white Central High School. 4 Sep = first day = Faubus sent the National Guard to stop these children going in for 'safety'. 8 of children went by car, with the NAACP organiser, the 9th, Elizabeth Eckford, didn't get the message and went alone. The National Guard turned her away and she was surrounded by a screaming mob, many women, some shouting 'lynch her!' She bravely walked through them to go home. Photographs of the incident (over 250 photographers and reporters) shocked the world. King managed to get meeting with President Eisenhower, in which he pointed out the political damage this was doing to Eisenhower and administration, urged federal intervention. Eisenhower reluctantly sent in federal troops to guard the children going to and from school, and in corridors. In classrooms, dining rooms, and home, the children were subjected to years of taunt and violence. The homes of local NAACP leaders were firebombed several times, but Central School was integrated. Faubus closed the school for the whole of the following year, supposed to let things 'cool off', but was eventually integrated for good. Similar scenes at schools and colleges all over South and many people were killed in rioting that accompanied integration.

Impact of 1937 depression on AA

Hit black workers hard. Equality of relief slipped again and even where there was help, it was nowhere near enough. The Resettlement Administration was set up by Executive Order 7027 in May 1935 to resettle low-income families in new housing and to lend money to where needed. Gave black farmers who had lost their homes a fair share of the money available in loans - but it still only helped 3400 of over 200,000 farmers. Things were so bad that, in 1939, around 2 mil people signed a petition asking for federal aid to move to Africa.

Impact of Great Migration in South

Labour force shrank and farming areas struggled. Poorest farmers suffered most and most of them were black. A significant impact was that Southerners tended to see the migration as black people 'voting with their feet' over Jim Crow laws. There was a tendency to assume that most black Americans who remained in the South were accepting Jim Crow.

What were the effects of 1955 boycott?

Lasted for 380 days Violence continued - snipers at houses/buses, bombings, girl beaten at bus stop. Had influence on other protests - shown importance of unity, can be done, demonstrated economic power, local base crucial. MLK to prominence as CR leader Importance of non-violent protest

Impact of Jim Crow laws

Laws about where to sit on trams, where to live, where to send children to school. Even separate public facilities, including water fountains. Many workplaces segregated their workers; some even had separate staircases to move around the building. States also introduced discrimination against black people more subtly. Voters had to pass a literacy qualification to vote. In some places, black people were given harder passages to read. In many states, voters had to be home owners; many blacks were not. Some states held all-white elections to select the candidates for the actual election. Many polling stations were surrounded by whites waiting to beat up any black person who turned up to vote. 1917 = number of black voters registered dropped dramatically - Louisiana, it went from 130,334 in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904.

Riots 1964

Major riots in NY, Chicago and Philadelphia, each set off by instance of police brutality; but with long-term problems of city life for black as their root cause. No coincidence that these riots, and others every year until 1971, were in summer, when tempers in overcrowded areas with poor facilities were at worst. Impact was significant. Gov intervention to calm the violence became seen as acceptable, whereas violence by state police and guardsmen in early 1960s had been seen by many as excessive. Media coverage - image of non-violent black man assaulted by white replaced with image of burning cities and young black man with petrol bomb. This hasten CRs legislation, but brought a white backlash, not helped with riot-areas were given federal gov aid.

A. Philip Randolph

May 1941 - led a successful protest by railway workers, and threatened an all-black 100,000 strong march on Washington unless FDR banned discrimination in Army and defence industry. FDR responded with Executive Order 8802 Known as one of 'Big Six' Civil Rights activists for his great efforts in employment sector

Legal challenges and NAACP

NAACP aims when set up in 1910 = gain black Americans their civil rights. Began by mounting a campaign against lynching, feeling people had no idea of the scale of it, esp in South. Published pamphlets about lynching, demonstrated, marches, petitioned Congress. Brought laws against lynching to Congress, but blocked by Southern politicians. Also took cases of segregation to court. Tough fight due to Plessy vs Ferguson case. Early NAACP tactic = argue that separate provision wasn't equal, so couldn't be overruled by 1896 Supreme Court ruling. Also provided lawyers to defend black people on trial who had been unjustly accused.

Direct action

NAACP and other organisations stepped up direct action in 40s and 50s, as membership grew and saw legal rulings were not enough. Marches were not new - had been a march of over 10,000 black people in NY on 28 June 1917, Silent Protest Parade, organised in response to lynching and anti-black riots that year. However, protests developed in a different way. More local protests and happened more often. Influenced by peaceful, passive resistance of Gandhi, protesters targeted segregation and deliberately challenged 'illegal' state legislation. Boycotts and picketing of shops that would not serve blacks. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) held a series of sit-ins in Northern cities of Chicago (1942), St Louis (1949) and Baltimore (1952) to desegregate public facilities. 1947 = group of CORE members and another group called Fellowship for Reconciliation went on the Journey of Reconciliation, riding inter-state buses through several Southern States to desegregate them. 1000s of black people took it into their hands to be the first to move into all-white housing blocks or business districts, often putting themselves in real danger.

Success of legal challenges

NAACP won some cases in 30s and 40s, and every case in 50s. To that extent, it was a success. However, SC didn't enforce its rulings and weakened the force of the rulings by not setting time limits for desegregation or using vague phrases like 'with all deliberate speed' - as in Brown 11, a revised ruling of Brown v Board of Education. Some schools were integrated within the year. Others, esp in Deep South, took 'with all deliberate speed' to mean 'not for many years yet'. Ten years after ruling, only one black child in every 100 in South went to integrated school. Ruling spurred formation of White Citizens Council in 1954 to fight desegregation and CRs. 1956 = 250,000 members. Just one of many organisations formed in South in response to B v BOE. Legal challenges were working, in that they were getting legal support. However, just like Amendments that gave AAs equality, they were useless unless they worked in practice. Integrating schools was less than helpful if families were still living in segregated neighbourhoods. For this reason, the NAACP targeted housing next, having helped to set up the National Committee Against Discrimination in Housing in 1950.

Birmingham, Alabama 1963

Nicknamed 'Bombingham' for the regularity with which black homes, businesses and churches were firebombed. 1963 = King and SCLC led a push to desegregate, not buses or lunch counters, THE WHOLE TOWN!! King knew it would provoke violence, but had seen, from CORE and SNCC protests, that it worked. 3 April 1963 - campaign began and the protester's leaflets made specific reference to the American Dream. One tactic was to get arrested and fill the jails; by end of month, jails were full. Children were trained in protest tactics and, when they marched, the racist chief of police, 'BULL' CONNOR, ordered his men to use high-pressure fire hoses and dogs on them. Shocking pictures went worldwide. President Kennedy, seeing them, admitted he felt ashamed and sent in federal troops to restore calm on 12 May. Following that = Birmingham desegregated. Birmingham and the publicity it produced was a significant factor in Kennedy pressing forward on CR legislation, as was a poll after Birmingham showing that 42 percent of people thought race was the USA's most pressing problem (only 4 percent said this in 1962). The March on Washington (1963) showed the scale of civil rights activism, with speakers like King joined by famous white singers such as Joan Baez and Bob Dylan. Hundreds of thousands of people marched, and King's 'I have a dream' speech became instantly famous.

Positives and negatives of split

Pos - Have alternative options when other doesn't work - Variety of methods to attempt - Element of violence = fear/unexpected Negs - Provokes violence for white - Showed that they were prepared to take drastic measures - Less sympathy for blacks - Media captured split cause --> United front way to go!

Separatist movement

Running alongside CRM = SEPARATISM. Said AAs were never going to have equality with whites so should stop trying and embrace it. Should fight for equal conditions within it as MORE FEASIBLE. Also mean black children could grow up without feeling inferior. Some said, including Marcus Garvey in early 1920s, that the answer was to do just what the racists were telling them to do - go back to Africa!!

Impact of black militancy

SNCC had changed the face of campaigning - most of its members were young & intellectual, and many WHITE. Many people who fought for CRs disliked this turn of events. Always been groups and people who advocated black militancy, the most famous being Malcolm X 1965 = new organisation was set up that sparked BLACK POWER MOVEMENT.

What happened to migrants in North?

Segregation varied from city to city, but migrant generally found a level of segregation that they might not have expected, esp in later period. Once arrived, most migrants lives followed a similar pattern - found somewhere to live and a job. Job low pay, sometimes replacing white workers who were pushing for higher wages. The accommodation was in the most crowded and run-down part of city. It was cramped and often in disrepair; the rent was higher than a white person would be charged. Were variations. Not all landlords exploited migrants, and not all black people were forced to live in worst part of cities. Some black professionals lived in their own black communities, in better parts of cities; some poorer black Americans moved to their own areas of rich white suburbs, within reach of families that needed nannies and domestic servants Black people could vote and black people were elected to local and federal government. Not all black people had low-paid jobs; some did very well for themselves, but MOST MIGRANTS were poor and even skilled ones often had to take unskilled jobs.

America and WW2

Sep 1939 - War broke out in Europe Roosevelt gave the Allies who were fighting Germany help, but did not bring USA into the war. However, he PREPARED for war, just in case they decided to join later, pushing USA's first ever conscription bill in 1940 and putting federal money into research projects = one of which came up with the atom bomb. 7 Dec 1941 = Japanese bombed the US fleet at Pear Harbour. USA went to war with Japan. Germany declared war on America, now USA at war in both Pacific and Europe

CORE - The Congress of Racial Equality

Set up in 1942 campaign for civil rights by non-violent means, pioneered tactics of sit-ins, jail-ins, freedom rides.

The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 1960

Set up in Raleigh, North Carolina 15 April 1960. It was a racially integrated organisation of young people. Believed in non-violent direct action and students took training sessions in how to cope with abuse and violence from whites during demonstrations. Pushed heavily for rights under leadership of Bob Moses. Targeted vote of Mississippi, Georgia, Albany and Alabama and were met with savage violence and opposition. Projects endured severe police brutality and arrests as well as KKK violence in forms of shootings/bombings. Also economic threats against any blacks who attempted to vote. Also placed significant emphasis on educating the young black population and established Freedom Schools to teach children to stand up for rights. Set out 'field secretaries' to live and work in dangerous parts of South; one of most important tasks was to encourage VOTE REGISTRATION - knew black people needed the political power of vote to get gov attention. Had been local pushes for voter registration before, e.g., Atlanta in 1935 and 1936, where the mayor, asked for adequate street lighting in black areas, said he would provide it if the people in those areas would vote for him and vote the way he told them to in other elections. SNCC took King's ideas a step further - took non-violent protest in places WHERE THERE WAS LIKELY TO BE VIOLENCE. Also played significant role in 1963 Washington March with the then leader John Lewis delivering a rousing speech which was second only to MLK's 'I have a dream'. CORE was also involved in the protest that followed the Greensboro sitin; the NAACP followed more slowly, uncertain about shift in emphasis, but won over by its youth councils. Through all this, MLK threaded his way, speaking, advising and encouraging.

Impact of Great Migration

Significant impact on cities. Population rose sharply. In cities where black migrants settled in areas that coincided with voting wards, e.g. Chicago, black people came to have significant political influence. Once it became clear, as it did in the election for mayor of Chicago 1919, that the black vote could keep a mayor in power, black people were listened to more and a powerful business-orientated black elite grew up that had a vested interest in segregation. Segregation made it more likely that they could try for positions in politics, because a black American campaigning in a black ward was very likely to sweep the whole black vote. In cities such as NY, where the black population was more evenly distributed and white politicians had a tight hold on politics of the city, black Americans did not gain political power and influence. Still tended to live in smaller segregated groups all over the city with their own businesses, schools and churches. The churches were to become significant bases for organising civil rights protests and many later black American leaders of CRM were preachers. Black migrants dislodged white workers, especially those who were members of unions and pushing for better conditions. This enabled businesses to put pressure on white workers to leave unions or lose job.

Impact of CRs legislation

Two major laws passed between 1955-80... 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. Legal changes came after decades of struggle and protest. After 1955 = became more likely that CRs campaigners would be arrested, beaten or even killed. Even if places desegregate, didn't make AAs welcome, let alone safe. CRs campaigners in South could almost expect to have homes, offices, and churches firebombed. Black children and adults who were integrated in its schools and colleges had to face hatred and violence and didn't get 'normal' education. Price of legislation = very high. Even in places in South were desegregation was not violently resisted, there were still many problems. 1965 = NAACP took town of Charlotte to court because its schools reorganisation by area meant that, as many blacks lived in poorest areas, just as in North, there was an 'informal segregation'. NAACP pushed for busing black children to schools in other areas, to integrate them. The courts turned this down but, in 1971, SC upheld busing idea. Other cities were able to introduce busing after this, often against local resistance.

Legal to direct action 1917-55

Used variety of tactics to fight for CR. Various tactics never went away, but some were more prominent at certain times than others, depending on time, place, support available, beliefs etc. NON VIOLENT - picketing, boycotting, sit-ins to draw attention to their cause. Went to law, hoping to get rights enforced. Needed organising, and some groups set up in 20th century, including NAACP and National Urban League, grew and prospered and still at work now. Smaller, local groups often based around church. Not accidental that many CR leaders were churchmen (MLK). Number of CR groups, and membership, rose after 1st and 2nd WW. NAACP membership in 1917 = 9000, 1919 = 90.000, 1946 = 600,000

What did boycott consist of? What were the responses?

Walking Biking Carpools Taxi Mules Taxi drivers threatened/criticised Black people walking 'loitering' arrests Drivers ticketed for minor offenses Violence --> E.D Nixon and MLK houses bombed Beaten up at bus stop KKK White Citizen's council --> promote segregation.

Impact of the New Deal

during 1930s: black voters shifted from mainly voting Republicans (abolished slavery) to Democrats (promising New Deal). Vote was a significant part of Roosevelt landslide. PR did appoint some black advisers but needed support of many people who were against equal rights so did little to advance the cause and often restricted the number of black workers on a project if a donor to the project wanted this. When war broke out, he issued Executive Order 8802 (1941) = banned racial discrimination in defence industry, in order to get as many people into war-work as possible, regardless of colour. New deal = supposedly 'colour-blind'; agencies set up to provide relief and work said they put people onto work projects on 'by merit' alone. In fact, black people were constantly moved off project to make way for white, despite denials. Black farm workers sacked in their thousands during agricultural reforms and black workers were often sacked to make way for whites. Social security provisions of ND did not apply to farm workers or those who worked in other people's homes; many of these were blacks. Black officials in gov protested - sometimes got results, as when they persuded the National Recovery Adminstration, which regulated wages and working conditions, to set the min wage for black and white at the same. BUT MOSTLY IGNORED. Some ND measures did help black Americans simply bc of their situation (e.g. one third of the low-income housing built had black tenants, bc many of the poorest people eligible for this housing were black)

Brown v Board of Education

in 1951 - lawyers took several cases to courts to desegregate schools. They were overruled in state courts by 'separate but equal' SC ruling. NAACP bundled the cases together and took them to Supreme Court to challenge the ruling there. Judge Earl Warren was the SC judge in the case, in 1954, and said that it was clear from evidence presented that segregation schooling was 'not equal'. Said that 'separate but equal' had no place in education and that schools and colleges should be desegregated. Set no timescale for desegregation. Following year, he had to add to his decision that desegregation should be carried out 'with all deliberate speed'. Still vague enough to allow states that wanted to drag their heels.