hst 111 final
kant
-18th century german philosopher -a key thinker in the age of enlightenment -most famous work critique of pure reason -in order to understand the world you need reason and experience of life- experience of the individual -he argues for a republican government, the necessity of all to live under the law, living under the law brings stability and peace and while he does attack the structure of the church, he also recognizes that society requires a moral belief in god
treaty of westphalia
-assigned in 1649 and brings to an end the 30 years war -it is the dominance of secularism, not religion -it is a series of treaty negotiations to which the pope who is not invited -it left each country free to establish its own national church, its own freedom of worship, but it also gave those people not of that dominant national church, of a different christian religion, the freedom to worship their own religion in private
dutch republic
-becomes a republic in 1588 breaking away from the domination of spanish control -it sees the 17th century as the golden age faced upon its colonies, the fishing industry, and merchant shipping -sees the rise of the east india company, a very powerful state run joint stock company -sees the establishment of a stock market and the banks go back to them -marked by the importance of the merchant class politically culturally and socially -its marked by the flowing of the arts and sciences it collapses due to ongoing wars
petrarch
-humanist poet -often referred to as the father of the renaissance -writes his works in italian -helps establish the vernacular language as an art form -he is one of the humanists speakers that recover, compile, and translate classical works--more than just a poet -his most famous work is the Canzoniere a series of love letters/songs to a woman named Laura. -creates the genre of unrequited love poetry -he's a flagellant-- an extreme religious movement prevalent to the apocalyptic events of the mid 14th century -primarily based in northern central europe that involves flagellants going on pilgrimages, whipping their flesh for penance, and it condemned them as heretical by the church
johannes gutenberg
-inventor with his merchant partner, johannes fust of a practical movable type printing press that uses metal 1450 -by 1500 there were 1000 printers in europe -his most famous work is the gutenberg bible -sometimes referred to as the 42 line bible, its printed on paper and parchment and illustrated by hand, making it look like it is a scribely written copy
henry viii
-renaissance english monarch -resides over the english reformation- creating an english national church, a catholic church, but not a roman catholic church -he works to ensure the continuance of the tudor dynasty thru his multiple marriages and quest for a male heir -he typifies renaissance personal monarchy -he does this thru his political power thru ostentatious display, love of poetry, music, and hunting
elizabethan settlement
-the conversion of england back to protestantism in the first few years after elizabeth comes to the throne in late 1558 -a settlement worked thu parliament -it is the moderate settlement of a politique which allows providing catholics do not promote their religious beliefs -the act of uniformity -the act of supremacy -both makes elizabeth the supreme governor of the church -39 articles -the establishment of a moderate book of common prayer
estates-general
-the french national legislative assembly consists of 3 estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners -it is last called in 1614 as france moves towards absolutism -recalled in 1789 on the eve of the french revolution with a number of commoners -rapidly radicalizes and acts against louis the 16 -it stands apart with two other states, and when its doors are barred the commoners move to a nearby tennis court where they can declare the tennis court oath that they won't disband until france has a new constitution
galileo
-the italian astronomer and philosopher of the 17th century -often referred to as the father of science -he utilized his own hand built telescope to observe the heavens -his important work was talking about phases of venus, the movement of sunspots -heliocentric view -major last work, the dialogue concerning the two chief world systems -he felt guilty of the inquisition of heresy, sentenced to house arrest
ancien regime
-this is a term we used to describe pre revolutionary france and europe more generally -it refers to a society dominated by the monarchy, the nobility, and the clergy -a society in which privileged classes dominate where advancement in society is built on status and not talent -it is also marked by the avoidance of taxation by these privileged classes and the often brutal suppression by the peasantry
AGE OF DISCOVERY
Context: As Europe began to trade with China through the Muslim world and the silk road, it gained certain tools like the compass; also, cartography and astronomy gained significant advancements. This resulted in ships being able to take farther and longer travels at sea with lower mortality rates for sailors. So Europeans eventually sailed more and more to Africa as well as to Asia and eventually the Americas. The three motives for these expeditions can be summed up as "God, Glory, and Greed" GOD: Partly fueled by the fact that it was known that Islam had a strong hold in Africa, many missionaries of Christianity wanted to spread their beliefs to native populations wherever they went, and this had a more pronounced effect in the Americas than anywhere else, where Spanish friars originally had very calm demeanors in their spread of Christianity, but this quickly devolved into brutal and forceful tactics that involved stamping out native religions, and torturing those who didn't abide by Christianity. This resulted in several native uprisings against the Spanish, because those forceful tactics just didn't work out so well after all. GLORY: As the global market economy started to slowly take hold in Europe through mercantilism, nation-states started to compete with each other for higher GDP, profit, and control. So naturally exploring new uncharted territories was a national concern in an effort to gain more land and resources than neighboring countries. Kings personally funded expeditions to the Americas, where land was staked out and claimed in the names of Spain, Portugal, France, Dutch Netherlands, and England. GREED: Various precious resources were everywhere in the world: gold was found in the Americas and Africa. Silk and spices were found in Asia. Many delicacies in food types were found in the Americas, and so later were tobacco, sugar, and cotton (among many other goods foreign to Europe). This was all meshed together very quickly: States settled territory and claimed it for their country (e.g. New Spain, New France, New Amsterdam, etc.). They tried and sometimes failed to convert the native inhabitants to Christianity, and also exploited them as slaves to harvest resources from the lands, and combined with the slave trade in Africa, created a global enterprise that fueled the European economy.
PROMINENT IDEAS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Context: Before the enlightenment period, the default position of government was some degree of absolutist monarchy, where the king held the majority or all of the power to make decisions and laws, and this power came from his divine right to rule, given by God himself. But events like the English Civil War and the de-Christianization of Europe over the centuries eventually allowed philosophers to voice their varied ideas about how a government should be run. In chronological order: Thomas Hobbes (1650s, Leviathan, English): Thomas Hobbes supported a republican form of government, but also was of the mind that most people are inherently stupid and evil, and thus need a strong central government to protect them from themselves. Except that he supported a republic, his theory was closest to the traditional forms of government currently ruling Europe. John Locke (1680s, Two Treatises of Government, English): Locke believed that people are inherently reasonable and civil. His core philosophy was that people have a right to their life, liberty, and their property, and it is the responsibility of the government to protect these things for the people from foreign bodies, and from each other. His work had a major effect on the American Revolution. Montesquieu (1748, The Spirit of the Laws, French): Montesquieu coined the idea that administrative powers should be split into three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. It was the basis for most constitutional monarchies developed around the world and the idea of separation of powers, and had a huge influence on both the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762, Of the Social Contract, French): Rousseau's Social Contract was the basis that a people has an unwritten contract with the government, that the government will act in the best interest of the people and secure their natural freedoms and rights. And if this isn't done, then the people have the right and the obligation to withdraw and dismantle their government in favor of a new one. This had a profound impact on the rebellion of the Third Estate in France during the French Revolution. Voltaire (1759, Candide, French): Voltaire was very much against religious fanaticism, and had seen that absolutist monarchies used religion in order to start wars and impose upon the people. He introduced the idea of a separation of church and state, and together with Immanuel Kant, his ideas led to the de-Christianization of France during the Revolution. Effects on Europe: Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire had the largest impacts on the ideas that led to and through the French Revolution, like the urge towards a constitutional monarchy, equality under law, freedom and natural rights of man, and secularization of the government. But all across the board, these enlightenment philosophers started conversations across Europe on how best to govern a state, and this led to the rapid decrease in religious governments, and the rapid increase in constitutions and legislative assemblies. It should also be noted that in some countries, such as Austria, Prussia, and Russia, attempted to use enlightenment ideas to empower their monarchies, which became known as enlightened absolutism.
Renaissance art Vs medieval art essay
Context: Medieval art is very commonly a combination of painting and gold inlay. It's almost always and exclusively religious art, portrayals of Jesus, Mary, the apostles, and various scriptures and passages from the Bible. Medieval art is often flat and two-dimensional, and certainly there isn't any sculpture. The women are always covered and it is often hard to tell the difference between women and men in medieval art. Perspective is muddled and confusing. Renaissance art, by contrast, is deep. Sculpture resurfaced, and painting got exponentially better. Subject matter was still often very religious, but also, there existed tons of paintings of more secular things, such as portraits of nobles and merchants, scenes of towns and buildings, and paintings of old Roman and Greek mythology. True perspective is introduced, and paintings are often done in oil on canvas or as wall murals. Emphasis is very much placed on the human form, and creating the perfect human body, and as Jan Van Eyck shows us, meticulous care is placed on getting details, light, shadow, and atmosphere perfect to a photographic level in paintings during this time, in an attempt to create life on canvas. So why the difference? Well after the fall of Rome and Europe entered the poorly-named "Dark Ages", the church gained unprecedented power, and to separate itself from pagan religions or Islam, it banned most art that was too lifelike in its depiction, or any subject matter that wasn't deemed pious or fit for God's likeness. So most art became religious art, and because of the tensions between Islam and Christianity, most art became flattened, and perspectives and other things from Greco-Roman society was lost. But then the Renaissance was ushered in and humanists started to re-discover classical work, and tried to emulate it through architecture and art. Sculpture once more became alive, and painting slowly transitioned in an attempt to revive the "golden age" of classical art.
LUTHER, CALVIN, AND ZWINGLI
Context: The Catholic church had been losing its credibility with Europe slowly starting from the 1300s, when many people lost faith due to the plague. Over time, due to tensions in the papacy, and corruption in cardinals, and with the increased literacy in Europe, some key figures rose up and started what we call the Protestant Reformation. John Calvin: He thought the idea of indulgences was useless, because he believed that every human's fate is pre-destined; it's determined by God before they're even born. So no amount of money paid for sins will change the fact that one is going to either heaven or hell. He also believed in the sovereignty of God, that no matter what a human does, whether good or evil, he is always doing the will of God. Martin Luther: He famously wrote the 95 Theses, and believed that the only way to truly understand and connect with God was to read the bible, so he was a huge advocate of everyone being able to have their own copy and to avidly read through it. He denounced indulgences, saying that it was much better for man to do good deeds than to just sin and then pay money. Zwingli was essentially a Swiss contemporary of Martin Luther. But the three of them disagreed on a couple of things, namely the Eucharist. Martin Luther believed that Christ's body and soul were literally ever-present in the bread and wine, as his body and blood. Calvin believed that Christ was spiritually present in the Eucharist, and Zwingli believed that the bread and wine were just that: bread and wine, and that they were only symbolic of Christ, but that he wasn't actually present at all in the Eucharist
DUTCH GOLDEN AGE
Context: The Netherlands was territory of Spain for a while, and since it was under the Hapsburg family, it was known as Spanish-Hapsburg territory. In 1581, during the several protestant enlightenments and uprisings in other countries, seven provinces in the Netherlands formed a pact and rebelled against Spain, starting what would be known as the 80 years war. During this war, many protestants in the Holy Roman Empire who were felt persecuted from their Catholic hometowns fled to the newly named Dutch Republic, and these protestants included skilled craftsmen, scientists, artists, and philosophers. the city of Amsterdam in the province of Holland quickly increased its population and density of skilled laborers, who turned a small port into one of the most important ports in the world. They imported raw materials, and crafted them into fine goods to export across Europe (e.g. import wool, export dyed cloth). The Dutch were already exceptional sailors, because they had one of the more powerful ports, Antwerp, in their state. With the boom of expert craftsmen, the shipping industry in the Dutch Republic exploded. Part of this was due to the fact that their sailing prowess resulted in efficient and speedy transport of goods with less hazard to damaging or losing things along the way; and part was due to self-imposed quality inspections. Often, craftsmen selling cloth, for example, would wet their rolls in water in order to make it weigh more, thus selling what could be 15 pounds of cloth for the price of 20 pounds. Dutch quality inspections reduced this drastically, and the rest of the world that were buying Dutch goods came to trust their shipping expeditions more than their competitors in this regard. As they became wealthier and wealthier, they expanded outwards. They formed the first stock exchange and the first stock trade company, the Dutch East India Company, which held a monopoly on all trade with Asia for nearly 200 years. The stock exchange in Amsterdam helped to negotiate and regulate world prices on goods, and the formation of the first central bank in Europe, The Bank of Amsterdam, allowed the Dutch to profit off of lending money to states, which they gladly took as the interest rates were lower than taking loans from private banks and corporations. The result of all of this? Holland quickly became the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world at the time, and because of this, the Dutch were able to fund more and more expeditions, leading to colonialization across the world. Their expert navy allowed them to dominate the slave trade in Africa, and this only brought more wealth to the Dutch, leading to more power and more urbanization. Eventually due to tensions between royalists and nationalists led to the Dutch Republic's fall to the Batavian Republic, and over several transformations, to become the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands.
CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
In the 1760s-1780s, France was involved in foreign wars. It dropped major funds into America's Revolutionary War against England, and before that the Seven Years' War against England in the American colonies. Due to this, France was in major debt and practically declared bankruptcy. This debt led King Louis XVI to increase taxation and decrease privileges of the First and Second Estates, which led to increased tension in the aristocracy against the King. This was fueled by enlightenment thinkers who promoted ideas that ran against absolutism and against the church and state. Because of the global economy in full swing, a class of wealthy middle class rose up who were formally a part of the Third Estate, but vied for the same privileges and tax-exempt status as the First and Second Estates. In addition to this, hailstorms and other environmental factors led to shortages in grain, which led to the price of bread going way up. Since a majority of the population of France were poor and could only afford bread to eat, the rising prices made it far more difficult to sustain and live on their one major sustenance. This led to mass revolts. Eventually when the Third Estate met in the Estates-General in 1789, their anger at the class system and the financial state of France primarily caused by the King led to the Third Estate forming their own National Assembly, and when they were locked out of the assembly hall, they congregated in a nearby tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath, that they would not disband until a constitution had been created for France. Elsewhere, the grain shortage and bread prices led to rumors that Queen Marie Antoinette had tons of bread in storage at Versailles, which led to the Womens' March on Versailles, forcing the King and Queen to be held captive in Paris until the situation was dealt with. Meanwhile, members of the Third Estate and the new National Assembly were worried about being attacked by the Royal institution, and so stormed the bastille, primarily to get guns. They were met with conflict from members of the royal guard, and quickly disposed of them, putting the general's head on a spike and parading through the city with it. The Revolution was now in full swing, and would eventually lead to radicalization, wars with Prussia, the execution of King Louis XVI, transformation into a Republic, de-Christianization, mass execution, and a coup by Napoleon Bonaparte, turning France from an absolutist monarchy into a radical republican regime into a stalwart Empire.
