Human Development Chapter's 13-16

Social & Personality Development in Middle Adulthood: Research on Generativity

Generativity is associated with several positive outcomes: - Successful marriages - Work achievements - Close friendships - Altruistic behaviors - Overall mental health

specific body systems during young adulthood

Heart and Lungs - Systematic decline with age of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) - May reflect cumulative effects of a sedentary lifestyle, but there are changes in circulatory efficiency that occur during young adulthood - Aerobic exercise can improve VO2max at nearly every age - 1% per year decline while exercising beginning between ages 35 - 40 Strength & Speed - Strength peaks in the 20s & early 30s - Active lifestyles affect functioning -> training is effective, but over time rest between workouts becomes more important Reproductive Capacity - Women's reproductive capacity begins to drop in their mid-20s. Men's fertility diminishes but remains intact - Men's fertility problems are most associated with a disease or abnormal developmental process

immune system functioning

Immune System Functioning - Thymus gland & bone marrow produce B cells and T cells 1. B cells produce antibodies to fight off external threats 2. T cells defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, & viruses; decline in number & efficiency with age by age 45 or 50, the hormone-producing cells of the thymus in many adults are no longer capable of maintaining optimum immune-system functioning increase in susceptibility to disease; highly responsive to psychological stress

early adulthood (page 272)

period from age 20 to 40

the role of worker career development: super's model

stages of career development - growth stage - learn about one's abilities - exploratory stage - decide on job or career - establishment stage - early steps on the career ladder - maintenance stage - ends at retirement; may need to learn new skills on the job

RATING COMPONENTS OF MARITAL SUCCESS, BY RACE AND ETHNICITY

white black hispanic

Development of the Reproductive System in Middle-Age Males

'Climacteric' = loss of reproductive capacity - Slight decline in the quantity of viable sperm produced begins around age 40 - Very slow drop in testosterone (1%/year) -> - Gradual loss of muscle tissue & an increased risk of heart disease; - Erectile dysfunction increases -> may result in performance anxiety -> negative cycle... - lifestyle changes, such as weight loss and exercise, can restore some erectile function - Problems with erection may also be related to health issues, e.g. obesity, BP meds, smoking, etc. With increasing age men report: - Less urgency to ejaculate - Need longer/more stimulation to achieve erection & orgasm - Longer post-sex resolution phase The prostate gland enlarges, may become stiffer, & may block the urinary tract - Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood tests recommended for men over 50 -> PSA does have a high error rate -> "Watchful waiting"

Work-Life Balance in Middle Adulthood: Work-Family Conflict

- 60% of married couples with children are dual-income earners - Highest stress level and work-family conflict is when there are at least two preschool children in the home - Cross-cultural data suggests that work- and parenting-related burnout is more likely to affect women

Middle Adulthood: Age Discrimination = Ageism

- Age discrimination: denying a job or promotion to an individual solely based on age - Age discrimination usually occurs when employees rather than HR make the hiring decision - Federal law prohibits this practice for workers over the age of 40 - People must be hired based on their ability - Age cannot be even an indirect factor in job performance ratings - Nonetheless, older people commonly are offered retirement incentives to stop working and stereotyped beliefs affect their job performance

Health & Wellness in Middle Adulthood: Alcoholism

- Alcoholism = physical &/or psychological dependence on alcohol - 14 - 24% of U.S. adults report alcohol problems at some point in life - Long-term drinking harms the brain, heart, liver, & digestive system -> increases the risk of premature death

Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood: Physical Decline & Cognitive Compensation

- Baltes & Baltes' Model of - Selective Optimization Selective Optimization = balancing gains & losses associated with aging - Physical declines leads to selective optimization & the development of compensatory strategies to counteract the effects of aging - Compensatory strategies - wearing reading glasses, cognitive prosthetics,

Going to College

- College attendance: ±10% in early 1900s, but ±67% today - Increasing age, racial, and ethnic diversity - Returning students: over age 25 - Problem-solvers, self-directed, pragmatic, stressed - Middle-aged females report self-discovery - College success: increases with student's psychological well-being and when all parties take responsibility and are supportive

Changing Relationships in Middle Adulthood: Becoming an In-Law

- Cultural differences in the role in-laws play - Conflicts exist across cultures -> Childrearing; loyalty boundaries Recommendations for successful in-law relationships - Do not provide unsolicited advice or 'show up' unannounced - Provide nonjudgmental sharing of experiences - Avoid behind-the-back criticism of in-law children - Refrain from insistence on weekend or holiday visits - Respect childrearing choices

parenthood: the desire to become a parent

- Current research focuses on heterosexual parents - what might be different or similar now with research on same-sex parents - A large majority of young adults desire to be parents. - More men than women desire to be parents; people view parenting as life-enriching. - Expectant fathers become emotionally attached to their unborn children.

health and wellness: sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

- Distributed equally among men & women, but women are more susceptible to long-term damage from infection - Bacterial STDs: caused by microorganisms that can be eradicated with antibiotics 1. Chlamydia 2. Gonorrhea 3. Syphilis - Viral STDs: caused by viruses; considered manageable, but incurable 1. Genital herpes 2. Genital warts 3. HIV/AIDS STDs: more common among 15 - 24-year-olds than any other age group; 2nd = 50-55-year-old females Prevention: Need to change behavior(s): - Less risky sexual behavior - Use of condoms - Fewer partners - Know your partner's history & status

parenthood: overview

- Eighty-five percent of parents cite their relationships with their children as the most fulfilling aspect of their lives. - The transition to parenthood is stressful. - That transition happens with other social relationships also in transition.

Changing Relationships in Middle Adulthood: Becoming a Grandparent

- New roles for middle-aged adults: Becoming an In-law & then a grandparent - Grandparenting may be shifting to a slightly later age. - Most grandparents express high levels of satisfaction with their role. - Grandparents can positively influence children's development; especially important source of stability for children of divorced parents - 11% of grandparents are the primary caregiver for their grandchild

Development of Intimate Relationships: Evolutionary Theory & Mate Selection

- Focus is on survival value - Mating is a selective process designed to ensure the survival of the species Cross-cultural research findings: - Men prefer physically attractive, younger women - Men will lower their standards on the basis of availability - Women prefer men whose socio-economic status is higher than their own & who offer earning potential & stability Parental Investment Theory Males value - healthy, younger & available mates - Males tend to be less selective b/c of their minimum physical investment in conceiving or bearing offspring - Males seek to maximize the number of offspring Females value - an economic provider - Females tend to be more selective b/c they have a much larger investment in bearing offspring - Females seek to minimize the number of offspring - Female selection criteria - an economic provider

Health & Wellness in Middle Adulthood: Diabetes

- Growing for all racial groups - Diabetes increases the risk of CVD, blindness, & kidney failure - Minorities tend to develop diabetes earlier in life; tend to have less access to regular medical care; & have fewer health insurance -> complications become worse sooner minorities have more: - complications with diabetes than whites - tend to develop the disease earlier in life - have less access to regular medical care, partially because they have less health insurance - have higher risks than whites do - have higher risks for diabetes complications, too

Development of Intimate Relationships Cohabiting Heterosexual Couples

- If cohabited first, less satisfied when married & more likely to divorce - Less homogamous or similar to each other - Two types of cohabiting couples: fully committed to future marriage or ambiguous Prior sexual and co-habitational histories are major factors in divorce Cohabiting couples who intend to marry: - Share work loads at home - Happier during cohabitation - May do a better job communicating

Relationship Changes in Middle Adulthood: Children & Parents -> 'Sandwich Generation'

- In middle adulthood, the family role involves giving assistance in both directions of the generational chain care of aging -> middle adulthood <- care of adult children - Sometimes called the midlife "squeeze"; those being squeezed are called the sandwich generation. - In middle adulthood, the family role involves giving assistance in both directions of the generational chain. - Helping grown children Supporting aging parents - The "sandwich generation" - Must shoulder responsibility for maintaining affectional bonds - Between ages 40 and 65, adults give more help than they receive in both directions within the family.

parenting: postpartum depression

- Incidence: affects 10-25% of new mothers - Causes: more likely in women who produce large amounts of steroid hormones late in pregnancy; more likely in unplanned pregnancies; the presence of major life stressors increases the risk - Symptoms: feelings of profound sadness for several weeks after birth; depression during pregnancy is the best predictor - Treatment: possible prevention by training health professionals to recognize depression in pregnant women; family members can help them locate various supports.

Social & Personality Development in Middle Adulthood: Midlife Crisis - Real or Myth?

- Is there a midlife crisis or is this a myth? -> Only 25% of adults report having some type of 'crisis' - Life-events approach -> multiple events are common to most middle-aged adults, e.g. physical changes; a sense of one's own mortality; changes in their relationship with their parents & their children.....

Role Transitions in Middle Adulthood

- Many middle-aged adults have multiple roles at the same time, which may produce friction/conflict - Role conflict = any situation in which 2 or more roles are partial to fully incompatible due to different demands, e.g. raising teenage kids versus helping aging parents; working versus going back to school - Role strain = stress that occurs when a person lacks the resources needed to fulfill a role Stress associated with the events of midlife is often complicated by role conflict. Role conflict: any situation in which two or more roles are at least partially incompatible For example, simultaneously caring for teenage children and aging parents (thus acting as both parent and child) Role strain: stress that occurs when a person lacks the resources needed to fulfill a role A midlife adult may need to return to college to learn new work skills, provoking anxiety. Roles that shift include family roles

Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood: Memory

- Many middle-aged adults subjectively report experiencing forgetfulness - Short-term memory remains stable throughout adulthood - Episodic memory = memories of personal experience(s) - Semantic memory = general knowledge - Middle-aged adults often employ strategies to improve their memory & task completion Cognitive prosthetics - major memory deficits are not found until age 60-65 - the subjective experience of forgetfulness increases with age - cognitive strategies buffer effects of aging - visual memory: the ability to remember an object you have seen for a few seconds declines in middle age - performance on remembering lists of words declines after age 55

parenting: childlessness

- Marital satisfaction fluctuates less over time. - Women are more likely to have full-time, continuous careers - but not necessarily to advance more. - Married men whose wives were not employed were more likely to advance.

Health & Wellness in Middle Adulthood - Gender Differences

- Men have shorter life expectancy than women with fewer diseases & disabilities that limit daily activity - Women have longer expectancy than men, but have more diseases & disabilities that limit daily activity - Many women's health issues are related to childbearing & their reproductive organs - Women demonstrate greater ability to recover from illness, especially from heart attacks than men do - Women's life expectancy is greater than men's. - Women have more diseases and disabilities that limit daily activity. - Already present in early adulthood, this difference grows larger with age. - Men die of CVD at higher rates than women do. - Women have a greater ability to recover. - Women recover higher levels of physical functioning from heart attacks than men do

Development of Intimate Relationships: Marriage

- More than 2 million formal weddings take place each year - Longitudinal research suggests that only one-third of first marriages end in divorce - Data about same-sex couples/marriage is not well established, yet

Development of the Skeletal System in Middle-Aged Females

- Osteoporosis begins around 30 for women—and men much later in life; >65 years - Osteoporosis = reduced bone mass, more brittle & porous bones, can cause bone fractures - Linked to loss of estrogens and progesterone in women - Improved by regular weight-bearing exercise & calcium Osteoporosis: - Reduced bone mass - More brittle and porous bones - Can cause bone fractures - Linked to loss of estrogens and progesterone in women - Hormone replacement therapy may help. - Getting sufficient calcium early in life helps. - Regular weight-bearing exercise helps. - New bone-building medications - Menopause accelerates bone loss. - Significantly increased risk of fractures occurs in women after 50. - Osteoporosis is a primary aging factor, but individual differences occur. Osteoarthritis = is a degenerative disease caused by injury or overuse ("wear-and-tear"), usually - Usually affect the hands, spine, hips, & knees - May not affect the wrists, elbows, shoulders, or ankles - Treated with steroids, anti-inflammatory drugs, non-stressful exercise, diet, joint replacement Rheumatoid arthritis: Destructive, slow-developing disease of the joints, causing pain, swelling, & joint destruction in later stages - Incurable - Treated by three classes of drugs (anti-rheumatic, NSAID, and corticosteroid drugs)

Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood: use it or lose it

- Practice helps maintain or gain cognitive skill(s) - Repeated activity with a given set of tasks helps to compensate for age-related deficits in cognitive functioning - declines in math skill related to speed may be most susceptible to age declines

thymus gland: anatomy and function

- Produces lymphocytes & aids in producing immunity - Atrophies with age - largest during adolescence - Central to the aging process - Declines in the immune system may be in response to stress or depression as a part of secondary aging.

Development of Reflective Judgment

- Reflective judgment: seven stages & three phases of how adults reason through various types of dilemmas Pre-reflective reasoning (stages 1-3: - Firsthand observation or authority is the source of knowledge rather than an evaluation of evidence - Know with complete certainty & are absolutely correct - Do not understand that certain problems might not have only one correct solution Quasi-reflective reasoning (stages 4-5) - Believe that nothing can be known for certain due to missing information or methods of obtaining evidence - View knowledge as subjective - View judgments as idiosyncratic because they do not understand how evidence entails a correct judgment - Are less persuasive with their positions on controversial matters Reflective reasoning (stages 6-7) -Hold firm convictions, reached after carefully considering several viewpoints - Evidence, argument, and careful analysis are required to construct knowledge - Know they must continually reevaluate beliefs in light of new evidence

Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood: Health & Cognitive Functioning

- Schaie's Analysis of Seattle Longitudinal Study - Traits associated with lower levels of physical health are also associated with lower levels of cognitive function - Earlier cardiovascular disease is related to earlier & larger declines in cognitive function -> - Physical activity is related to maintenance &/or improvements of cognitive functions in Warner Schaie's analysis of the Seattle longitudinal study: - Subjects who had cardiovascular disease showed earlier and larger declines on intellectual tests. - adults on blood pressure medicine have declines in functioning - exercise lowers mortality risks - Physical activity also may help maintain cognitive functions.

Health & Wellness in Middle Adulthood: Socioeconomic Class & Race

- Social class discrepancies exist for secondary aging with social class becoming a more significant predictor of health variations in middle age than at other ages - Occupational & education levels are good predictors of someone's overall health - Ethnicity is also related to overall health with African Americans having shorter lifespans than Caucasians - Social class is a more significant predictor of health variations in middle age than at other adult ages. - Occupational level and education are the best predictors of health. - African Americans have shorter lifespans than whites do.

Work-Life Balance in Middle Adulthood: Unemployment and Career Transitions

- Unemployment - can be more difficult in middle age & may involve ageism - Involuntary career changers experience heightened anxiety, depression & health risks after job loss - Marital satisfaction deteriorates when a job loss occurs - Loss of self-esteem with good coping skills are needed - Reemployment restores a sense of wellbeing - Unemployment can be more difficult in middle age. - Must overcome ageism in obtaining new employment - Involuntary career changers experience heightened anxiety, depression, and health risks after job loss. - Changes in family relationships - Loss of self-esteem - Good coping skills are critical. - Reemployment restores a sense of well-being. - Potential employees believe in the productivity of younger workers. - Involuntary career changers - Their skills have become obsolete; their jobs have been eliminated. - Reemployment tends to restore health, emotional stability, and a sense of wellbeing. - Marital satisfaction deteriorates when a job loss occurs.

Relationship Changes in Middle Adulthood: An Empty Nest & A Revolving Door

- Women more often than men describe the empty nest as positive - The revolving door - adult children returning to live at home - may be stressful for middle-aged parents - Reasons for "Peter Pandemonium": - Lack of desire to grow up - Enjoy being nurtured by family life - Mutual acceptance of situation by parents & adult children - Young adults marrying & having children later in life can foster this

the role of worker: sex differences in work patterns

- Women's work satisfaction goes up with age. - Most women move into and out of the labor market at least once during adulthood. - bearing and rearing children is key - However, most mothers also have workforce jobs. - Our culture thinks of a man as simultaneously a worker, a parent, and a spouse - but has difficult seeing a woman as all three

Work-Life Balance in Middle Adulthood: Work Satisfaction

- Work satisfaction is at its peak, despite few work promotions in middle age. - Quality of work performance remains high in spite of declines in some cognitive or physical skills. - Middle-aged workers experience less burnout than younger ones. - Careers are more stable in middle age.

physical functioning during young adulthood

- all systems are functioning optimally during young adulthood except: 1. bones for women -> mid-30s 2. aerobic capacity for both sexes without focued training -> mid-30s to 40 3. reproduction for women -> mid-30s 4. height and skin -> approximately 40 5. hearing may begin to decline in late 20s for high pitched tones

The Brain & Nervous System Development during Middle Adulthood

- cognitive tasks activate a larger area(s) of the brain compared to young adults - cognitive processing is less selective; reacts more slowly to cognitive tasks -> 'what's the best way to accomplish a task...' -may have less ability to control attention by inhibiting responses to irrelevant stimuli -> they don't want to miss anything that is important - sensory stimuli are processed differently, but individual differences within an age group is greater than differences between young and middle-aged adults - Cognitive tasks activate a larger area of brain tissue in middle-aged adults. Cognitive processing may be less selective with age. - Middle-aged people process sensory stimuli differently, experiencing problems with attentional control—but are still safer drivers than younger adults. - When middle-aged and young adults are compared, the range of individual differences within each age group is far greater than the average difference between the two groups. - In participants in both age groups who perform poorly on tasks such as remembering words, larger areas of the brain are activated than in those who performed well.

benefits of lifestyle changes

- if overweight, losing 10% of body fat - decreases triglycerides, cholesterol, blood pressure, risk of diabetes, sleep apnea, arthritis; raises HDL - add 20-30 grams of fiber - reduces risk of colon cancer, cholesterol, blood pressure, and improves insulin function - moderate physical activity every day - reduces anxiety, sadness, risk of diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure; improved bone density - don't smoke - all positive effects on circulation/respiration + reduced risk of lung cancer, cardiovascular diseases - regular doctor/provider visits - preventative measure

brain and nervous system development in young adults

- new synapses forming - myelination continues - unused synapses die off - new neurons grow/develop - frontal lobe -> logic - limbic system - emotional responses

role transitions into adulthood

- no specific/definitive criteria for marking when one becomes an adult in the USA - Emerging adulthood:, a relatively recent phenomena, is the period of time when people are not adolescents but are not fully adults 1. encompasses the years between late adolescence and up to the early 30s 2. social and demographic trends since the 1970s have created this new developmental periods

cross-cultural evidence of role transitions

- rites of passage: important rituals marking initiation into adulthood (e.g. college graduation or marriage ceremonies) - western cultures have few age-specific rites or rituals - many cultures employ religious rituals (e.g., bar mitzvahs or bat mitzvahs) - rituals in non-Western cultures change little with time and provide continuity throughout life do you see yourself as an adult? why or why not?

answer these questions!

8. What happens during the transition to parenthood? 9. How are family and friends important to young adults? 10. What factors influence an individual's occupational choices? 11. How do career goals and job satisfaction change over time? 12. What are some of the innovations that are associated with the quality of work-life movement? 13. In what way do women's work patterns differ from those of men?

how could someone change 1 or more of them to prevent or even reverse the effects of aging? - for each factor on your list - brainstorm possible changes that may lead to healthier age ...

1. wear sunscreen every. single. day. reapply every 2 hours. - prevents fine lines and skin cancer 2. drink more fruit smoothies - hydrates skin and heals the body 3. eat healthier. cut out fries, sugary drinks, and red meat (as much as possible) - reduces inflammation and risk of weight gain 4. exercise almost every day - contributes to better sleep, blood circulation, and overall health 5. GET. MORE. SLEEP.- helps with literally everything

physical functioning of early adulthood

sports-related injuries trend upward in the 20s and 30s because most people reach their physical peak in their late teens or very early 20s and begin declining almost immediately.

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

A theory that sees love as having three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment

young adulthood

20-40 years

middle adulthood

35-60 years old

Work-Life Balance in Middle Adulthood: Preparing for Retirement

Baby Boomers - Projected to be the healthiest, best-educated, & longest-living retirees in history - Make retirement plans for both wives & husbands - May not have saved enough & may have accumulated too much debt for their desired lifestyle - expected to retire in their early 60s and live into their 80s Dychtwald's Survey of Baby Boomers: •Wealth Builders - build their wealth •Idealists - interested in volunteer work •Empowered Trailblazers - enjoy travel, taking courses •Stretched and Stressed Boomers - concerns about secure finances •Leisure Lifers - will pursue recreational activities

Relationship Changes in Middle Adulthood: Caring for Aging Parents

Between 40% & 50% of middle-aged adults in the USA spend at least some of their time providing care to an parent/elder Descriptions of Typical Caregiver: - No children at home; Not working; Not married; Close proximity; & Daughter or Daughter-in-law - Multiple interventions are being provided: Education about care recipient's condition; Respite resources for caregiver; Counseling & support groups

Health & Wellness in Middle Adulthood

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) - the leading cause of death in the USA due to multiple factors related to secondary & primary aging; personality type (A,B, D); & individual responses to stressors Stress = perception that events are exceeding a person's resources & may negatively affect there well-being -> in short-term versus long-term stressors Cancer risk increases due to primary & secondary aging and share the same risk factors as CVD -> African Americans have higher rates of some cancers & poorer survival rates and Asian Americans have higher rates of liver cancer.

health and wellness: mental health issues

Causes of Mental Health Issues - Age - high incidence in young adulthood - Expectations & role conflicts - highest in young adulthood -> anxiety & depression. - Biological causes - research shows that some mental illness runs in families -> disturbances in specific brain functions, e.g. schizophrenia - Interaction of biology & environment - learning of new roles

other relationships: friends

Characteristics - Similar in education, social class, interests, family background and family life cycle stage - Drawn from same age group; same sex - Important members of social network (even exclusive online) Adult friendships develop over several stages - Acquaintanceship - Buildup - Continuation - Deterioration - Ending - Young adults tend to have more friends than during any other stage of adulthood - Self-esteem and life satisfaction partly depend upon the quantity and quality of contact with friends - Online friendships are just as high in quality as other types of friendships - Trust is key to these friendships due to the lack of visual cues to verify any presented information - Sibling friendships are important as well, more so for women than for men

Development of Intimate Relationships Consequences of Divorce

Consequences - Increased physical & emotional illness - Highest negative aspects - accidents, depression, & suicide - Serious economic hardships, especially for women - lost days of work - Disruption of sequence & timing of family roles - Strong feelings of failure, loss of self-esteem, & loneliness, depression

MAINTAINING THE CREATIVE "EDGE" AT MIDLIFE AND BEYOND

Creative Process - Creative process is a highly individualized intellectual activity. - Each creative person, in one way or another, recognized the value of accumulated knowledge and experience. Maintenance and Productivity - Being consciously aware of one's own creative process—and accepting its boundaries—is crucial. - Demonstrating some degree of humility, a sense of indebtedness to those who have contributed to and supported one's creative development, appears useful.

Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood: Creativity

Creativity: the ability to produce original, appropriate, & valuable ideas or solutions to problems - Simonton looked at the creativity and productivity of thousands of notable scientists: first significant work, their best work, their last work - thinkers produced their best work at about 40, publishing outstanding work in their 50s - Goleman's stages focus on divergent thinking: preparations, incubation, illumination (the aha! moment), and translation - Divergent thinking = being able to generate multiple solutions to problems that do not have 1 clear answer

cognitive development in middle adulthood

Denny's model suggests a basic decay curve and a fairly large gap between actual and level of performance aon exercised and unexercised abilities

Emerging Adulthood (18-25)

Emerging adulthood: a period in which individuals experiment with options prior to taking on adult roles - Late teens to early 20s may not be universal for all individuals - Observed in cultures with multiple choices for young people - Tasks: academic, friendship, conduct, work & romance - Occurs in the context of the brain continuing to mature, especially those areas of the brain that govern impulse control & decision-making Developmental task domains that emerge from Adolescence into Young Adulthood: 1. Academic - study skills used in HS work in College 2. Friendship - same skills used in HS work post-HS 3. Conduct - behavioral choices in all areas of life 4. Work - commit to career that allows economic independence 5. Romantic - what role will a romantic relationship play in your life - Skills 1-3 transfer easily from adolescence to adulthood - Skills 4-5 require more adjustment & work than skills 1-3 Note: New stage proposed by Arnett - Covers ages 17-22 - Must address tasks such as academic, friendship, conduct, work, and romance - Push limits with family. - Experiment with adult options and multiple tasks. - Parts of the brain governing impulse control and decision making are not yet fully mature.

Social & Personality Development in Middle Adulthood

Erikson's 7th Stage of Psychosocial Development Generativity versus Stagnation: Generativity = interest in establishing and guiding the next generation. Examples = raising children, teaching, mentoring, leadership roles in the community, church, etc. This may continue through old age. Stagnation = pervading a sense of stagnation and personal impoverishment. - Failure leads to a pervading sense of stagnation and personal impoverishment: possible overindulgence.

parenting: social networks

Family - Most adults feel emotionally close to their parents and see or talk to them regularly. - Proximity influences contact. - Culture influences involvement with parents. - Hispanic Americans perceive family ties to be more important than young adults of other races or ethnicities. - African American young adults value family connections more highly; these young adults are less likely to marry than other cultural groups; more often may live in multi-generational households; report higher levels of warmth with parents than whites do.

the role of worker: choosing an occupation

Family and Educational Influences on Occupational Choice - Parent social class - children tend to choose occupations in the same social class as their parents - Family values - valuing academic and professional achievement influences professional-level job choices; achievement in working-class families is associated with moving into middle-class jobs. - Parental moral beliefs influence young adults' willingness to enter various occupations. - Educational goals - influence choices

Going to College and Gender

Female College Students - Higher graduation rates - Study more - Lower entrance exam scores - Lower entrance into prestigious programs - Party less; influenced less by peer pressure

Development of Intelligence in Young Adulthood

Fluid intelligence: being a flexible, adaptive thinker, who can make inferences, and understand concepts' relationships - Tends to decline throughout adulthood as it depends on the efficient functioning of the CNS Crystallized intelligence: knowledge of facts, definitions, language, etc. acquired by life experience - Improves throughout adulthood, but depends on the level of education & ongoing experiences

HEALTH AND WELLNESS Cardiovascular Disease: Personality and Health

Friedman and Rosenman Personality Patterns Type A -- Competitive strivings for achievement - Sense of time urgency - Hostility or aggressiveness - Compare themselves to others - Frequent conflict with co-workers Type B -- Less hurried and more laid back Type D -- is characterized by a tendency toward negativity. Such people may experience much stress, anger, hostility, tension, and other negative and distressing emotions. This personality type is often characterized by low self-esteem, social inhibition, and a tendency toward depression.

career development: job satisfaction

Influences - Individual personality traits - High school and college preparation related to career - Uncertainty about job security, the employment market, and job opportunities - Job satisfaction is typically at its lowest at mid-career - usually toward the end of early adulthood.

INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS Relationship Quality

Influences on Marital Success - - Values: and own parental attachment relationship contributes to the construction of an internal model in intimate relationships that are brought into a marriage - Personality characteristics of the partners - Attitudes toward divorce - Security of each partner's attachment to the family of origin - There is a lot of agreement across groups about what makes marriages work!

Development of Intimate Relationships Quality of the Marriage Relationship

Influences on Marital Success: Values - 1. Faithfulness 2. Happy sexual relationship 3. Sharing household chores 4. Adequate income 5. Good housing NOTE: These vary slightly by ethnicity The parental attachment relationship contributes to the construction of an internal model of intimate relationships that (adult) children bring with them into marriage. - Values - Personality characteristics of the partners - A high degree of neuroticism in one or both partners leads to dissatisfaction. - Attitudes toward divorce - Couples unopposed to divorce report more dissatisfaction with marriage. - The security of each partner's attachment to his or her family of origin - Once the marriage takes place, spouses must let go of their families of origin in order to build their new family unit. - Arguments about in-laws are exceeded in frequency only by disagreements about financial matters. Each partner's attachment to parents provides a role model/example of an intimate relationship that is brought into the marriage Influence on relationship satisfaction: - Quality of peer relationships - Life stresses - How partner's interact - Personality characteristics of the partners - shy or not - Emotional affection between partners Emotional affection contributes to relationship quality Three key components of love - 1. Intimacy: feelings that promote closeness & connectedness 2. Passion: feelings of intense longing for union with the other person, including a sexual union/relationship 3. Commitment: to a particular other over a long period of time Conflict management - 4 styles - Validating couples - disagree, show mutual respect, & listen well - Volatile couples - argue a lot, + > -, show affection - Avoidant couples - conflict minimizers, agree to disagree, devitalized relationship - Hostile/engaged & Hostile/detached - argue with/without affection & support for each support

Erikson's 6th State of Psychosocial Development

Intimacy versus Isolation Age: 18-30 years Task: Develop an intimate relationship/life partner Intimacy: the capacity to engage in supportive, affectionate relationships without losing one's own sense of self Isolation: results from relationships that are inadequate—that feature a lack of self-disclosure—and from unresolved identity crises. The developmental task = to establish intimate bonds of love & friendship Barriers to intimacy - - A lack of a developed sense of identity - Gender differences in communication/interaction, e.g. women need self-disclosure Supports to intimacy - - A fully developed or developing sense of self - The ability & desire to self-disclose Note: psychological conflict of early adulthood

health and wellness: intimate partner abuse

Intimate partner abuse: physical or other behavior designed to intimidate or harm an intimate partner or former partner Rates: - In USA - 6/1000 women {.6%} per year -> 22% of women in the USA have been abused - Varies around the world from 52% Nicaragua to 13% in Switzerland Characteristics of Abusers and Victims Associated with Intimate Partner Abuse - Cultural attitudes - women may be regarded as property - Gender-role prescriptions - more prevalent in some cultures, where male/female roles are pre-determined & strongly held perceptions - Personality traits - same cluster of traits is prevalent whether heterosexual or homosexual abusers - Gender differences - culture, anatomic & hormone influences Effects of Abuse - Women may develop anxiety, depression, shame, & low self-esteem; men who are abused experience shame as well - Feelings intensify if the victim believes herself to be trapped in the situation. - Witnessing abuse influences negative developmental outcomes in children. Prevention - Vigorous law enforcement of abuse - Temporary shelters - Training programs for victims stressing problem-solving skills to provide opportunities - Community-wide & school-based approaches to educate about abuse

Levinson's life structure

Life structures: all roles & relationships an individual occupies—and the conflicts & balances that exist between them - Each period of life presents adults with new developmental challenges - Formation of intimate relationships is the central developmental task - Adults cycle through periods of stability & instability Adults cycle through periods of stability & instability: - Novice = when a new life structure is required/period of adjustment - Mid-era = adults become more competent in meeting new challenges - Culmination = competent phase; able to meet the new developmental challenges with more confidence/less stress - Each stable life structure is followed by period of transition in which structure is reexamined Note: In Levinson's model of adult development, each stable life structure is followed by a period of transition in which that structure is reexamined. The underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time, which includes roles, relationships, and behavior patterns.

SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE IMPACT OF MARRIAGE - Heterosexual Research Data

Males - Generally benefit more than females on measures of physical and mental health - Married men are healthier and live longer than unmarried men. Females - Married women are slightly healthier than unmarried women. - Unmarried women are healthier and happier than unmarried men.

parenting: Developmental Impact of Parenthood

Marital Satisfaction and Parenthood - Division of labor issues fuel dissatisfaction. - Support from extended family helps. - Sensation-seeking and risky behaviors decline. - Effective conflict-resolution strategies must be established before birth. - Marital satisfaction tends to decline and remain low until the last child leaves home.

Relationship Changes in Middle Adulthood: Spouses

Marital stability & satisfaction increase in midlife: - Couples are less likely to divorce, but women are more likely to be deal with the stress of a divorce successfully more often than men Increased marital satisfaction has been linked to: - Increased sense of control within the marriage - Identification of successful problem-solving strategies - Use of 'skilled diplomacy' to ease tensions raise an issue with your spouse & then work to restore harmony within the relationship - Conflicts over childrearing decline. - Increased sense of control - Identification of successful problem-solving strategies - Use of skilled diplomacy to ease tensions

Development of the Reproductive System in Middle-Aged Females

Menopause - - Occurs 'around' age 50; with a wide age range of 40 - 60 years considered 'normal' - Cessation of menses - due to declines in sex hormones of estrogens and progesterone - Defined as 12 calendar months without a menstrual period May be occurring at later ages in more recent cohorts of women Phases of Menopause - Premenopausal phase: Estrogen levels begin to fluctuate & decline, dramatic drop in progesterone - Perimenopausal phase: More extreme variations in cycle, hot flashes, disrupted sleep patterns - Postmenopausal phase: Menstruation ended for at least 1 year, estrogen & progesterone very low once a woman has stopped menstruation for one year: - estrogen and progesterone are very low - breast tissue becomes softer - the uterus becomes smaller - vagina becomes smaller, thinner, and less elastic, and it produces less lubricant - osteoporosis, changing cholesterol levels, rapid heart-beat, cardiovascular disease Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): progesterone & estrogen administration - Women's Health Initiative Study Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT): low doses of estrogen, sometimes with progestin - Large studies in the U.S. & United Kingdom showed benefits but many more risks of HRT - Positively affects hot flashes, sleep, vaginal tissue/lubrication Reduces osteoporosis & rates of colorectal cancer - Significant increases in the risk of heart attack, stroke, blood clots, breast cancer, & other cancers - Risks were so great that the U.S. study was stopped long before the planned finish date During & after menopause: - Most women remain sexually active, but with some decline in frequency -> - Demands for other roles compete with time & energy for sex - roles such as parenting, caregiving, work - Increasing illnesses partially explain declines in sexual activity, e.g. diabetes, arthritis, etc.

Development of Personal Control Beliefs

Personal control beliefs: extent to which performance depends on own effort or ability rather than outside forces - Greatly affects personality, social, health, intellectual, and career outcomes - Inconsistent research results - Young adults have greater internal control beliefs than older ones - Other findings show the opposite - Control beliefs vary depending upon the domain in which they are studied (e.g., intelligence vs. health) Examples of domain-specific findings are people's perceived control of: - marital happiness increasing with age - one's development declining with age One domain-nonspecific finding is that satisfaction is greater for: - younger adults who attribute success to their effort - older adults who attribute success to their ability Some research shows four types of control experience: 1. Control from within oneself 2. Control over oneself 3. Control over the environment 4. Control from the environment Other research distinguishes two types of control: - Primary versus secondary control Primary control: modifying the external environment to fit one's needs & goals (e.g., asking a teacher for tutoring with difficult material) Secondary control: modifying one's cognitions, goals, or behavioral standards (e.g., attributing failure on a test to task difficulty instead of ability) - Primary & secondary control operate in parallel during the first half of life - Primary, but not secondary, control declines in midlife

Impact of Post Secondary Education

Post-secondary education: any kind of formal schooling following high school - Developmental: More promotions, less unemployment, professional field openings, vocational aspiration increases, enhanced internal locus of control - Social: More socialization opportunities, advances in moral and social reasoning, increased capacity for empathy The experience of attending a post-secondary institution varies across males & females - Women study twice as much as men; Men party twice as much as women - Male behavior may arise from the desire to assert masculine identity: - Disengagement from academic pursuits - Heightened interest in risky behavior

Development of the Visual System in Middle-Age

Presbyopia: farsightedness - The eye lens thickens -> total amount of light reaching the retina decreases - Becomes harder for muscles around the eye to change the shape of the lens & adjust the focus of the eye - A normal primary aging process that requires physical & psychological adjustment

the role of worker: quality of work-life (QWL) movement

QWL - Approach to enhancing job satisfaction by basing job and workplace design on analyses of the quality of employee experiences in organizations - Assumes that happier workers are more productive - Involves innovations in how work is structured

Development of Intimate Relationships Social Role Theory & Mate Selection

Reanalysis of Parental Investment Theory - Sex differences are adaptations to gender roles resulting from present-day social realities rather than from natural selection. - Selections of high-income earning men & women - higher-earning men & women want to partner up with other higher-earning men & women - Homogamy or assortative mating = people are drawn to similar others, e.g. age, education, social class, ethnic group, religion, attitudes, interests, temperament

Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood: Reflective Judgment

Reflective judgment = the ability to identify the underlying assumptions of differing perspectives on controversial topics, e.g. reducing drug use, abortion, etc. - Take a few minutes to think about 1 or more situations you have confronted that required you to use relativism, dialectical thinking &/or reflective judgment to adequately understand, solve or work through that situation

Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood: Relativism & Dialectical Thinking

Relativism = the ability to evaluate ideas, information, &/or situations in terms of the underlying assumptions & contexts in which they occur Dialectical Thinking = deeper thinking that allows someone to understand that life is filled with paradoxes & uncertainty Both are used to deal with situations that do not have 1 'right' answer

Beyond Formal Operations: Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood (20 -40 years old)

Reminder - Piaget suggested that formal operations were the last stage of cognitive development -> For adolescents and/or formal operational thinkers: - legitimate answers derive from logic only - deductive reasoning leads to one conclusion - their conclusions are right authorities are experts to be relied upon - there is a clear distinction between right vs. wrong (little ambiguity or doubt) For young adults, thinking begins to differ qualitatively -> Young adults: - Recognize and examine different viewpoints - Are or become the source of their own authority - Begin to develop a particular point of view - Leads to the development of Postformal Thinking Post-formal thinking is the 5th stage of cognitive development - Post-formal thought -> most situations & ideas are not easily addressed or accepted as 'simply' true or false -> Relativism; Dialectical Thinking; Reflective Judgment

Physical Development during Middle Adulthood

Reminders: Primary aging - universal changes (graying hair, starting wrinkles, baldness, slowing metabolism -> weight gain) Secondary aging - young adult habits have strong effects in middle adulthood (smoking, drinking, exercise habits) More research on development during midlife is needed

Development of Intimate Relationships Gay & Lesbian Couple Satisfaction

Satisfaction is related to: - Similar backgrounds & equal relationship length commitment - Attachment security Dissatisfaction is related to: - Neuroticism in one or both partners - similar to heterosexual couples - More dependent on each other for social support - may be isolated from original family - Build families of choice: a stable partner & a circle of close friends for support - Power & tasks are equally divided by couple - Lesbians tend to insist on sexual exclusivity - Gay men frequently regard sexual fidelity as negotiable

the role of worker: influence of gender

Sex-role definitions still designate some jobs. - Male jobs are more varied, technical, and higher in status and income. - Female jobs are concentrated in the service industry, and offer lower status and pay: -- 1/3 of women hold clerical jobs; ¼ of women are in health care, teaching or domestic service.

Development of Intimate Relationships Singlehood

Single adults - - Prefer singlehood - Continuous singlehood associated with greater autonomy & capacity for personal growth - Participate in intimate relationships that are not "partnered" - Maintain close relationships with families of origin & close friends - Choosing & affirming singlehood helps protect singles from the negative health consequences associated with singlehood

health and wellness: social/economic and gender influences

Social/economic influences - People in poverty are less likely to obtain adequate healthcare & are more often in poor health - People with more income as a result of education are less likely to be ill & less likely to die from chronic illness Gender - U.S. women live longer than men & are less likely to die from homicides Social Support - Adequate amounts of social support lower the risks of disease, death, & depression - Effects found across diverse age groups - May boost immune system functioning

The Development of Personality in Middle Adulthood

The "Big Five": OCEAN relatively stable throughout adulthood: Openness - begins to decline in mid-life Conscientiousness - increase to about age 70 Extraversion - begins to decline in mid-life Agreeableness - increases to about age 70 Neuroticism - begins to decline in mid-life - Increases in prosocial behaviors - Seems to be linked to secure attachment - This demonstrates both continuity and change at midlife. - Subtle age-related changes in five factors across the years of adulthood - Traits follow a general pattern of stability in most people, but they are also subject to some degree of modification. - Personality makes an important contribution to an adult's capacity for managing stress.

health and wellness: anxiety and mood disorders

The most common mental health disorders are those associated with fear and anxiety - phobias Anxiety = The second most common types are problems associated with moods Depression = Personality disorders = inflexible patterns of behavior that lead to difficulties in social, educational, &/or occupational functioning - Behaviors may start in mid- or late adolescence but can remain problematic throughout life - May related to stressful breakups - College student substance abuse

the role of worker personality: holland's theory

Types - Six basic personality types - People whose personalities match their jobs are more likely to be satisfied with their work.

other relationships: Sex Differences in Relationship Styles

Women - Women have more close friends - more intimate, more self-disclosure, more exchange of emotional support - Women are often the "kin keepers," handling correspondence and family news. Men - Young men remain competitive with friends. - Focus on doing things together.

Chapter 13 review:

You should be able to: 1. Describe role transitions that occur during young adulthood 2. Describe & explain primary & secondary physical aging as well as factors that may influence how someone ages 3. Identify & explain the physical development of the brain & body systems during young adulthood 4. Describe & explain health & wellness in young adulthood, including the various factors that may impact someone's health & wellness during young adulthood You should be able to describe & explain: 1. Postformal thinking, e.g. relativism, dialectical thinking, reflective judgment, etc. 2. Stages of reflective judgment 3. Fluid & crystal intelligence 4. Development of personal control beliefs 5. Impact of post secondary education

primary aging

aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic programming, occur as people get older ex. gray hair, wrinkles, and changes in visual acuity

parenthood: delaying parenthood

decisions to delay parenting: - enrolled in post-secondary education - delayed marriage; believe that the best environment for raising children is within marriage - underpinned by contemporary

health habits and personal factors

getting physical exercise not smoking not drinking not over or undereating no snacking eating breakfast getting regular sleep

physical functioning in young adulthood: types of aging

primary aging: gradual and inevitable process of body regression throughout life (ex. = gray hair, visual changes) need fo reading glasses secondary aging: preventable processes from disease and poor health choices/habits - may include environmental influences; may be influenced by social-economic class. expanding waistline

holland's personality types and work preferences

realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional

lifestyle choices that influence health and wellness

smoking - nicotine is addictive & a known teratogen Smoking is a leading contributor to health problems in smokers - Quitting smoking is usually beneficial, regardless of how or when it happens Nonsmokers are also at high risk for diseases - Over 40% are exposed to 2nd-hand smoke - Increased risks for upper-respiratory diseases & asthma Occasional drinking, while not driving, is not known to seriously affect health - ≤ 2 glasses of wine or beer/day may be beneficial - 25-40% reduction of cardiovascular disease or stroke compared to heavy drinkers or abstainers - Heavy or "binge" drinking is costly to health, hampers productivity, & can promote victimization (e.g., assaults, rape) Binge drinking: consuming ≥5 (men) or ≥4 (women) in a row within 2 hours - Binge drinking is a major international health concern, especially among college students - Students are likeliest to binge drink when: 1. alcohol is readily available 2. they have positive attitudes toward drinking 3. one or more of these is present: doing other drugs in the past 30 days; being a male, fraternity or sorority member, European American, & middle or higher SES Social norms programs appear effective in U.S. - These programs focus on changing the college drinking culture, reducing belief that everyone is drinking or that drinking is acceptable, publicizing the true rate of drinking on campus, which is usually lower than students believe, 2nd-hand drinking effects, such as nondrinkers being insulted or assaulted Alcoholism = an addiction involving physical dependence on alcohol & withdrawal symptoms when not drinking - Excessive, long-term drinking affects brain function - Important neurotransmitters become dangerously depleted or increased - Causes alcohol cravings meant to reduce negative or increase positive feelings - Treating alcoholism long-term is challenging Metabolism: how much energy the body needs = basal metabolic rate (at rest) + energy used during activities - Slows down with age Should limit intake of saturated & trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, salt, & alcohol - Heart disease risk increases with increases in these intakes Obesity: growing health problem across all ages Body mass index (BMI): ratio of body weight to height, related to total body fat. - ≤ 25 is 'healthy', but relative fitness counts Health risks may increase the higher one's BMI stimulants: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine depressants: alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, narcotics hallucinogens: marijuana, LSD, MDMA