Human Development exam 1 ch.1-3

natural selection

evolutionary processes by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive & reproduce.

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on 5 environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, & chronosystem.

Pavlov's Classical cond.

CR= conditioned response (learned response to originally Neutral stim. becomes conditioned), CS= conditioned stimulus (after association w/ uncond. stim. , triggers conditioned response), NS= neutral stimulus (elicits no response before conditioning), UR=unconditioned response (naturally occurring response (salivation) to uncond. stim.) US=uncond. stim. (unconditionally-naturally & automatically triggers a response). after several trials, dogs salivated to sound of bell (W/o food).

Multicontextual- Influence of Context

Contexts can exert 3 types of influence: Normative age-graded influences: influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, Normative history-graded influences: influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances, Nonnormative or highly individualized life events : unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual's life.

Debatable issue- Continuity- Discontinuity debate

Debate about the extent to which development evolves- gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). (Ex: As the oak grows from seedling to giant oak, it becomes more of an oak- its development is continuous.) (Ex: A child's first word, though seemingly abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually the result of weeks & months of growth & practice.) Puberty might seem abrupt but is a gradual process that occurs over several years.

Debatable issue- Stability-Change debate

Debate about-whether we become older renditions of our early experience, or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development (ex: Is the shy child who hides behind the sofa when visitors arrive destined to become a wallflower at college dances, or might the child become a sociable, talkative individual?)

Multidimensional (biological, cognitive, & socioemotional processes) (life-span perspective)

Development has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. (ex: Attention, memory, abstract thinking, speed of processing information, and social intelligence are just a few of the components of the cognitive dimension.) No matter what your age might be, your body, mind, emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting each other. (ex: In his mother's view, a biological event in infancy warped the development of her son's mind and emotions.)

(life-span persp.) constructed thru bio, sociocultural, & individual factors working together

Development is a co-construction of biological, cultural, and individual factors working together.(ex: brain shapes culture, but is also shaped by culture & the experiences that individuals have or pursue) (indiv. factors go beyond our genetic inheritance & environ.) Indiv. factor= a unique developmental path by actively choosing from the environment the things that optimize our lives. As individuals, we can actively choose things from the environ. that optimize (make best or most of) our lives.

differences between Erickson's & Freud's stages

Freud believed in sexual nature as primary human motivation & personality is shaped 1st 5 yrs of life. Erickson believed primary human motivation is social & reflects our desire to affiliate w/ ppl. (developmental changes occur throughout the lifespan)

Multicontextual (influence of context) (life-span perspective)

Human lives are embedded in many contexts, including: Historical conditions- Cohort: group of people who were born about the same time & thus experience the same historical events & cultural shifts. Economic Constraints- Socioeconomic status (SES): a person's position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, place of residents, etc. Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, university labs, countries, etc. Each is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. context=setting

Lifelong (life-span perspective)

In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; rather, no age period dominates development. Researchers increasingly study the experiences and psychological orientations of adults at different points in their lives. As people are living longer in their adult years, the study of adult experiences & psychological orientation has become increasingly significant. ( oldest age documented = 122 yrs, life expectancy in us=78 yrs)

Culture

The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation. Many cultures-not just between nations but also w/in them-affect how people develop.

How would development be described according to the life-span perspective?

The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood. The belief that development occurs throughout life is central to the life-span perspective on human development. The life-span perspective views development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.

(life-span perspective) Involves growth, maintenance, & regulation

The mastery of life often involves conflicts & competition among 3 goals of human dev. : Growth, Maintenance, & regulation of loss. As individuals age into middle & late adulthood, the maintenance and reg. of loss in their capacities takes center stage. (ex: a 75-yr old man might aim not to improve memory or his golf swing but to maintain his independence and his ability to play golf at all.)

What do developmentalists study?

They study ALL kinds of people (ex: young, old, rich, poor, etc.). They try to identify universalities (beyond birth & death) and identify differences (beyond unique genetics).

Multidirectional (life-span perspective)

Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink. [ex: when one language (such as English) is acquired early in development, the capacity for acquiring second and third languages (such as Spanish & Chinese) decreases later in development, especially after early childhood.] During adolescence, as individuals establish romantic relationships, their time spent with friends may decrease. During late adulthood, older adults might become wiser because they have more experience than younger adults to draw upon to guide their decision making, but they perform more poorly on tasks that require speed in processing information. (ex: In old age people focus on losses but there are some gains. Loss:Memory, Gain: More nurturing toward other family members.)

Dna (double-helix)

a complex molecule that contains genetic info.

Skinner's operant cond.

a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. Reinforcement- anything that increases the probability that a response will recur. Punishment- anything that decreases the probability that a response will recur. Extinction- anything that eliminates the behavior

Race

a group of people regarded as genetically distinct from others based on physical appearance

Observation method

a method of testing hypotheses by observing participants behavior in a systematic & objective manner. can be natural observation( observing behavior in normal, everyday, real-world settings.) lab- controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the real world are removed. CON- does not indicate what causes ppl to do what they do.

ethical responsibilities

a set of moral principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow. minimize risks to research patients, describe research to potential participants (debriefing), avoid deceiving participants, keep results anon or confid.

Cognitive equilibrium

a state of mental balance in which ppl are not confused bc they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences & ideas.

Correlation

a statistical technique for describing the extent & direction of the relationship between pairs of scores on some measure.two variables are observed to see if there is a relationship. correlation does not prove causation.

Development theory

a systematic statement of principles & generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how 7 why people change as they grow older. -Interpret the many observations that have been made about human growth.- Provides a framework for explaining the patterns & problems of development.

standardized tests

a test that has been developed to assess human abilities, achievement, & traits (such as personality characteristics)CON= assume a person behavior is consistent and stable, yet personality & intelligence can vary w/ the situation.

Banduras bobo doll exp.

children shown vid of woman beating up doll. then they were sent to play room w/ bobo dolls. the children beat up the dolls. children changed behavior to imitate model w/o being rewarded first.

Pos. Reinforcement

presentation of an appetitive stimulus following a response

Pos. punishment

presentation of an aversive stimulus following a response

adaptive behavior

promotes and organism's survival in the natural habitat

exper. group

receives treatment. indp. var. must consist of 2 values

Neg. punishment

removal of an appetitive stimulus following a response

Neg. reinforcement

removal of an aversive stimulus following a response

2 maj. cgaracteristics

reseracher manips. one var. & observes other var. whether manip. causes change to occur. control over research situation.

longitudinal study

same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several yrs or more.

Scientific method

conceptualize a process or problem to be studied, collect research info (data), analyze the data, draw conclusions

imprinting

the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the 1st moving object seen.

Erikson's developmental stages

(NURTURE) 1. Trust v. Mistrust, 0-1yr, developed through consistent love&support. Neglected kids tend to be more mistrusting. 2. Autonomy v. Shame&Doubt,1-3yrs, Independence fostered by support & encouragement, sheltered kids could feel guilt. 3. Initiative v. guilt, 3-5yrs, Developed by exploring & accepting challenges. 4. Industry v. Inferiority, 6-puberty, mastery comes from success & recognition,ex: one kid comes home parent congrats them, other one tells them to get 100 next time. 5. Identity v. Role confusion, adolescence, exploring paths to healthy identity, finding who you are. 6. Intimacy v. Isolation, early adult yrs, form positive close relationships w/ others. 7. Generativity v. Stagnation, mid. adulthood, transmitting something positive to next generation. 8. Integrity v. Despair, late adulthood, life review & retrospective evaluation of one's past.Ex: made mistake but lived good life

autosomes

1st 22 pairs of chromosomes

4 ages of development

1st age- childhood&adolescence, 2nd- prime adulthood- age 20-59, 3rd- approx. 60-79 yrs, 4th- approx. 80 & up. Development in one period is connected to development in another period.

sex chromosomes

23rd pair of chromosomes

Sociocultural theory

According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, development results from the dynamic interaction between each person & their social & cultural forces. -social context, expressed through ppl, language & customs. People learn the tools, skills & values of society through apprenticeships. Ex; in one culture, children might learn w/ help of a computer; in another, they might learn using beads.

5 levels that can affect each person (bron.'s theory)

Microsystem- setting in which the individual lives. most direct interactions w/ social agents take place-w/ parents, teachers, peers. the individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings. (ppl immediately around you, peers, school, &neighborhood). Mesosystem- relations between microsystems. (parents + teacher working together to fix child's behavior). Exosystem- settings or events that may indirectly influence an individual. (moms promotion that requires more travel , might increase conflict with the husband and change patterns of interaction with the child.) Macrosystem- larger social settings such as cultural values, economic, & political policies. (A child, his/her parent, his/her school, his/her parent's workplace are all part of a large cultural context.) Chronosystems- consists of the patterning of environmental events & transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. (ex: divorce is one transition, the negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the 1st year after the divorce. but 2 yrs after, family interaction has become more stable.) (ex: sociohistorical circumstances, consider how career opps. for women have increased since the 1960s)

Debatable issue in human dev. - nature vs. nurture

Nature-nurture issue- debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. Nature: behaviors are- innate(natural), hard-wired, genetically determined. Nurture: behaviors are- learned, flexible, not genetically determined. Behavior results from both genes & environmental factors.

Plastic (life-span perspective)

Plasticity means the capacity for change. For example, can you still improve your intellectual skills when you are in your 70's or 80's? or might these intellectual skills be fixed by the time you are in your 30s so that further improvement is impossible? Researchers have found that the cognitive skills of older adults can be improved through training and developing better strategies. Every individual & every trait w/in each individual, can be altered at any point in the life span. However, possibly we possess less capacity for change as we grow older.

Multidisciplinary (life-span perspective)

Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of development through the human life span. How do your heredity and health limit your intelligence? Do intelligence and social relationships change with age in the same way around the world? How do families and schools influence intellectual development? People develop & grow physically, mentally, emotionally, & socially. (The study of any of these areas overlaps a variety of fields). Numerous academic fields contribute data & insights (Biology, anthropology, religion, psych..etc.)

control group

aka comparison group no exp. treatment ,receive placebo.

what occurred during Watsons little albert study?

albert=9mnth old baby. shown rat rabbit, dog alive. showed no fear but cried when hammer hit steel bar. watson made the noise everytime baby touched rat. After 7 pairings, albert cried & avoided animal even w/o noise. Days later he showed fear of rabbit, dog, santa mask.

social cogn. theory

behavior, environment, & cognition are the key factors in development.emphasizes the influence that other ppl have over a person's behavior. learning via observation, imitation. Modeling- observe what someone else does & copy it.

Contemporary concerns in the study of Human Dev.

concerns include: Health&well-being (health profs. today recognize the power of life-styles & psychological states in health & well-being), Parenting & education(Can 2 gay men raise a healthy family? Are schools failing to teach children to read & write & calculate adequately?), Sociocultural contexts&diversity(health, parenting, & edu.-like develop. itself- are all shaped by their sociocultural context. To analyze it, 4 concepts are useful: culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, &gender. sociocultural context has become increasingly diverse in recent yrs in US. US pop. has greater variety of cultures & ethnic groups.

Cognitive theory

development reflects ppl's efforts to understand the world. emphasizes the structure & development of the thought processes. 3 imp. cogn. theories are jean piaget's, vygotsky's, & info-processing one.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

distinctive, each stage more advanced than the other, not gradual development, something that just happens at a certain age. Sensorimotor stage- birth-2yrs, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing & hearing) w/ physical, motoric actions-hence the term sensorimotor. Preoperational stage-2-7yrs, the child begins to represent the world w/ words & images. These words & images reflect increased symbolic thinking & go beyond the connection of sensory info & physical action. Concrete Operational stage- 7-11yrs, the child can now reason logically about concrete events & classify objects into different sets. Formal Operational sets- 11yrs-adulthood, the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, & logical ways.

Behaviorism theory

emphasis on actions. examine what can be seen & measured, all behavior is learned. NURTURE, not nature- early learning theories emphasized the importance of experience in development. Behavior= observable responses or activities

evolutionary psych.

importance of adaptation, reproduction, & survival of the fittest in shaping behavior. (Ex: embryology)

cross-sectional study

individuals of different ages are compared at one time

confounding variable

indp. var. might produce an effect in

Surveys

info is collected from a large # of ppl via: interviews, written questionnaires, & other means. CONS=ppl can lie, not return it, give answer based off what is accepted

Case study

intensive study of 1 person. can provide unanticipated (not expected) insight, CON=can not make general statements based on findings from a case study.

indp. variable

manipulated by experimenter

Physiological measures

methods for measuring any form of physiological functioning that is related to behavior including: chemical & electrical activity in brain, change in hormone level in bloodstream, change in heart rate, blood pressure, & breathing associated w/ states of stress. CONS=the advancement in methods to assess the actual units of hereditary info. in bio influences on development.

dep. variable

observed to possess a possible effect of the manipulation or treatment.

observational learning

occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

what were Freud's psychosexual developmental stages?

oral stage- infant's pleasure centers on the mouth, breastfeeding, (if had trauma, may have grown up w/ studder) birth-1 1/2 yrs. Anal stage- 1 1/2-3yrs, child's pleasure focuses on the anus, potty training, (if someone started too early or too rigorous w/ it, could grow up w/ OCD, like things their way, uptight, not flexible, more rigid, structured, clean) (Someone anal retentive/ anal explosive- messy, impulsive, unstructured, parents were too permissive) Phallic stage- child's pleasure focuses on the genitals, 3-6yrs, freud believed little boys wanted to have sex w/ mothers, kill fathers, believed they were scared of penis, little girls sad bc they didn't have a penis. (sexually attracted to parents acc. to freud, but if you can't beat them join them). Latency stage- child represses sexual interest & develops social & intellectual skills, 6yrs-puberty. Genital stage- a time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family, puberty-onward.

Ethnic group

people whose ancestors were born in the same region & often share a language, culture, & religion

Hypotheses

specific assumptions & predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

Ethological theory

stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, & is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. konrad lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence. John Bowlby-attachment to a caregiver over the 1st yr of life has important consequences throughout the life span.

phenotype

the characteristic of an organism ( way genes are expressed) -physical, behavioral, & psychological features.

genome

the full set of jeans that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species. 99% the same for any 2 ppl except monozygotic twins. contains 25,000 genes.

Development

the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception & continues through the human life span. most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by aging and dying.

Psychoanalytic theories

theories that describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Stress that early experiences w/ parents extensively shape development. These characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund Freud. Freud contributed importance of what can happen in childhood, bad (traumatic) things can influence kids in childhood to adulthood.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs , with 1 member of each pair coming from each parent. Chromosomes contain the genetic substance DNA.

The experiemental method

to establish a cause & effect relationship between variables. to shoe changes in one variable affects changes in the other.

genes

units of hereditary info composed of DNA. genes help cells to reproduce themselves & help manufacture the proteins that maintain life. a sect. on a chromosome that codes for specific trait.

why should we study development?

we can become better parents(& teachers) the more we know about our children's development, helps us understand & interpret our own life experiences, and we gain insight (understanding) into what we may experience as we age.