Human Development Exam 2 TQs

learning disability

(1) have diffi- culty mastering an academic subject, (2) have normal intelligence (3) are not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance, such as sen- sory impairment or inadequate instruction. Developmental dyslexia (problems distinguishing sounds in written and oral language- bis from bep or bis from dis impaired reading comprehension (read individual words easily, but they understand less of what they read.) mathematical learning disability .(progress slowly in their efforts to learn to count, to add, and to subtract; many are also diagnosed with reading difficulties.) Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder -----Hyperactivity, Inattention., Impulsivity

2. Sternberg's (1999, 2008, 2015) theory of successful intelligence,

, defines intelligence as using abilities skillfully to achieve personal goals (long or short term) 3 abilities: **Analytic ability** involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions. Suppose a 12-year-old wants to download songs to her iPod, but something isn't working. Analytic intelligence is shown in considering different causes of the problem—maybe the iPod is broken, or maybe the software to download songs wasn't installed correctly. ■■ Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. Sup- pose our 12-year-old discovers her iPod is broken just as she's ready to leave on a daylong car trip. Lacking the time to buy a new player, creative intelligence is shown in dealing successfully with a novel goal: finding an enjoyable activity to pass the time on a long drive. ■■ Practical ability involves knowing which solution or plan will work. Problems can be solved in different ways, but often only one solution is practical. our 12-year-old may realize that the only way to figure out why her iPod isn't working is to surf the Internet: She doesn't want to ask for help because her parents wouldn't approve of many of the songs, and she doesn't want a sibling to know that she's downloading them anyway. --bc Goals are due to our ethnicity and culture, intelligence is defined by the demands of an environment or culture. so Brazilian vendors were given the tests that measure intelligence in American students, they would fare poorly. Does this mean they are less intel- ligent than American children? of course not. Each culture defines what it means to be intelligent, and the specialized computing skills of vendors are just as intel- ligent in their cultural settings as verbal skills are in American culture

Where do children learn gender stereotypes from?

All cultures have gender stereotypes—beliefs and images about males and females that may or may not be true. begun to learn about behaviors and traits that are stereotypically masculine or feminine. learn stereotypes about personality traits—boys are tough, and girls are gentle—and about academic subjects—math is for boys, and reading is for girls Activities for females are usually less demanding physically, more solitary, and take place closer to home. This division of roles is much the same worldwide ( ---------------------

how to help writing

When instruction focuses on the building blocks of effective writing—strategies for planning, drafting, and revising text—students' writing improves substantially ex. POW TREE pg 173

How does the family unit influence each other's behavior (father to mother, child to parent)? parent to kid

- parents are constantly in conflict with each other, children and adolescents often become anxious, withdrawn, and aggressive, and are more prone to chronic diseases and to have problems with peers and in romantic relationships by 1.First, seeing parents fight jeopardizes a child's feeling that the family is stable and secure, making a child feel anxious, frightened, and sad 2.chronic conflict between parents often spills over into the parent-child relationship. A wife who frequently confronts her husband may adopt a similar ineffective style when interacting with her children 3.when parents invest time and energy fighting with each other, they're often too tired to invest themselves in high-quality parenting ---- vs when disagreements are handled constructively (e.g., through solution- oriented discussion), children respond positively. ------- When parents don't work together, when they compete, or when they limit each other's access to their children, problems can result; for example, children can become withdrawn -------- influence is work-related stress. not surprisingly, when men and women lead stressful lives at work, they parent less effectively. Sometimes frazzled parents withdraw from family interactions. Over time, this gives the appearance that the parent is detached and uninterested, which makes children anxious and upset.

influences on student achievement? teachers= run their classrooms and how they teach. Teacher-based influences on Student Achievement

--Manage the classroom effectively so they can devote most of their time to instruction. When teachers spend much time disciplining students or when students do not move smoothly from one class activity to the next, instructional time is wasted and students are apt to learn less. ■■ Believe they are responsible for their students' learning and that their students will learn when taught well. When students don't understand a new topic, these teachers may repeat the original instruction (in case students missed something) or create new instructions (in case students just didn't "get it"). These teach- ers keep plugging away because they feel at fault if students don't learn. --Emphasize mastery of topics. Teachers should introduce a topic, then give students many opportunities to understand, practice, and apply the topic. Just as you'd find it hard to go directly from driver's ed to driving a race car, students more often achieve when they grasp a new topic thoroughly and then gradually move to other, more advanced topics. ■■ Teach actively. Effective teachers don't just talk or give students an endless stream of worksheets. Instead, they demonstrate topics concretely, have students partici- pate in class activities, and encourage students to interact, generating ideas and solving problems together. ■■ Pay careful attention to pacing. Teachers present material slowly enough so that students can understand a new concept but not so slowly that students get bored. ■■ Value tutoring. Teachers work with students individually or in small groups so they can gear their instruction to each student's level and check each student's under- standing. They also encourage peer tutoring, in which more capable students tutor less capable students. Children who are tutored by peers learn—and so do the tutors, because teaching helps tutors to organize their knowledge. ■■ Teach students techniques for monitoring and managing their own learning. Stu- dents are more likely to achieve when they are taught how to recognize the aims of school tasks, as well as effective strategies for achieving those aims.

What are the different influences on student achievement? schools= emphasis on academic goals and the involvement of parents.

--Staff and students alike understand that academic excellence is the primary goal of the school and of every student in the school. The school day emphasizes instruction, and students are recognized publicly for their academic accomplishments. in successful schools, the child's parents are involved—often as tutors. Peer tutoring can be effective; both the tutored student and the tutor usually learn. ■■ The school climate is safe and nurturant. Students know that they can devote their energy to learning (instead of worrying about potential harm) and that the staff cares that they succeed. ■■ Parents are involved. In some cases, this may be through formal arrangements such as parent-teacher organizations. or involvement may be informal: Parents may spend some time each week in school grading papers or tutoring a child. Such involvement signals to both teachers and students that parents are committed to students' success. ■■ Progress of students, teachers, and programs is monitored. The only way to know whether schools are succeeding is by measuring performance. Students, teachers, and programs need to be evaluated regularly, using objective measures that reflect academic goals. follow these guidelines regularly, students usually succeed.

How do parents influence play?

-Playmate. Parents often enjoy the role of playmate They use the opportunity to scaffold their children's play making it more sophisticated -Social director. Many parents of young children arrange visits with peers, enroll children in activities -Coach. Successful interactions are based on a host of skills, including how to initi- ate an interaction, make joint decisions, and resolve conflicts. When parents help their children acquire these skills, children tend to be more competent socially and more accepted by their peers -Mediator. When young children play, they often disagree, argue, and fight. However, children play more cooperatively and longer when parents are present

How is divorce and/or remarriage harmful? How can divorced parents help children to better adjust to new circumstance?

-children are distressed by their parents' divorce because it involves conflict between parents, separation from one of them, and economic hardship. -in school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent-child relations, children whose parents had divorced fare poorly -children of divorce are more likely to experience conflict in their own marriages, to have negative attitudes toward marriage, to become depressed, and to become divorced themselves ( ------------------ -Children adjust to divorce more readily if their divorced parents cooperate with each other, especially on disciplinary matters -joint custody, both parents retain legal custody of the children. Children benefit from joint custody if their parents get along -if not, children benefit when fathers remain involved in parenting -Parents should explain together to children why they are divorcing and what their children can expect to happen to them. They should reassure children that they will always love them and always be their parents; -parents should not compete -Parents should neither take out their anger with each other on their children nor criticize their ex-spouse in front of the children. or to listen to disputes

1. Authoritarian parenting

-combines high control with little warmth. These parents lay down rules and expect them to be followed without discussion. These parents emphasize respect and obedience.

How are children effected by it? What are the links to abuse and how can we prevent it?

-suffer permanent physical damage. -disrupted social and emotional development: They tend to have poor relationships with peers, often because they are too aggressive -cognitive development and academic performance are also disturbed. -school-related behavior problems ------ at risk= depends on cultural values and the social conditions -Poverty = more stress -Social isolation also contributes: Abuse is more likely when familiesare socially isolated from other relatives or neighbors. When a family lives in rela- tive isolation, it deprives children of adults who could protect them and deprives parents of social support that would help them better deal with life's stresses -more likely when parents were abused themselves as children, when parents use inef- fective disciplinary techniques, and when parents' interactions with each other are often unpredictable, unsupportive, and unsatisfying for both husbands and wives -Infants and preschoolers are more often abused than older children, probably because they are less able to regulate aversive behaviors that may elicit abuse, such as excessive crying or whining so children who are frequently ill are more often abused. And step- children are at risk for abuse: Parents are less invested emotionally in their stepchildren, making them vulnerable to abuse

Disorganized (disoriented) attachment

. The baby seems confused when the mother leaves and when she returns, as if not really understanding what's happening. least common

2.Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

1 and 3 years children strive for autonomy= independence from others. autonomy is counteracted by children's doubt that they can handle demanding situations and by shame that may result from failure. soo =need A blend of autonomy, shame, and doubt gives rise to **will**, the knowledge that, within limits, youngsters can act on their world intentionally

How do children learn to read and write? What are some specific processes that take place?

1. *learn letters* via reading with an adult, playing with magnetic letters, or trying to print simple words. 2. gain ability to *distinguish the sounds* in spoken words is known as *phonological awareness*. 3. need to learn/ understand the links between printed letters and the word's sound. - not just by sight," -------- steps 1. learning to decode printed words by sounding out the letters in them: say the sounds associated with each letter and then blend the sounds to produce a recognizable word.

Direct instruction, modeling and feedback are all behaviors that influence children. What are the basic concepts behind each of these and are their negative and/or positive aspects to each of them?

1. direct instruction "Clean your room!" "Turn off the TV!"—is not effective. A better approach is direct instruction, which involves telling a child what to do, when, and why. Instead of just shouting, "Share your candy with your brother!" a parent should explain when and why it's important to share with a sibling. 2. modeling -Children learn a great deal from parents simply by watching them. The parents' modeling and the youngsters' observational learning lead to imitation, so children's behavior resembles the behavior they observe. Observational learning explains why parental behavior is often consistent from one generation to the next. For example, when parents rely on harsh physical punishment to discipline their children, these children will, when they are parents, follow suit 3. Feedback - to indicate whether a behavior is appropriate and should continue -*Reinforcement* is any action that increases the likelihood of the response that it follows. Parents may use praise to reinforce a child's studying or give a reward -* Punishment* is any action that discourages the recurrence of the response that it follows. Parents may forbid children to watch television when they get poor grades in school or make children go to bed early for neglecting household chores.

What 2 things finish happening in the brain during adolescence and what is their importance?

1. myelination of brain neurons 2.synaptic pruning-weeding out of unnecessary connections between neurons brain systems that are sensitive to Reward (especially to rewards from peers) reach maturity in adolescence, but the systems responsible for Self-control are not fully specialized until adulthood

What are strategies that children can use to learn and remember? organization

1. organization— structuring information to be remembered by putting related information together. For example, a sixth grader trying to remember major battles of the American Civil War could organize them geographically

How are IQ's measured? Has the measurement formula changed since it was first introduced?

1916, Lewis Terman of Stanford University intelligence quotient, or IQ, which was the ratio of MA to CA, multiplied by 100: IQ = MA/CA × 100 ------------------------ Now== IQ scores are no longer computed as the ratio of MA to CA. Instead, children's IQ scores are determined by *comparing their test performance to the average IQ score of other children their age.* now consists of various cognitive and motor tasks

Are there any gender differences?

2 and 3 years, children begin to prefer playing with same-sex peers Segregation of playmates by sex occurs spontaneously, and children often resist playing with members of the other sex, even in gender-neutral activities such as playing tag or coloring Boys and girls want to play with others like themselves, and after they know their sex, they pick others on that basis -> girls do not readily influence boys. Girls' interactions with one another are typically enabling actions—their actions and remarks tend to support others and sustain the interaction. ex. great picture, what do you want to do now? ->In contrast, boy's inter- actions are often constricting actions—one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threat- ening or contradicting the other, by exaggerating, and so on. In the same drawing task, one boy might say to another, "My picture's better" or this is stupid lets play tag

comprehension

2. Children's language skills improve, which allows them to understand words that they've decoded: As children's vocabulary expands, they are more likely to recognize words that they've decoded. 3. Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing effort to be devoted to comprehension -focus their efforts on deriving meaning from the whole sentence. 4.Children acquire more general knowledge of their physical, social, and psychological worlds. --understand words but not the idea (how a politician is elected) 5. With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies. - 6.With experience, children better monitor their comprehension. - read stuff again

level 2

2. conventional level, adolescents and adults look to society's norms for moral guidance. -Stage 3 individuals might argue that heinz shouldn't steal the drug because he must keep his reputation as an honest man -based on inter- personal norms, the aim of which is to win the approval of other people by behaving as "good people" would. -Stage 4 of the conventional level focuses on social system morality. here, adolescents and adults believe that social roles, expectations, and laws exist to maintain order within society and to promote the good of all people. Stage 4 individuals might reason that heinz shouldn't steal the drug, even though his wife might die, because it is illegal and no one is above the law. A

How often is ADHD diagnosed? What are the treatments?

3 to 7% of all school-age children are diagnosed with atten- tion-deficit hyperactivity disorder—ADHD for short; boys outnum- ber girls by a 4:1 Drug therapy w stimulants Psychosocial treatments are designed to improve children's cognitive and social skills;

3.Initiative Versus Guilt

3-6 yrs **Purpose** they imagine possibilities for themselves. But this initiative is moderated by guilt as children realize that their initiative may place them in conflict with others; they cannot pursue their ambitions with abandon. too = Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others.

When does stranger wariness occur?

6 months, infants become wary in the presence of an unfamiliar adult, a reaction known as stranger wariness. stranger approaches, a 6-month-old typically looks away and begins to fuss Wariness of strangers is adaptive because it emerges at the same time that children begin to master creeping and crawling (described on pages 75-76). Being wary of strang- ers provides a natural restraint against the tendency to wander away

anger fear

4 and 6 months. when something is taken away fear emerges later in the first year.

How does children's thinking change over time?

As children spend more time with other people, they begin to understand other people better. As children develop, their self-descriptions and descriptions of others become richer, more abstract, and more psychological. Until about 10 years of age, children have a bias to look for positive traits, not negative traits, in others. become less egocentric—

What are some actual differences in the abilities between boys and girls?

As infants, boys are generally more active than girls, and this difference increases during childhood girls typically have a lower mortality rate and are less suscep- tible to stress and disease Verbal ability. During the toddler years, girls typically have larger vocabularies than boys more boys are diagnosed with language-related problems such as reading disability Mathematics. During the elementary school years, girls are usually more advanced than boys in arithmetic and mastery of basic math concepts, During high school and college, boys used to get higher scores than girls on standardized math tests, but that difference has diminished substantially over the past 25 years; Males typically respond more rapidly and accurately than females, at some Spatial ability. and mental rotation in two dimensions, girls and women often remember the identity of objects as well as their location more accurately Social influence. Girls are more likely than boys to comply with adults' directions Aggression. Boys are physically more aggressive than girls, and this is evident by 17 months of age girls are more likely to resort to relational aggression, in which they try to hurt others by dam- aging their relationships with peers. Emotional sensitivity. Girls are often better able to express their emotions and interpret others' emotions Effortful control. Girls are more skilled at effortful control: compared with boys, they are better able to regulate their behavior, to inhibit inappropriate responding, and to focus their attention

late on in life

As the first social relationship, infant-parent attachment lays the foundation for the infant's later social relationships Infants who experience the trust and compassion of a secure attachment develop into preschool children who interact confidently and successfully with their peers. children who form an attachment to an adult—that is, an enduring socioemotional relationship—are more likely to survive. most important is the interaction between parents and their babies

Authoritative parenting

Authoritative parenting combines a fair degree of parental control with being warm and responsive to children. Authoritative parents explain rules and encourage dis- cussion. ** best for most children

What determines attachment?

Based on how the infant reacts to separation from—and reunion with— the mother,

What are some basic emotions that we experience?

Basic emotions =experienced by people worldwide, and each consists of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior at 6 months of age, infants are thought to experience all basic emotions culture can influence when and how much children express emotion.

defining characteristics of Piaget's third stage

Concrete Operational Period 7 to 11 years. -Understanding that events can be interpreted in different ways leads to the realization that appearances can be deceiving. -thinking can be reversed bc kids have mental operations—actions that can be performed on objects or ideas and that consistently yield a result. -so realize that the amount of liquid is the same after it has been poured into a different beaker, and they explain that the pouring can always be reversed. have a grip on tangible and real, to the here and now.

Piaget's 4th Stage:

Formal Operational Period 11 to adulthood thinking abstractly and hypothetically is acquired children and adolescents apply psychological operations to abstract entities; they are able to think hypothetically and reason abstractly draw conclusions from facts, which is known as *deductive reasoning* when tested to make a blue liquid, problem is not about pouring liquids but about combining elements until all possible combinations have been tested. pg 156/7

What is the importance of peer relationships in childhood and adolescence? How do children make friends?

Friendship is a vol- untary relationship between two people involving mutual liking. =social and emotional support. Most childhood friends are alike in age, gender, and race and are equals Children with good friends have greater self-esteem, are less likely to be lonely and depressed, and more often act prosocially by sharing and cooperating clique—a small group of children or adolescents who are friends and tend to be similar in age, sex, race, and attitudes. Members of a clique spend time together and often dress, talk, and act alike. crowd- is a larger mixed-sex group of older children or adolescents who have similar values and attitudes and are known by a common label

nature and nurture play a part in intelligence? Are there other factors that play a part in intelligence?

Heredity's role is shown by test scores becoming more alike as siblings become more similar genetically environment : greater IQ scores when the family environment is intellectually stimulating if natured and given books, expose children to stimulating experiences outside the home, such as visits to museums

How is social referencing important for small children?

Infants in an unfamiliar or ambiguous environment often look at their mother or father as if searching for cues to help them interpret the situation, referencing shows that infants are remarkably skilled in using the emotions of adults to help them direct their own behavior. if mom looks scared of object don't touch it

What constitutes maltreatment?

Maltreatment includes = physical abuse involving assault that leads to injuries sexual abuse involving fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behaviors. neglect, not giving children adequate food, clothing, or medical care. psychological abuse—ridicule, rejection, and humiliation 75% of cases are neglected

What is menarche? What body systems prompt puberty to occur?

Menarche, the onset of menstruation, typically occurs at about age 13. spermarche, the first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-laden fluid. ------------- pituitary gland = GH and signals the adrenal glands to release androgens, social environment also influences the onset of puberty, at least for girls. Men- arche occurs at younger ages in girls who experience chronic stress

How do parents reinforce gender roles? How are roles evolving in our modern times?

Parents and others thus shape appropriate gender roles in children, and children learn what their culture consid- ers appropriate behavior for males and females by simply watching how adults and peers act Fathers are more likely than mothers to treat sons and daughters differently and to encourage gender-related play. Fathers punish their sons more, but they accept dependence in their daughters By 3 years, youngsters are critical of peers who engage in gender-inappropriate play In gender-schema theory,children first decide whether an object, activity, or behavior is associated with females or males; then they use this information to decide whether they should learn more about the object, activ- ity, or behavior. roles had never been broader- stated in 60s and 70s

When are peers most influential in a child's life?

Peers are most influential when (1) youth are younger and more socially anxious; (2) peers have high status or are friends; (3) standards for appropriate behavior are not clear-cut, as in tastes in music or clothing or standards for smoking and drinking

How do children learn to "help"?

Prosocial behavior is any behavior that benefits another person. -ex. cooperation—that is, working together toward a common goal -individuals gain more than they would by not cooperating. - altruism is behavior driven by feelings of responsibility toward other people, such as helping and sharing, in which individuals do not benefit directly from their actions. -ex. When two youngsters pool their funds to buy a candy bar to share= cooperative behavior. When one youngster gives half of her lunch to a peer who forgot his own= altruism. -->humans are biologically predisposed to help, to share, to cooperate, and to be concerned for others -by 18 months -> sympathetic nervous system is activated, ->children recognize signs of distress. - empathy, or experi- encing another's feelings. children who deeply feel another individual's fear, disappointment, sorrow, or loneliness are more inclined to help

Specifically what occurs during puberty?

Puberty = bodily change and sexual maturation bodily= increases in height and weight, as well as changes in the body's fat and muscle content. sexual maturation= change in the reproductive organs and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and body hair and growth of the breasts.

sadness

Sadness is also observed at 3 months

Avoidant attachment.

The baby is not upset when the mother leaves and, when she returns, may ignore her by looking or turning away. Infants with an avoidant attach- ment look as if they're saying, "you left me again.

Resistant attachment.

The baby is upset when the mother leaves, remains upset or even angry when she returns, and is difficult to console. These babies seem to be telling the mother, "Why do you do this? I need you desperately, yet you leave me without warning. I get so angry."

What are the different forms of attachment?What form is the most common in the US? Secure attachment.

The baby may or may not cry when the mother leaves, but when she returns the baby wants to be with her—if the baby is crying, it stops. "I missed you terribly; I'm delighted to see you, but now that all is well, I'll get back to what I was doing." A -most American babies are this

How do researchers test children for creativity and giftedness?

Traditionally, giftedness was defined by scores on intelligence tests: a score of 130 or greater was the criterion for being gifted. ability is sub- stantially above average; divergent thinking, where the aim is not a single correct answer but fresh and unusual lines of thought -different innovative ways to a common stimu- lus- like the circle paper exceptional talent must be nurtured. stereotype is that gifted children are often emotionally troubled and unable to get along with their peers. In reality, gifted children and adults tend to be more mature than their peers and have fewer emotional problems

different types of play? How does play progress as children get older and become more social?

Two 6-month- olds together look, smile, and point at each other. Over the next few months, infants laugh and babble when with other infants -Soon after, children begin *parallel play*, in which each youngster plays alone but is interested in what another is doing. -15 to 18 months, toddlers no longer simply watch one another at play. Instead, they engage in similar activities and talk or smile at one another, illustrating *simple social play*.

Uninvolved parenting

Uninvolved parenting provides neither warmth nor control. Indifferent and unin- volved parents provide for their children's basic physical and emotional needs but little else. They avoid spending time with their children and avoid becoming emotionally involved with them. If Tanya's parents had this style, she might have gone to the concert without asking, knowing that her parents don't care and would rather not be bothered.

What are some different methods or strategies that adolescents use to problem solve?

adolescents are more likely to solve problems analytically—determining an answer mathemati- cally or logically, depending on the nature of the problem Adolescents are also better skilled at finding weaknesses in arguments. In logical rea- soning, they can pinpoint flaws in arguments adolescents use their reasoning skills selectively, raising their standards to dismiss findings that threaten their beliefs and low- ering them to admit findings compatible with their beliefs.

What does the group structure look like? What are the consequences of rejection?

all groups= have *dominance hierarchy*, headed by a leader to whom all other members of the group defer. -Groups establish norms—standards of behavior norms make peer pressure --- Rejected children are disliked by many classmates. -->many are overly aggressive, hyperactive, socially unskilled, and unable to regulate their emotions, more hostile than popular aggressive children and seem to be aggressive for the sheer fun of it, which peers dislike - shy, withdrawn, timid, and not surprisingly, lonely

cooperative play

at2 yrs Now a theme organizes children's play, and children take on special roles based on the theme. They may play hide-and-seek and alternate the roles of hider and seeker, involves make-believe. promotes cognitive development. children who spend much time in make-believe play tend to be more advanced in language, memory, and executive functioning

Know the 4 different types of parenting styles. Which is more commonly used in the US? Which is the most harmful to the child?

children benefit from warm and responsive parenting -Best: minimal psychological control combined with an intermediate amount of behavioral control(to set rules) ---------

Writing gets better as we get older bcccc

contribute to improved writing as children develop : -Knowledge About Topics,children have more to tell as they gain more knowledge about the world and incorporate this knowledge into their writing -organizing material in a manner that readers find clear and interesting. -*knowledge telling strategy*, writing down information on the topic as they retrieve it from memory. to -knowledge-transforming strategy, deciding what information to include and how best to organize it for the point they wish to convey to the reader. -Mechanical requirements , spelling, punctuation, and forming the letters. -

other media

use media to pursue three activities: watching videos such as those posted on YouTube, playing video games, and communicating with peers through social networking sites

basic tenet's of Erikson's first three stages of psychosocial development.

development is portrayed as a series of eight stages, each has unique crisis for psychosocial growth. When a crisis is resolved successfully, an area of psychosocial strength is established only need to know first 3: 1.Basic Trust Versus Mistrust 2.Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt 3.Initiative Versus Guilt

Familiarize yourself with Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning. Understand the basic principles of each stage.

each level is divided into two stages. 1. *preconventional level* moral reasoning is based on external forces. For most children, many adolescents, and some adults, moral reasoning is controlled almost exclusively by rewards and punishments. --- stage 1 moral reasoning assume an obedience orientation, which means believing that authority figures know what is right and wrong. -->At this stage, one might argue that heinz shouldn't steal the drug because an authority figure said he shouldn't do it. --- stage 2 is instrumental orientation, in which they look out for their own needs. Stage 2 individuals are nice to others because they expect the favor to be returned. Someone at this stage could justify stealing the drug because heinz's wife might do something nice for heinz in return.

How does nutrition play a major role in the life of an adolescent?

eat the right amount of calories but get not enough iron or calcium and far too much sodium and fat. so With inadequate iron, teens are often listless and moody; with inadequate calcium, bones may not develop fully, placing the person at risk for osteoporosis later in life.

elaboration

elaboration— embellishing information to make it more memorable. imagine a child who can't remember whether the second syllable of rehearsal is spelled her or hear. The child could remember the cor- rect spelling by reminding himself that rehearsal is like re-hear-ing. ------ also 3. external aids to memory, such as making notes and writing down information on calendars

What are the main differences with father-infant relationships than with mother-infant relationships?

first develops between infants and their mother, - fathers =spend more time playing with their babies than taking care of them. -emphasize physical play, -mothers= spend more time reading and talking to babies, showing them toys, and playing quiet games - Many infants prefer to play with their father but turn to their mother when distressed

Describe the different theories of intelligence. Who was the founding father of these theories? FF?

founding father; 100 years ago, Spearman (1904) claimed that a general factor for intelligence is responsible for performance on all mental tests. Later, Thurstone and Thurstone (1941) emphasized more specific factors, such as word fluency, number proficiency, and rea- soning.

How are gross and fine motor skills improving during the elementary school years?

growth and to provide energy for their busy lives, school-age chil- dren need to eat more. Although preschool children need only consume about 1,500 to 1,700 calories per day, the average 7- to 10-year-old needs about 2,400 calories Elementary-school children's greater size and strength contribute to improved motor skills. GROSS= children steadily run faster and jump farther. By the time children are 11 years old, most can throw a ball at least three times farther than they could at age 6 and can jump nearly twice as far. FINE=greater dexterity is evident in a host of activities, ranging from typing, writing, and drawing to working on puzzles, playing the piano, and building model cars. Children gain greater control over their fingers and hands, making them nimbler. gender differences Girls tend to excel in fine motor skills; their handwriting tends to be better Girls also excel in gross motor skills that require flexibility and balance, such as tumbling. gross motor skills that emphasize strength, boys usually have the advantage.

What is the difference between hostile and instrumental aggression? What are some obvious signs of an aggressive child? How do victims fare?

instrumental aggression= a child uses aggression to achieve an explicit goal. Hostile aggression is unprovoked and is designed to intimidate, harass, or humiliate another child. hostile aggression is illustrated by a child who spontaneously says, "You're stupid!" and then kicks a classmate. obvious signs= 6-month-olds who tried to bite or strike other people were, as 3-year-olds, more likely to kick or hit peers to obtain toys. --------- when children are chronic victims of aggression, they're often lonely, anxious, and depressed; they dislike school; and they have low self-esteem victims are kids who often overreact, are restless, and are easily irritated. bc Their aggressive peers soon learn that these children are easily baited.

How do you define a child with an intellectual disability? What are some examples of this?

intellectual disability, which refers to substantial limitations in intellectual ability, as well as problems adapting to an environment, with both emerging before 18 years of age. 70 or less on an intelligence test such as the Stanford-Binet. Biomedical factors, including chromosomal disorders, malnutrition, and traumatic brain injury ■■ Social factors, such as poverty and impaired parent-child interactions ■■ Behavioral factors, such as child neglect or domestic violence ■■ Educational factors, including inadequate special education services --risk for intellectual disability grows as more of these factors are present ex. Down syndrome

Children's Contributions: Reciprocal Influence to parents

kids behaviors, attitudes, and interests, children affect how their parents behave toward them. - they respond and parent differently differently to children based on their -age - temperament. -Children's behavior helps determine how parents treat them, and the resulting parental behavior influences children's behavior, which in turn causes parents to again change their behav- ior

How do they develop prejudice?

many adults are prejudiced against individuals solely based on their membership in a racial, ethnic, or religious group. many children automatically associate their group with positive features and associate other groups with bad features Some scientists believe that bias and prejudice emerge naturally out of chil- dren's efforts to understand their social world via categorize animate and inanimate objects

Solitary Play

many forms, and most are normal—even healthy. Spending play- time alone coloring, solving puzzles, or assembling legos is not a sign of maladjustment.

What influences children to want to help others?

most likely to help when they feel responsible for the person in need, have the needed skills, are happy, and believe they have little to lose. also Genes affect prosocial behavior: Identical twins are more similar in their prosocial behavior than are fraternal twins *genetic influence involves oxytocin*

Describe the different theories of intelligence. 1. Gardner's (1983, 2002, 2006) theory of multiple intelligences. D

nine distinct intelligences linguistic,= know word meaning and ability logical-mathematical= relations that exist among objects, actions, and ideas, and logical or mathematical operations spatial= Perceiving objects accurately and in minds eye Musical= Comprehending and producing sounds bodily-kinesthetic=using body in differentiated ways (dancers, craftspeople, athletes) interpersonal,=Identifying feelings, moods, motivations, and intentions in others intrApersonal= Understanding one's emotions and knowing one's strengths and weaknesses naturalistic= understand natural world existential intelligences= ultimate" issues, such as the purpose of life

Permissive parenting

offers warmth and caring but little control. These parents generally accept their children's behavior and punish them infrequently. An indul- gent and permissive parent would readily agree to Tanya's or Sheila's request to go to the concert simply because the child wants to go.

happiness

onset of happiness is evident in a baby's smiles. However, an important change occurs at about 2 to 3 months of age. At this age, social smiles first appear; infants smile when they see another human face.

What are the causes and consequences (including disorders) of being overweight?

overweight youngsters are often unpopular and have low self-esteem They are also at risk for many medical problems throughout life, -heredity—Parents—Sedentary lifestyle—Too little sleep— anorexia nervosa, a disorder marked by a persistent refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being overweight. bulimia nervosa alternate between binge eating periods, when they eat uncontrollably, and purging through self-induced vomiting or use of laxa- tives.

Does the arrival of new siblings cause a change in behavior or family dynamic? If yes, how so?

parents are excited for new kid, so children are too -Some children get distressed, sad, and less responsive to parents, responses that are more common with younger children -Parents can minimize their older children's distress by remaining attentive to their needs -older siblings enjoy helping their parents take care of a newborn. -As the infant grows, interactions between siblings become more frequent and more complicated. -older source of care and comfort for younger siblings and teach them -some siblings grow close, Other siblings constantly argue, compete -Siblings more often get along when they believe that parents have no "favorites"

Level 3: Postconventional Level

postconventional level, moral reasoning is based on a personal moral code. The emphasis is no longer on external forces like punishment, reward, or social roles. In stage 5, people base their moral reasoning on a social contract. Adults agree that members of social groups adhere to a social contract because a common set of expectations and laws benefits all group members. however, if these expectations and laws no longer promote the welfare of individuals, they become invalid. -->stage 5 individuals might reason that heinz should steal the drug because social rules about property rights no longer benefit individuals' welfare. -->stage 6 of the postconventional level, abstract principles such as justice, compassion, and equality form the basis of a personal code that may sometimes conflict with society's expectations and laws. Stage 6 individuals might argue that heinz should steal the drug because saving a life takes precedence over everything, including the law.

complex emotions

pride, guilt, and embarrassment. don't surface until 18 to 24 months of age because they depend on the child having some understanding of the self,

What are the differences between primary sex characteristics and secondary sex characteristics?

primary sex characteristics= organs that are directly involved in reproduction. -> ovaries, uterus, and vagina in girls -> scrotum, testes, and penis in boys. -------------- secondary sex characteristics= physical signs of maturity that are not directly linked to the reproductive organs. -> growth of breasts and the widening of the pelvis in girls, -> the appearance of facial hair and the broadening of shoulders in boys, -> body hair and changes in voice and skin in both boys and girls.

best thing for going up

secure attachment is most likely when parents respond to infants predictably and appropriately. so Infants develop an internal working model, a set of expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness.

At what ages do they typically occur? 1.Basic Trust Versus Mistrust

so starts at birth to 1 year -- newborns leave the warmth and security of the uterus for an unfamiliar world. trust in oneself and others is the foundation of human development. With a proper balance of trust and mistrust, infants acquire **hope**— an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that discomfort or danger may arise.

Are the tests valid? Why or why not?

some young- sters with high test scores do not excel in school and others with low test scores get better grades self- discipline predicts grades in school even better than IQ scores but IQ tests do a reasonable job of predicting school success and predict occupational success greater IQ scores tend to live longer bc less likely to do dumb stuff-smoke/drink and stay active physically, and they eat more healthfully

What effect does technology have on children (TV, computers, video games etc.)?

technology is key role in development -children become more aggressive after viewing violence on television and children learn about gender stereotypes from TV -help children learn to be more generous and coopera- tive and to have greater self-control -Sesame Street= ++++ shows the power of TV can be harnessed to help children learn important academic skills and useful social skills. studies show Increased TV viewing does NOTT lead to reduced attention, greater impul- sivity, reduced task persistence, or increased activity levels content of TV programs can influence these dimensions of children's behavior—children who watch impulsive models behave more impulsively themselves—but TV per se does not harm children's ability to pay attention. **so is not sheer amount of TV that children watch but the Content that affects child development

Who created intelligence testing?

who= 1904, Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon looked at Children's mental age (MA) vs (CA) chronological age for a French school -Children whose mental age was greater than their CA tended to do well in school, but children whose mental age was less than their CA did not.

how they learn to help

■■ Modeling. When children see adults helping and caring for others, they often imitate such prosocial behavior Parents are the models to whom children are most continuously exposed, so they exert a powerful influence. Parents who report frequent feelings of warmth and concern for others tend to have children who experience stronger feelings of empathy. When a mother is helpful and responsive, her children often imitate her by being cooperative, helpful, sharing, and less critical of others. ■■ Disciplinary practices. children behave prosocially more often when their parents are warm and supportive, set guidelines, and provide feedback; in contrast, proso- cial behavior is less common when parenting is harsh, is threatening, and includes frequent physical punishment (Knight & carlo, 2012; Moreno, Klute, & Robinson, 2008). Particularly important is parents' use of reasoning as a disciplinary tactic, with the goal of helping children see how their actions affect others. The Real People feature shows this practice in action. ■■ Opportunities to behave prosocially. children and adolescents are more likely to act prosocially when they're routinely given the opportunity to help and cooperate with others (choi, Johnson, & Johnson, 2011). At home, children can help with household tasks, such as cleaning and setting the table. Experiences like these help sensitize children to the needs of others and allow them to enjoy the satisfaction of helping

What are the different forms of helping behavior?

■■Feelings of responsibility. children act altruistically when they *feel responsible for the person in need.* For example, children may help siblings and friends more often than strangers simply because they feel a direct responsibility for people they know well ■■ Feelings of competence. children act altruistically when they *feel they have the skills needed to help.* example, that a preschooler is growing increas- ingly upset because he can't figure out how a toy works. A peer unfamiliar with the toy is less likely to help, because the peer doesn't know what to do and could end up looking foolish ■■ Mood. children act altruistically *when they are happy or feeling successful* but not when they are sad or feeling as if they have failed (Wentzel, Filisetti, & looney, 2007). A preschool child who has just spent an exciting morning as the "leader" in nursery school is more inclined to share treats with siblings than is a preschooler who was punished by the teacher ■■ Costs of altruism. children act altruistically *when it costs them little.* A preschool child who was given a snack that she doesn't particularly like is more inclined to share it with others than one who was given her favorite food