Human Evolution Final
How is an understanding of the biological basis of human variation a refutation of racism?
"There is great genetic diversity within all human populations. Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogenous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past." "A common claim...is that racial categories are of considerable medical use, especially in diagnostic testing because some genetic disorders are very common in ancestral racial populations. For example sickle cell anemia is common among West Africans, who were brought as slaves to the New World, and Tay-Sachs disease is common among Ashkenazi Jews. So, it is argued, racial information can be a useful diagnostic indicator...There is a confusion here between race and ancestry.
shovel-shaped incisor
A dental trait commonly found among Native Americans and Asians where the incisor's posterior aspect has varying degrees of concavity.
occipital bun
An occipital bun is a prominent bulge or projection of the occipital bone at the back of the skull. It is important in scientific descriptions of classic Neanderthal crania. While common among many of humankind's ancestors, primarily robust relatives rather than gracile, the protrusion is relatively rare in modern Homo sapiens.
Charles Dawson
Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward (1912) they wanted to find out more about human ancestors are - how far back can we go, and find the oldest human ancestor? At this time, there was a huge race to find the earliest human ancestor. People were finding tons of stone tools and fossils, but there weren't many things to find in England. So Dawson and Woodward were obsessed with finding something in England. They found an old and thick skull cap - they also found a jaw portion that had traits that look like a great ape, but it had human-like patterns of chewing. So they asked the question, what essential characteristic draws the line between when we were human versus when we were "apes"?
cline
Cline: geographic continuum, a gradual change from one population to the next - I.e. blood type frequencies or skin color - Lewontin and genetic variation studies show there is more variation with populations than between them
browridge / supraorbital torus
Considerable variation exists between hominoid species in the morphology of the supraorbital region. Gorillas and chimpanzees (and most fossil hominins) possess a prominent supraorbital torus, or brow ridge, presenting as a continuous projecting ridge above the orbits and nose (although continuous, the torus is anatomically divisible into three regions: laterally positioned supraorbital trigones, medially positioned supercillary arches, and a midline glabellar prominence). In these species with prominent brow ridges, a supratoral sulcus is generally present as a shallow groove just posterior to the torus. Humans and orangutans lack prominent brow ridges.
Ancient DNA
DNA does preserve but eventually decays and becomes highly fragmentary (the Neandertal genome comes from lots of ) - can't get DNA from fossils because fossils are stones. Within acient DNA there are two types - mitochondrial (a lot easier to recover but it doesn't give us a complete picture because we only get half the picture and it goes through matrilineal descent) - so we want nuclear DNA not mitochondrial (nuclear comes from the cells) and shows the entire picture genetically. You can extract information from MT DNA if there are similarities or dissimilarities between two populations. Mitochondrial preserves better but doesn't give us as much info
What happens to DNA after death?
DNA does preserve but eventually decays and becomes highly fragmentary (the Neandertal genome comes from lots of ) - can't get DNA from fossils because fossils are stones. Within acient DNA there are two types - mitochondrial (a lot easier to recover but it doesn't give us a complete picture because we only get half the picture and it goes through matrilineal descent) - so we want nuclear DNA not mitochondrial (nuclear comes from the cells) and shows the entire picture genetically. You can extract information from MT DNA if there are similarities or dissimilarities between two populations. Mitochondrial preserves better but doesn't give us as much info
autosomal / nuclear DNA
DNA does preserve but eventually decays and becomes highly fragmentary (the Neandertal genome comes from lots of ) - can't get DNA from fossils because fossils are stones. Within acient DNA there are two types - mitochondrial (a lot easier to recover but it doesn't give us a complete picture because we only get half the picture and it goes through matrilineal descent) - so we want nuclear DNA not mitochondrial (nuclear comes from the cells) and shows the entire picture genetically. You can extract information from MT DNA if there are similarities or dissimilarities between two populations. Mitochondrial preserves better but doesn't give us as much info
mitochondrial DNA
DNA does preserve but eventually decays and becomes highly fragmentary (the Neandertal genome comes from lots of ) - can't get DNA from fossils because fossils are stones. Within acient DNA there are two types - mitochondrial (a lot easier to recover but it doesn't give us a complete picture because we only get half the picture and it goes through matrilineal descent) - so we want nuclear DNA not mitochondrial (nuclear comes from the cells) and shows the entire picture genetically. You can extract information from MT DNA if there are similarities or dissimilarities between two populations. Mitochondrial preserves better but doesn't give us as much info
La Chapelle-aux-Saints
Definition: A Neandertal skeleton described in great detail by French paleontologist Marcellin oule in the early 1900s. Signif: The skeleton shows evidence of healed injuries and arthritis. Boule argued that its cranial and postcranial traits were very primitive, creating lasting stereotypes about Neadertals.
Skhul
Definition: A cave site in Israel excavated in 1928 where the remains of a hominin descendant of H. heidelbergensis was found. Signif: Skhul also represents one area where Neanderthals - present in the region from 200,000 to 45,000 years ago - lived alongside these humans dating to 100,000 years ago.
Levallois technique
Definition: A distinctive feature of the Mousterian tool industry that involves a complex type of flaking. Signif: The complexity and distinctiveness of this flaking technique indicated that Neandertals were more coordinated and intelligant than thought by many early anthropologists.
Denisovans
Definition: An extinct species of human in the genus Homo first discovered in Siberia in the 1970's. Signif: Example of analysis of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of a Denisovan finger bone showing it to be genetically distinct from the mtDNAs of Neanderthals and modern humans. Study of the DNA revealed this entirely new species
Potassium Argon Dating
Definition: Based on the fact that some of the radioactive isotope of Potassium, Potassium-40 (K-40) ,decays to the gas Argon as Argon-40 (Ar-40). By comparing the proportion of K-40 to Ar-40 in a sample of volcanic rock, and knowing the decay rate of K-40, the date that the rock formed can be determined. Signif: The only viable technique for dating very old archaeological materials. Geologists have used this method to date rocks as much as 4 billion years old.
Oase
Definition: Cave in Romania Signif: Where one of the oldest early modern human remains in Europe (37,800 years old) have been discovered. The latest radiocarbon dates of the Oase fossils give an age of 37,800 years BP.
Nariokotome
Definition: Discovered in 1984, the skeleton, WT-15000, is that of an approximately 11-12 year old boy in Nariokotome. Signif: Up until the origins of deliberate burials, this is the most complete skeleton of our ancestors ever found. Possesses some very interesting biological features, including a very tall stature, a brain of 800+ ml, and relatively small teeth
Jean-Jacques Hublin
Definition: French Paleoanthropologist known for his work on the Pleistocene hominins, and on the Neandertals and early Homo sapiens. Signif: He used cladistic methods to demonstrate that Neandertals were rooted much earlier than was thought at the time. His views on Neandertal evolution were later fully confirmed by various discoveries, in particular, by the spectacular discovery of the fossil series from Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Spain).
Dmanisi
Definition: In the Republic of Georgia, extensive paleoanthropological investigations occurred after early stone tools were discovered in 1984. Significance: More than 20 hominin remains were found dated to about 1.5-1.8 myr. These fossils provide evidence for single evolving lineage of early ancestors.
Anatomically Modern Human
Definition: Individual members of the species Homo sapiens with an appearance consistent with the range of phenotypes in modern humans. Significance: The emergence of anatomically modern human marks the dawn of the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, i.e. the subspecies of Homo sapiens to which all humans alive today belong. Some of the oldest fossil remains of anatomically modern humans are the Skhul hominids from Israel, which are 90,000 years old.
La Ferrassie
Definition: La Ferrassie is an archaeological site in Savignac-de-Miremont, in the Dordogne department, France. Artifacts found at the site are the productions of Mousterian (300-30,000 BP), Aurignacian (45-35,000 BP), and Périgordian (35-20,000 BP) cultures Signif: Eight buried Neanderthals have been found in La Ferrassie, including infants and two fetuses. (The corpse had been placed in a corner of the shelter on a portion of the soil sloping slightly towards the wall and near the wall. The soil was formed by the debris and household detritus of the previous inhabitants, the Acheulean. )
diastema/gap between teeth
One of the major changes throughout hominid evolution, are the changes to the dental morphology and jaw. These changes were driven by the types and processing of food eaten. The evolution of the jaw is thought to have facilitated encephalization, speech, and the formation of the chin, a uniquely human feature.
Zhoukoudian
Definition: Located in North China, Zhoukoudian is the most northerly of the early Homo sites. H. erectus remains were discovered called the "Peking Man between 1923-1927. Signif: Possibly the first indirect evidence for the use of clothing, burnt bones indicating use of fire, no evidence for burials and little for sexual dimorphism More; Though it is unclear whether the hominids actually occupied the cave during the winter. If so, it would be the first indirect evidence for the use of clothing. Along with fossil bones of about 45 individuals, there are stone tools as well as animal bones with cut marks and burnt bones indicating the use of fire. No evidence for burials. Evidence suggests a long term but intermittent occupation of the site between 600-400,000 yr General features like those of other H. erectus, including large brow ridges with low sloping foreheads and projecting faces without a chin. Brain sizes varied from 900 to 1200ml, the latter within the range of living humans. Little evidence of sexual dimorphism in this sample, but it is more obvious in the African members of H. erectus.
FOXP2
Definition: Mutation of this gene leads to deficits in "linguistic processing" and "orofacial movements" Two specific mutations in FOX2P are "fixed" in humans compared to chimpanzees. Signif: FOX2P Gene associated with language appears in Neandertals so perhaps there was language ability.
Shanidar
Definition: Site excavated in the later 1950's. Neandertal remains were found by an American team of archeologists. Siginif: The remains showed evidence that the neandertals intentionally buried their dead and possibly performed some type of burial ceremony.
Ubeidiya
Definition: Site on the Jordan River in Israel, on a natural corridor out of Africa. Signif: No hominid fossils, but stone tools similar to those from East Africa (Oldowan), and many African mammal bones. Dated to about 1.5-1.6 myr
hyoid
Definition: The hyoid bone is horseshoe shaped bone, really more cartilage than bone, that sits atop our voiceboxes which in turn sit on top of the trachea. Signif: The appearance of the hyoid bone in the humanoid fossil record occurred possibly 800,000 years ago. Israeli Neanderthal found with hyoid, which was just like a modern human hyoid. Possible evidence for Neanderthal speech
Atapuerca / Sima de los Huesos
Definition: The most famous archeological site in Atapuerca, called the Sima de los Huesos (the pit of bones). Beginning in 1997, the excavation team has located more than 5,500 human bones dated to an age of at least 350,000 years old, corresponding to the Middle Pleistocene and representing around 28 skeletons of the species Homo heidelbergensis Signif: There is controversy as to whether these remains were buried. The excavators suggest that the concentration of bones in the pit may represent the practice of burial by the inhabitants of the cave. A competing theory cites the lack of small bones in the assemblage and suggests that the remains were washed into the pit by natural agencies.
Mousterian
Definition: The name of the culture associated with Neandertals, which had a stone tool technology lasting around 300,000-20,000 yBP. Signif: The use of such tools would have replaced the use of front teeth as tools, reducing the amount of anterior tooth wear in some later Neandertals.
Atlatl/Throwing Spear
Definition: This was a wood or bone rod with a hook on one end that fit into a socket at the base of a spear. This device was used as an aid in throwing spears. Signif: It increased the range and force of impact of projectiles by essentially increasing the length of the spear thrower's arm. The net effect was that hunters did not need to get as close to prey before throwing their spears. The fact that these weapon systems were developed toward the end of the last ice age is probably not a coincidence. They were technological solutions for the growing difficulty of acquiring meat.
Vindija
Definition: Vindija is a cave located in northern Croatia, known for being the site of one of the best preserved remains of Neanderthals fossils in the world, found in 1974. Signif: It is estimated that Neanderthals lived there about 45,000-32,000 years ago. One of these Neanderthals was selected as primary source of DNA for the Neanderthal genome project.
selective sweep
Definition: a region of the genome that stays relatively unchanged because of selective pressure on beneficial mutations within that region) Signig: There was a relatively recent (200,000 years ago) "selective sweep" in the FOX2P region of the human genome
Perning
Earliest of a series of sites on the island of Java (Indonesia). A child's skull is dated to 1.6-1.8 myr
Out of Africa Model
Early members of the modern human genus Homo are found in Africa between 2 - 1.8 million years ago. There is evidence of these early humans on the island of Java sometime after 1.8 million years ago. Thus, about this time, there is a spread out of Africa, and into Eurasia. No one knows why this expansion of range occurred. From this point in human evolution on, the Old World is more or less populated by human ancestors. Keep in mind that the glacials, or ice ages, periodically descended in the northern hemisphere, making large areas uninhabitable. After our ancestors spread out of Africa, there begins a time of human evolution which will culminate with the appearance of modern humans in various parts of the world. How they evolved and the precise evolutionary pathways, are much in dispute. Some possible explanations why early Homo left Africa and expanded into Eurasia include an increase in cultural complexity, or the breakdown of a barrier at the Suez bottleneck
Are humans and Neanderthals separate species or the same? Use evidence to support your answer.
Fossil hominins who occupied Europe and the Middle East from about 150,000-30,000 years ago, when they disappear from the scene. Some view them as a subspecies of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), while others place them in their own species: H. neanderthalensis. Morphologically, they possessed large brain cases, with low and long skulls and large projecting faces lacking a chin. They were capable of very complex behavior, including the deliberate burial of their dead.
During the early Homo grade of human evolution there is a significant shift in our ancestors both behaviorally and anatomically. List and explain four ways in which the early Homo grade differed significantly from earlier hominid taxa.
In comparison to the australopithecines, the early members of the genus Homo possess: 1. Molars and premolar are smaller in their width (side to side) dimension than those of the australopithecines. 2. The mandible and maxilla are less massive with muscle attachment areas smaller and reduced in robustness. 3. Brain volumes vary (from 510 - 800ml.), but are, in general, larger, and housed in a brain case with a higher, more rounded shape
Homo sapiens
Location/Date: Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 195,000 years ago (see Omo remains), and studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approximate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago. Signif: H. sapiens is the only surviving species of the genus Homo. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapiens species, of which the only extant subspecies is known as Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo neanderthalensis
Location: Discovered in Belgium 1829 Date: Became extinct around 40,000 years ago. Signif: Neanderthals or Neandertals were a species or subspecies of archaic human, in the genus Homo. They were closely related to modern humans, sharing 99.7% of DNA.
Homo floresiensis
Location: In 2003, found the skeleton on the Indonesian island of Flores Date: Lived as recently as 18,000 years ago Signif: Extremely tiny brain (400 cc) and stood only above 1 meter. A possible new species but this is still debated
Homo rudolfensis
Location: Lake Turkana Date: About 1.8 -1.9 myr. Signif: The fossils possess very large brain volumes (750-800ml), but also very large, australopithecine-size molar teeth. Are the H. rudolfensis fossils the males, and the H. habilis fossils the females of a single, sexually dimorphic species?
Homo heidelbergensis
Location: Lived in Europe, parts of Asia (China), Africa (eastern & southern) Date: ~700,000 - 200,000 years ago Signif: 1st early human species to live in colder climates (short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat)
Homo antecessor
Location: More than 80 bone fragments from six individuals were uncovered in 1994 and 1995 in Gran Dolina Date: From 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago Signif: Various archaeologists and anthropologists have debated how H. antecessor relates to other Homo species in Europe, with suggestions that it was an evolutionary link between H. ergaster and H. heidelbergensis.
Homo habilis
Location: Olduvai Gorge and east Lake Turkana Date: Fossils are dated to 1.7 - 1.8 myr Signif: Earliest homo species! H. habilis possesses a brain size of between 510-650ml, larger than those of the australopithecines, but smaller than other species of early Homo. H. habilis has less broad molar and premolar cheek teeth than australopithecines.
Homo erectus
Location: Olduvai Gorge, Lake Turkana, South Africa Date: Earliest H. erectus fossil dated at 1.8myr Signif: Firest hominin species to move out of Africa into Asia and Europe. H. erectus possessed very large brains (800ml), like H. rudolfensis, but also reduced in size back chewing teeth, like H. habilis. H. erectus is the most reasonable of the early Homo species to be considered ancestor to later in time hominids (modern humans).
Homo naledi
Location: South Africa's Gauteng province, in the Rising Star Cave system Date: The fossils were discovered by recreational cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker in 2013 Signif: The species is characterized by a body mass and stature similar to small-bodied human populations, a smaller endocranial volume similar to Australopithecus, and a skull shape similar to early Homo species.
midfacial prognathism
Many scientists argue that the midfacial prognathism found in H. neanderthalensis is an adaptation to counteract strong forces placed on the front teeth during chewing or non-chewing behaviors (e.g., to hold hides while working them). Other scientists have suggested that midfacial prognathism was a mechanism to increase the size of the sinuses in order to warm the air in the cold environments in which Homo neanderthalensis lived.
Middle Paleolithic
Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age) 250 kya - 35 kya Mousterian and Aterian industries (neandertals and early modern humans)
deliberate burial of the dead
No amount of ancient DNA would tell us whether the Neandertals buried their dead. The earliest evidence for the deliberate burial of the dead is about 115,000 years ago at Skhul Cave, northern Israel. It has often been suggested that when our ancestors began this practice, it represented the origins of symbolic behavior, or at least religious beliefs and concept of the self. These first burials were NOT performed only by modern human-like creatures, but by Neandertals, like the Kebara Neandertal also in Israel, but also many Neandertals in Western Europe
Multi-Regional Model
Some people think that this model and the Out of Africa Model are the same, but the Multi-Regional Model doesn't dictate that there was a second wave of Out of Africa migration, they don't see any one place as a ground zero for modern humans, but human evolution is instead happening everywhere. The evidence used in support of multi regional evolutionary models of human origins are series of time ordered fossils from China and Southeast Asia. 1. In China, it is suggested that from the time of the Zhoukoudian fossils through Dali, there is a continuity of relatively flat faces and shovel-shaped incisors. 2. In Southeast Asia, the evidence of relatively flat and sloping frontal bones with strongly marked temporal lines with strong supraorbital torus development and relatively projecting faces are part of an ongoing pattern first observed in the early fossils from Java, and still seen in living Australians
Svante Pääbo
Svante Pääbo has transformed views of human evolution by sequencing the genomes of archaic humans
Morton Collection controversy
The Morton Collection controversy - S. J. Gould accused Morton of skewing data to prove inferiority of non-white populations - Morton's measurements were correct (as Penn team showed) - BUT Morton's conclusions were still erroneous: » cranial capacity variation in human populations appears to be largely a function of climate, and has not bearing on intelligence » In fact, the human brain appears to be shrinking (http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-why-brain-shrinking)
Piltdown Man
The Piltdown Man was a paleoanthropological hoax in which bone fragments were presented as the fossilised remains of a previously unknown early human. Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward (1912) they wanted to find out more about human ancestors are - how far back can we go, and find the oldest human ancestor? At this time, there was a huge race to find the earliest human ancestor. People were finding tons of stone tools and fossils, but there weren't many things to find in England. So Dawson and Woodward were obsessed with finding something in England. They found an old and thick skull cap - they also found a jaw portion that had traits that look like a great ape, but it had human-like patterns of chewing. So they asked the question, what essential characteristic draws the line between when we were human versus when we were "apes"? They thought the answer was the difference in the size of the brain. So they were excited because the skull had a human-sized brain but the bottom half of the body wasn't that different from a great ape. They found another set of fossils that supposedly supported their case. However, by the 1930's these results weren't being repeated anymore, they were only found in the same place. So they used a dating technique called flourine dating to find out how old it is against some known samples. They discovered it was about 50,000 years old, which is about when these human ancestors should have been around. Later on, they tried dating it again when the flourine dating had gotten better - and they discovered that the jaw was really 50,000 years old but the skull cap was much, much more modern. They discovered that the skull was thick due to natural pathologies - this person had a genetic abnormality that made it thicker and it was painted to make it look older. The canines in the jaw were artificially created to look more human. So this entire case was faked! And the person who did it is still an unsolved mystery.
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago. It was during the Pleistocene that the most recent episodes of global cooling, or ice ages, took place. Much of the world's temperate zones were alternately covered by glaciers during cool periods and uncovered during the warmer interglacial periods when the glaciers retreated. The Pleistocene also saw the evolution and expansion of our own species, Homo sapiens, and by the close of the Pleistocene, humans had spread through most of the world. Many paleontologists study Pleistocene fossils in order to understand the climates of the past. The Pleistocene was not only a time during which climates and temperatures shifted dramatically; Pleistocene fossils are often abundant, well-preserved, and can be dated very precisely. Some, such as diatoms, foraminifera, and plant pollen, are both abundant and highly informative about paleoclimates.
Assimilation Model
The evidence in support of the single origins and/or assimilation model is of two sorts: fossil and genetic: 1. There are fossil specimens in Africa that possess features of modern humans but are dated to more than 100,000 years ago, a time when Neandertals were still occupying Europe. 2 . Comparative studies of the genetic materials of living people suggest that modern humans originated in Africa and spread out from there. 3. Extractions from Neandertal bones of both mtDNA and nuclear DNA have been interpreted as documenting varying levels of evolutionary distance between this group and living human
Lake Turkana
The first documented appearance of members of our genus homo is just after 2.0 million years ago. These earliest well-documented fossils have all been found at sites east of Lake Turkana, in northern Kenya.
Dali
The fossil skull from Dali, in central China. Although not precisely dated, it is probably more than 200ky. It possesses the features of an early or archaic Homo sapiens (large brow ridges, low sloping forehead and low maximum width of the brain case). But, it also has a very flat face, similar to those of living peoples of Asia, suggesting the continuity of human evolution in east Asia. The Dali skull compared with the skull from the roughly contemporary Petralona skull from Greece. Note the similarity of overall skull features but the difference in the projection of the face.
Holocene
The post-Pleistocene geological epoch that began about 10,000 radiocarbon years ago and continues today.
Kabwe
The skull from the site of Kabwe, Zambia. Dated to about 200,00 yrs, it is one of the few fossil humans for which we have a good idea of the cause of death.
Give an archaeological analysis of the interaction between Neanderthals and modern humans, and be sure to mention some of the specific technological industries of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic.
There have been claims that Neandertal technological sophistication was limited in comparison with that of the invading Homo sapiens. But, there is now recognition that Neandertals were capable of fabricating Upper Paleolithic tools of stone, bone and antler, as well as ornaments. Claims that they learned these skills from watching the modern human invaders are not convincing; indeed, there is accumulating evidence that Neandertals and modern humans were separated by some thousands of years. "Neandertal subsistence strategies and technological and symbolic traditions do not differ significantly from those of contemporary human populations in Africa and the Near East. Submitted to close scrutiny, comparable evolutionary trends common to the two geographic areas may be detected in a number of domains".
Schöningen Spears
Three spears, each over TWO METERS (over 6 feet) long, made of wood • Preserved in a bog in Germany • 400,000 years old (predating both Neanderthals and modern humans) • Oldest perishable materials found
Upper Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic (Late Stone Age) 35 kya - 10 kya Primarily based on blade technology (blades are long thin flakes) • Introduction of tools made of bone and antler • 35 kya - 10 kya The most recent part of the Old Stone Age, associated with early modern Homo sapiens and characterized by finely crafted stone and other types of tools with various functions.
red ochre
Use of red ochre by early Neandertals - Excavations at the site of Maastricht-Belvédère (Netherlands) have recovered several pieces of hematite in stratigraphic levels associated with the last interglacial, perhaps as early as 200-250kya. Refitting of a number of cores with removed flakes documents that the red ochre has not been displaced downwards and is directly associated with the Middle Pleistocene sediments. The lithics show definite Levallois reduction and Mousterian tools are present. The nearest hematite sources are at about 40km from the site, suggesting long distance transport
Venus figurines
Venus figurines are images of females, including emphasis on sexual features and a lack of detail of the face. Significance: One venus that is dated to about 37,000 BP, is a statue from the German Upper Paleolithic - it's the oldest known representational artwork in the world.
