Human Geography Test 4

Circular clustered rural settlements.

- A circular clustered rural settlement consists of a central open space surrounded by structures. - In sub-Saharan Africa, the Maasai people, who are pastoral nomads, build circular settlements known as kraal -Women have the principal responsibility for constructing them. - The kraal villages have enclosures for livestock in the center, surrounded by a ring of houses. - Von Thünen observed this circular pattern in Germany in his landmark agricultural studies in the early nineteenth century

Rural Settlements

- A clustered rural settlement is an agricultural-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. - A dispersed rural settlement is characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements.

Clustered Rural Settlements

- A clustered rural settlement typically includes homes, barns, tool sheds, and other farm structures, plus consumer services, such as religious structures, schools, and shops. - A handful of public and business services may also be present in a clustered rural settlement. - Each person living in a clustered rural settlement is allocated strips of land in the surrounding fields. - Homes, public buildings, and fields in a clustered rural settlement are arranged according to local cultural and physical characteristics. - Clustered rural settlements are often arranged in one of two types of patterns: circular or linear.

Electric

- A full electric vehicle has no gas engine. - When the battery is discharged, the vehicle will not run until the battery is recharged by plugging it into an outlet.

Hybrid

- A gasoline engine powers the vehicle at high speeds, and at low speeds, when the gas engine is at its least efficient, an electric motor takes over. - Energy that would otherwise be wasted in coasting and braking is also captured as electricity and stored until needed

Nuclear Energy

- A nuclear power plant produces electricity from energy released by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled environment, a process called fission. - The big advantage of nuclear power is the large amount of energy released from a small amount of material. - The countries most highly dependent on nuclear power are clustered in Europe - One product of all nuclear reactions is radioactive waste, certain types of which are lethal to people exposed to it. - Elaborate safety precautions must be taken to prevent the leaking of nuclear fuel from a power plant, but accidents have happened.

Suburb

- A residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city. - Rapid desire for suburban living

Sustainable Development

- According to the United Nations, sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." - Sustainable development is especially challenging to achieve, because as a country's per capita income increases, the per capita pollution that it emits also generally increases - North America and East Asia generate much higher shares of carbon dioxide emissions than their shares of the world's population -

Concentric Zone Model

- According to the concentric zone model, created in 1923 by sociologist Ernest Burgess, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings, like the growth rings of a tree. - The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but the same basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order. - Back in the 1920s, Burgess identified five rings

Multiple Nuclei Model

- According to the multiple nuclei model, developed by geographers Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman in 1945, a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities occur. - Examples of these nodes include a port, a neighborhood business center, a university, an airport, and a park. - The multiple nuclei theory states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them. - For example, a university node may attract well-educated residents, pizzerias, and bookstores, whereas an airport may attract hotels and warehouses. - On the other hand, incompatible land-use activities avoid clustering in the same locations. - Heavy industry and high-class housing, for example, rarely exist in the same neighborhood.

Sector Model

- According to the sector model, developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt, a city develops in a series of sectors. - Certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental factor or even by mere chance. - As a city grows, activities expand outward in a wedge, or sector, from the center. - Once a district with high-class housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of that district, farther out from the center. - The best housing is therefore found in a corridor extending from downtown to the outer edge of the city. - Industrial and retailing activities develop in other sectors, usually along good transportation lines.

Air Pollution

- Air pollution is a concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in average air. - Geographers examine air pollution at three scales: local, regional, and global. - Air pollution is especially severe in places where emission sources are concentrated, such as in urban areas. - Worst air pollution is in Asia

Airplanes: For Small Valuable Packages

- Air transport is the most expensive option for all distances, so it usually reserved for speedy delivery of small-bulk, high-value packages

Regional Air Pollution

- At the regional scale, air pollution may damage a region's vegetation and water supply through acid deposition, which is the accumulation of acids, including sulfuric acid and nitric acid, on Earth's surface. - Especially affected by acid deposition are the world's principal industrial regions

East Asia: Twenty-first Century's Industrial Leader

- Beginning with Japan in the late twentieth century - By most measures, China is now the world's leading manufacturing country

Biodiversity

- Biological diversity, or biodiversity for short, refers to the variety of species across Earth as a whole or in a specific place. - Sustainable development is promoted when the biodiversity of a particular place or Earth as a whole is conserved or preserved.

3 Components of Air Pollution

- Carbon monoxide. Breathing carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen level in blood, impairs vision and alertness, and threatens those with breathing problems. - Hydrocarbons. In the presence of sunlight, hydrocarbons, as well as nitrogen oxides, form photochemical smog, which causes respiratory problems, stinging in the eyes, and an ugly haze over cities. - Particulates. They include dust and smoke particles. The dark plume of smoke from a factory stack and the exhaust of a diesel truck are examples of particulate emission.

Conservation

- Conservation was defined in Chapter 1 as the sustainable use and management of natural resources such as wildlife, water, air, and Earth's resources to meet human needs, including food, medicine, and recreation. - Renewable resources such as trees are conserved if they are consumed at a less rapid rate than they can be replaced. - Nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels are conserved if remaining reserves are maintained for future generations.

Break of Bulk Points

- Cost rises each time inputs or products are transferred from one of the four modes to another. - A break-of-bulk point is a place where transfer among transportation modes is possible. - Many companies that use multiple transport modes locate at a break-of-bulk point. - Containerization has facilitated transfer of packages between modes at break-of-bulk points.

Galactic or Peripheral Model

- Developed by Harris in 1960, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and service nodes or nuclei tied together by a beltway or ring road. - Rather than an entirely new model, Harris considered the peripheral model to be a modification of the multiple nuclei model (which he co-authored), reflecting the growth of suburbs. - The nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway are called edge cities.

Ethanol

- Ethanol is fuel made by distilling crops such as sugarcane, corn, and soybeans. - Cars can run on this ethanol fuel

Industrial Clusters

- Europe, East Asia, and North America. - Each of the three regions accounts for roughly one-fourth of the world's total industrial output

Spinning

- Fibers can be spun from natural or synthetic elements. - The principal natural fiber is cotton, though synthetics now account for three-fourths of world thread production. - Labor intensive - Spinning is done primarily in low-wage countries - China produces two-thirds of the world's cotton thread.

Geothermal Energy

- Heat released by radioactive elements makes Earth's interior hot. - Toward the surface, in volcanic areas, this heat is especially pronounced. - The hot rocks can encounter groundwater, producing heated water or steam that can be tapped by wells. - Energy from this hot water or steam is called geothermal energy. - Harnessing geothermal energy is most feasible at sites along Earth's surface where crustal plates meet, which are also the sites of many earthquakes and volcanoes. - The United States and the Philippines are the leading producers of geothermal power

Hydroelectric Power

- Hydroelectric is now the world's second-most-popular source of electricity, after coal. - Two-thirds of the world's hydroelectric power is generated in developing countries and one-third in developed countries.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

- Hydrogen forced through a PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane or proton exchange membrane) combines with oxygen from the air, producing an electric charge. - The electricity can then be used to power an electric motor. - Fuel cell vehicles are being used in places where hydrogen fueling stations are available

Changing Distribution of World Steel Production

- In 1980, 81 percent of world steel was produced in developed countries and 19 percent in developing countries - Between 1980 and 2016, the share of world steel production declined to 35 percent in developed countries and increased to 65 percent in developing countries - World steel production more than doubled between 1980 and 2016 - China, India, and South Korea producing the most

Plug in Hybrid

- In a plug-in hybrid, the battery supplies the power at all speeds. - Like a full electric, a plug-in hybrid is recharged by connecting it to an electrical outlet. - When the electricity obtained from the outlet is fully discharged, gas takes over the job of powering the electric motor.

Colonial Cities Continued

- In some places, European colonial powers built a new city next to the existing one. Fès (Fez), Morocco, is an example of a city that consists of two separate and distinct nodes: a precolonial city that existed before the French gained control and one built by the French colonialists. - The center of the precolonial city included a mosque, a bazaar (marketplace), and narrow winding streets. - The new city had large public buildings and larger streets.

Business Services in Developing Countries

- In the global economy, developing countries specialize in two distinctive types of business services: offshore financial services and back-office functions. - These businesses tend to locate in developing countries for a number of reasons, including the presence of supportive laws, weak regulations, and low-wage workers.

Changing Situation Factors: Steel

- In the past, steel production was a good example of a bulk-reducing industry that located near its inputs. Two things changed the distribution of steel: - Changes in the relative importance of the main inputs. - Increasing importance of proximity to markets.

Shipping

- Inputs and products are transported in one of four modes: ship, rail, truck, or air. - Firms seek the lowest-cost mode of transport, but which of the four alternatives is cheapest changes with the distance that goods are being sent.

Dispersed Rural Settlements

- Isolated farms are typical of most of the rural United States. - In Europe, some clustered settlements were converted to dispersed settlements in order to make agriculture more efficient. - Clustered rural settlements worked when the population was low, but they had no spare land to meet the needs of a growing population. - With the introduction of machinery, farms operated more efficiently at a larger scale.

Trains: Cross-country Shipment

- Journeys across land that take more than one day, such as between the East and West coasts of the United States and Canada, are suitable for trains. - Trains take longer than trucks to load, but once under way, they aren't required to make daily rest stops like trucks

Disadvantages of Just in Time Delivery

- Just-in-time delivery means that producers have lower inventory to cushion against disruptions in the arrival of needed parts. Three kinds of disruptions can result from reliance on just-in-time delivery: - Natural hazards. Poor weather conditions can affect deliveries anywhere in the world. Blizzards can close highways, rail lines, and airports. - Traffic. Deliveries may be delayed when traffic is slowed by accident, construction, or unusually heavy volume. - Labor unrest. A strike at one supplier plant can shut down the entire production within a couple of days

Advantages of Just in Time Delivery

- Just-in-time delivery reduces the money that a manufacturer must tie up in wasteful inventory. - Manufacturers also save money through just-in-time delivery by reducing the size of the factory because space does not have to be wasted on piling up a mountain of inventory.

Regions Variation in Electricity

- Leading sources of electricity include coal in the Midwest, hydroelectric in the Northwest, natural gas in the Southwest and Florida, and nuclear in several Eastern states. - Hybrid cars have lower emissions than full electrics in states most dependent on coal, whereas full electrics have lower emissions in states that generate electricity primarily through hydroelectricity, natural gas, and nuclear energy.

Linear clustered rural settlements.

- Linear rural settlements comprise buildings clustered along a road, river, or dike to facilitate communications. - The fields extend behind the buildings in long, narrow strips. - Long-lot farms can be seen today along the St. Lawrence River in Québec - Québec got the system from the French.

Selected developing countries have attracted back offices for two reasons related to labor:

- Low wages. Most back-office workers earn a few thousand dollars per year—higher than wages paid in most other sectors of the economy, but only one-tenth the wages paid for workers performing similar jobs in developed countries. As a result, what is regarded as menial and dead-end work in developed countries may be considered relatively high-status work in developing countries and therefore able to attract better-educated, more-motivated employees in developing countries than would be possible in developed countries. - Ability to speak English. Many developing countries offer lower wages than developed countries, but only a handful of developing countries possess a large labor force fluent in English. In Asia, countries such as India, Malaysia, and the Philippines have substantial numbers of workers with English-language skills, a legacy of British and American colonial rule. Major multinational companies such as American Express and General Electric have extensive back-office facilities in those countries.

Motor Vehicles

- Motor vehicles are used for more than 95 percent of trips within U.S. urban areas. - The use of motor vehicles is also supported by policies that keep the price of fuel below the level found in Europe. - Valuable land in the central city is devoted to parking cars and trucks, although expensive underground and multistory parking structures can reduce the amount of ground-level space needed.

Frequency of Periodic Markets

- Muslim countries. Markets are once a week in each of six cities, with no market on Friday, the Muslim day of rest. - Rural China. Markets operate in one location on days 1, 4, and 7; in a second location on days 2, 5, and 8; in a third location on days 3, 6, and 9; and no market on the tenth day. Three cycles fit in a lunar month. - Korea. Two 15-day market cycles fit in a lunar month. - Sub-Saharan Africa. Markets occur every 3 to 7 days. Variations in the cycle stem from ethnic differences.

Energy Alternatives

- Nonrenewable resources form so slowly that for practical purposes, they cannot be renewed. Examples are the three fossil fuels that currently supply most of the world's energy needs. - Renewable resources have an essentially unlimited supply and are not depleted when used by people. Water, wind, and the Sun provide sources of renewable energy. Nuclear power, though not renewable, is an important alternative to fossil fuels.

Solar Power

- Passive solar. Energy is captured without using special devices. South-facing windows and dark surfaces heat and light buildings on sunny days. The Sun's rays penetrate the windows and are converted to heat - Direct active solar. Solar radiation is captured with photovoltaic cells, which convert light energy to electrical energy. These cells are made primarily of silicon (also used in computers), the second most abundant element in Earth's crust. When the silicon is combined with one or more other materials, it exhibits distinctive electrical properties in the presence of sunlight, known as the photovoltaic effect. - Indirect active solar. Solar radiation is first converted to heat and then to electricity. The Sun's rays are concentrated by reflectors onto a pipe filled with synthetic oil. The heat from the oil-filled pipe generates steam to run turbines.

Preservation

- Preservation is the maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible. - Preservation takes the view that the value of nature does not derive from human needs and interests, but from the fact that every plant and animal living on Earth has a right to exist and should be preserved regardless of the cost. - Preservation does not regard nature as a resource for human use. - In contrast, conservation is compatible with development but only if natural resources are utilized in a careful rather than a wasteful manner.

Just-in-time Delivery

- Proximity to market has become more important - Just-in-time is shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory moments before they are needed. - Just-in-time delivery is especially important for delivery of inputs, such as parts and raw materials, to manufacturers of fabricated products, such as cars and computers.

Why do services cluster in settlements?

- Services are clustered in settlements. - Rural settlements are centers for agriculture and provide a small number of services. - Urban settlements are centers for consumer and business services. - One-half of the people in the world live in rural settlements and the other half in urban settlements

Smart Growth

- Several U.S. states have taken steps to curb suburban growth. - The goal is to produce a pattern of compact and contiguous development and protect rural land for agriculture, recreation, and wildlife. - Legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland has been called smart growth. - Cities can annex only lands that have been included in the urban growth areas.

Looking into the Furture

- Sharp decrease in the use of the three fossil fuels. - Increase in the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, as well as biomass and nuclear. - Use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) for large facilities, such as power plants, that burn coal and natural gas users. - CCS is the capture of waste CO2, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally underground.

Ships: For Crossing Oceans

- Ships are slower than land-based transportation, but unlike trains or trucks, they can cross oceans, such as to North America from Europe or Asia - The cost per kilometer (or mile) is very low.

Textile and Apparel Production

- Spinning of fibers to make yarn. - Weaving or knitting of yarn into fabric. - Assembly of fabric into products.

Acid Rain

- Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, enter the atmosphere, where they combine with oxygen and water. - When dissolved in water, the acids may fall as acid precipitation—rain, snow, or fog. - The acids can also be deposited in dust.

Offshore Financial Services

- Taxes. Taxes on income, profits, and capital gains are typically low or nonexistent. Companies incorporated in an offshore center also have tax-free status, regardless of the nationality of the owners. The United States loses an estimated $150 billion in tax revenue each year because companies operating in the country conceal their assets in offshore tax havens. - Privacy. Bank secrecy laws can help individuals and businesses evade disclosure in their home countries. People and corporations in litigious professions, such as a doctor or lawyer accused of malpractice, or the developer of a collapsed building, can protect some of their assets from lawsuits by storing them in offshore centers. So can a wealthy individual who wants to protect assets in a divorce. Creditors cannot reach such assets in bankruptcy hearings. Short statutes of limitation protect offshore accounts from long-term investigation.

Production of ...

- Textiles (woven fabrics) - apparel (clothing) - Examples of a labor-intensive industry that generally requires less-skilled, low-cost workers

Assembly

- Textiles are cut and sewn to be assembled into four main types of products: garments, carpets, home products such as bed linens and curtains, and industrial items such as headliners for inside motor vehicles - Developed countries play a larger role in assembly than in spinning and weaving because most of the consumers of assembled products are located in developed countries - Overall production costs are generally lower in developing countries because substantially lower labor costs compared to developed countries offset higher shipping and taxation costs

North America: Industrial Powerhouse

- The United States became the world's leading industrial power in the late nineteenth century and retained that position through the twentieth century. - North America's manufacturing was traditionally highly concentrated in northeastern United States and southeastern Canada

Cities in Developing Countries

- The ancient and medieval structure of these cities was influenced by the cultural values of the indigenous peoples living there. - In some cases, these cities passed through a period of restructuring at the hands of European colonial rulers.

Market Area

- The area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted - To delineate a market area on a map, a circle can be drawn around a central place or node of a service. The territory inside the circle is its market area. - Because most people prefer to get services from the nearest location, the closer to the center of the circle, the greater the percentage of consumers who will choose to obtain services from that node.

Global Air Pollution

- The concentration of trace gases in the atmosphere can delay the return of some of the heat leaving Earth's surface heading for space, thereby raising Earth's temperatures. - The increase in Earth's temperature, caused by carbon dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface, is called the greenhouse effect. - Earth's protective ozone layer is threatened by pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). - CFCs break down Earth's protective layer of ozone gas.

Mini Mills: Steel

- The increasing importance of proximity to markets is also demonstrated by the recent growth of steel mini mills, which have captured one-fourth of the U.S. steel market. -Rather than iron ore and coal, the main input into mini mill production is scrap metal. - Mini mills, generally limited to one step in the process—steel production—are less expensive than integrated mills to build and operate, and they can locate near their markets because their main input—scrap metal—is widely available

Public Transport

- The invention of the railroad in the nineteenth century enabled people to live in suburbs and work in the central city. - To accommodate commuters, cities built railroads at street level (called trolleys, streetcars, or trams) and underground (subways). - Gasoline-powered buses joined the public transportation fleet in the twentieth century, often replacing the street-level railroads. - By sitting in traffic jams over the course of a year, the average American wastes 19 gallons of gasoline, loses 42 hours, and is responsible for emitting 380 pounds of carbon dioxide

Europe: Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution

- The opening of railroads reflects the diffusion of the Industrial Revolution from the United Kingdom to the European continent - Numerous industrial centers emerged in Europe as countries competed with each other for supremacy

Smart Growth in European Countries

- The supply of land for the construction of new housing is more severely restricted in European urban areas than in the United States. - Officials try to limit sprawl by designating areas of mandatory open space. - Several British cities are surrounded by greenbelts, or rings of open space. - New housing is built either in older suburbs inside the greenbelts or in planned extensions to small towns and new towns beyond the greenbelts

Sprawl

- The term sprawl describes the development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area. - Sprawl is fostered in the United States by the desire of many families to own large tracts of land and by private developers who recognize that land for new housing sites is cheaper if not contiguous to the existing built-up area. - As a result of sprawl, roads and utilities must be extended to connect isolated new developments, motorists must drive longer distances and consume more fuel, agricultural land is lost to residential developments, and local governments must spend more to provide services to the sprawling areas than they are able collect in taxes.

Changing Distribution of U.S. Steel Production

- The two principal inputs in steel production are iron ore and coal - Steel making traditionally clustered near sources of the two key raw materials - Within the United States, the distribution of steel production changed several times during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries because of changing inputs. - More recently, steel production has relocated to be closer to markets

The Geometry of Market Areas

- To represent market areas in central place theory, geographers draw hexagons around settlements - Hexagons represent a compromise between circles and squares

Transportation Epochs

- Transportation improvements have played a key role in the changing structure of urban areas. - Geographer John Borchert identified five eras of U.S. urban areas resulting from changing transportation systems - Cities have prospered or suffered during the various epochs, depending on their proximity to economically important resources and migration patterns. - At the same time, cities retain physical features from the earlier eras that may be assets or liabilities in subsequent eras.

Density Gradient

- Traveling outward from the center of a city, the density at which people lived traditionally declined. - This density change in an urban area is called the density gradient. - According to the density gradient, the number of houses per unit of land diminished as distance from the center city increased.

Trucks: Short-distance Delivery

- Trucks are optimal for short distances, because they can be loaded and unloaded quickly and cheaply. - Truck delivery is especially advantageous if the driver can reach the destination within one day, before having to stop for an extended rest

Business-process Outsourcing

- Typical back-office functions include insurance claims processing, payroll management, transcription work, and other routine clerical activities. - Back-office work also includes centers for responding to billing inquiries related to credit cards, shipments, and claims, or technical inquiries related to installation, operation, and repair. - Proximity was considered important to assure close supervision of routine office workers and rapid turnaround of information.

Annexation and Fragmentation

- Until recently in the United States, as cities grew, they expanded by adding peripheral land. - The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation. - Now cities are surrounded by a collection of suburban jurisdictions whose residents prefer to remain legally independent of the large city. - Given the difficulty in annexing suburbs, local government in the United States is extremely fragmented

Colonial Cities

- When Europeans gained control of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, their colonial cities followed standardized plans. - Spanish colonial cities in Latin America, for example, were built according to the Laws of the Indies, drafted in 1573. - After the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlán in 1521, following a two-year siege, they destroyed the city and dispersed or killed most of the inhabitants. - The city, renamed Mexico City, was rebuilt around a main square, called the Zócalo, in the center of the island, on the site of the Aztecs' sacred precinct

Wind Power

- Wind power is being utilized on a large scale in only a few places. - China, North America, and Western Europe account for around one-fourth each of total world production - On the one hand, construction of a wind turbine modifies the environment much less severely than construction of a dam across a river. - And wind power has potential for increased use, because only a small portion of the potential resource has been harnessed thus far. - On the other hand, wind turbines can be noisy and lethal for birds and bats.

Weaving

- Woven or laced together by hand on a loom, which is a frame on which two sets of threads are placed at right angles to each other - One set of threads, called the warp, is strung lengthwise. - A second set of threads, called the weft, is carried in a shuttle that is inserted over and under the warp. - For mechanized weaving, labor constitutes a high percentage of the total production cost - Weaving is highly clustered in low-wage countries - China accounts for nearly 60 percent of the world's woven cotton fabric production and India another 30 percent - China and India have become the dominant fabric producers because their lower labor costs offset the expense of shipping inputs and products long distances.

Periodic Markets

- a collection of individual vendors who come together to offer goods and services in a location on specified days. - It is typically set up in a street or other public space early in the morning, taken down at the end of the day, and set up in another location the next day - A periodic market is a way to provide consumer services to residents of developing countries, where dispersed populations and low incomes may not be able to support full-time services. - In developed countries, farmers markets may be set up one or two days a week to sell fresh produce from farms in the surrounding region to consumers living in urban areas.

Range of a Service

- the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. - The range is the radius of the circle drawn to delineate a service's market area. - Thus a convenience store has a small range, whereas a stadium has a large range.

Threshold of a Service

- the minimum number of people needed to support the service. - once the range has been determined, a service provider must determine whether a location is suitable by counting the potential customers inside the irregularly shaped circle—often estimated using census data. - Developers of shopping malls, department stores, and large supermarkets may count only higher-income people, perhaps those whose annual incomes exceed $50,000. - Even though the stores may attract individuals of all incomes, higher-income people are likely to spend more and purchase items that carry higher profit margins for the retailer.

Central Place

A market center where people cluster to buy and sell goods and services. The place is named "central" because it is centrally located to maximize accessibility from a surrounding area

The Industrial Revolution

A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods

Central Place Theory

A theory that explains the distribution of services based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther.

Central Place Theory Continued

Central place theory was first proposed in the 1930s by German geographer Walter Christaller, based on his studies of southern Germany. August Lösch in Germany and Brian Berry and others in the United States further developed the concept during the 1950s.

Cottage Industry System

Home-based manufacturing

Pollution

Pollution occurs when more waste is added than a resource can accommodate.