HUN 2201 Exam #2
______ % of blood glucose is taken up by cellular glucose uptake by the skeletal muscles
75
What is metabolic syndrome?
A cluster of metabolic conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. - increased blood pressure (hypertension), high triglycerides, abdominal obesity (large waist line), low HDL, and high elevated fasting blood sugar.
What is an ester bond?
A condensation bond that makes a triglyceride by attaching fatty acids to a glycerol backbone.
What is hyperglycemia?
A condition in which high blood glucose levels do not go back to normal.
What is a peptide bond?
A covalent bond between two amino acids
What is Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)?
A functional disorder that interferes with normal colon function caused by food, chronic stress, psychosocial factors, adverse life events, visceral hypersensitivity, and bacterial flora
What is insulin and its main function?
A hormone secreted by the pancreas (B cells) that converts glucose into glycogen in response to elevated blood sugar levels - When released, it lowers blood glucose levels
what is glucagon and its main function?
A hormone secreted by the pancreas (a cells) that promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver when blood glucose is low. - When released, it raises blood glucose levels
What is serum albumin?
A major protein in blood
What is diabetes?
A metabolic disease in which the body has impaired insulin secretion or variable degrees of insulin resistance and causes elevated levels of glucose in the blood.
What is whey protein and its respective research findings?
A protein supplement that increases muscle strength and recovery with no reported adverse effects up to 20-30 g/d.
what is glutamate and its respective research findings?
A protein supplement that may help with the recovery and reduce soreness after exercise with no reported adverse effects up to 45 g/d
what is creatine and its respective research findings?
A protein supplement that may increase strength and power for athlete training regimens, but have little value for endurance sports. Some reported adverse effects include weight gain, diarrhea, muscle cramps, and nausea.
What is a glycosidic bond?
A type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate. - it's formation involves the loss of a water molecule (condensation/dehydration) - its breakdown involves the addition of a water molecule (hydrolysis)
What is a chylomicron?
A type of lipoprotein formed in enterocytes which transports triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein into the blood stream.
Is it possible to have a gluten allergy or a wheat allergy?
A wheat allergy.
Fiber and raffinose sugars are indigestible carbohydrates in humans because humans lack enzymes that break B-glycosidic linkages. A. True B. False
A. True
1. Hartnup Disease is an inborn error of metabolism resulting in a defect of a(n) _______________. This prevents the absorption of some amino acids such as tryptophan and the deficiency mimics a _____________ deficiency. A. transporter; niacin B. enzyme; protein C. enzyme; niacin D. None of the choices. It is a defect in an enzyme and transporter and it mimics a niacin and protein deficiency
A. transporter; niacin
what is the carb intake needed in order to prevent ketosis?
50 g/d
what is the daily recommended intake of carb for males and females over 19 years old?
130 g/d or 45-65% of total calories
the cause of type ___ diabetes is insulin receptors as the cause of type ___ diabetes is the pancreatic release of insulin
2 ; 1
type __ diabetes is more common than type __ diabetes.
2 ; 1
type __ diabetes is more easily inherited than type __ diabetes
2 ; 1
If nonathletic Jimmy weighs 130 pounds, how many grams of protein should he consume per day?
50 grams of protein per day. (130lbs/2.2 = 59 kg.... 59kg x 0.85 g protein = 50 grams of protein per day)
These tests demonstrate diabetes if: Hemoglobin A1c is higher than _________ ; Fasting Blood Glucose concentration is higher than __________ or __________; Abnormal Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) is higher than __________ or __________ .
6.5% ; 126 mg/dL or 7 mmol/L ; 200 mg/dL or 11.1 mmol/L
Sugar chains break linkages through the process of __________ and reform glycosidic linkages through a process of __________
hydrolysis ; condensation/dehydration hydrolysis (when water is added, one molecule gains a hydroxyl group (OH) while the other receives the other H) ; condensation/dehydration (forms new linkages and an H2O molecule)
skeletal muscles, adipose tissues, and cardiac muscles all have insulin receptors ________ therefore they are insulin ____________
inside/not on the surface ; dependent
______ fiber lowers the risk of intestinal diseases while ______ fiber regulates blood glucose and cholesterol
insoluble ; soluble
what are the hormones that regulate blood glucose?
insulin and glucagon
What is android obesity?
large insulin-resistant adipocytes that result in excess fat around the abdomen ("apple" shape) - male's waist circumference > 40 - female's waist circumference > 35
which is not an examples of protein complementation? A. hummus and whole-wheat flatbread B. Rice and beans C. Macaroni and cheese D. Noodle stir fry with vegetables
D. Noodle stir fry with vegetables
_________ can be obtained from food and help promote the activity of beneficial intestinal microbial bacteria in the gut. A. All choices are correct B. Raffinose C. Disinfectants D. Prebiotics E. Probiotics
D. Prebiotics
Which of these is not a source of soluble fiber? A. Citrus B. Oats C. Bran/Cereal D. Whole grains
D. Whole grains. These are a source of insoluble fiber
Which of these is not a risk from a gluten free diet? A. Diverticula disease B. Nutritional deficiencies C. Higher saturated fats, carbohydrates, and sodium consumed D. increased prebiotics
D. prebiotic benefits
What is Hartnup Disease?
Deficiency of neutral amino acid transporters in the small intestine. This causes a deficiency in tryptophan absorption. Since tryptophan produces niacin (cell production), it can mimic niacin deficiency symptoms (such as dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death)
what are the advantages of plant protein?
High in fiber, phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals. Less saturated fats and calories per serving
what are the advantages of animal protein
High in vitamin B, essential amino acids, iron (heme), calcium, vitamin D, and protein
What are the top 8 food allergies?
Milk, Eggs, Fish, Shellfish, Tree Nuts, Peanuts, Wheat, and Soybeans
What percent of our bile is recycled?
about 95%
People with which kind of health conditions should not take dietary protein supplements?
Pregnant women, people with a milk allergy, people with a kidney disease, and/or people taking other medications
What is emulsification?
The breakdown of fat in the duodenum into smaller droplets, which provides a larger surface area on which the enzyme pancreatic lipase can act to digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol. - Essentially this process makes fat water soluble
What is the limiting amino acid?
The essential amino acid found in the shortest supply in the amino acid pool and is thus responsible for slowing or halting protein synthesis
What is lactose intolerance?
The inability to fully digest lactose in dairy products. It is not a milk allergy since no histamines are produced!!
What role does the large intestine play in digestion?
The large intestine absorbs the remaining product (water and electrolytes) and changes the waste from liquid into stool. By the time products reach the large intestine, most of the digestion is done. All of the indigestible carbohydrates (such as fiber, raffinase, and lactose (if intolerant)) and additional liquid get metabolized by gut bacteria. Colonic bacteria ferments/metabolizes the indigestible carbs and turns them into butyrate (short chain fatty acid) + Hydrogen + Methane.
What is the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for each of these sweeteners? I. Acesulfame potassium II. Aspartame III. Saccharin IIII. Stevia
The max amount of a sweetener that a human can ingest daily for the rest of their life before it can cause detrimental health effects... I. Acesulfame potassium: 23 packets II. Aspartame: 75 packets III. Saccharin: 45 packets IIII. Stevia: 9 packets
Eating more fiber will reduce high blood cholesterol. True or False.
True. The liver uses cholesterol to recycle bile. Thus, this decreases the LDL in our blood. However, not all bile is recycled. Soluble fiber will bind to bile so that in the ileum it becomes feces and gets secreted. Thus, soluble fiber lowers your LDL "bad" cholesterol more.
What gets absorbed in the large intestine?
Water, electrolytes (Na+, Cl-, and K+), and some short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate)
what are the risk factors of colonic diverticula?
age, genetic predisposition, obesity, smoking, and diet
what are some forms of sugar used in foods?
confectioners syrup, corn syrup, granulated sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, and natural sweeteners
Studies suggest a modest _______________ in cancer risk in vegetarians compared to Westernized diets with high level of meat consumption
decrease
Fill in the blanks. If one eliminates all gluten-containing foods, they will __________ calorie consumption. However, if they substitute conventional foods with gluten-free foods they will most likely _________ calories
decrease ; increase
vegetarian diets show a ______________ risk of heart disease and obesity. Thus, an ___________ in life duration
decrease ; increase
Increased saturated fat intake + decreased physical → ____________ glucose uptake.
decreased
Triglycerides is _______ soluble while pancreatic lipase is ______ soluble
fat ; water. This is why
bagels, corn, potatoes, tortillas, beans, and cereal are examples of foods high in _________ carbohydrates while fruits, milk, syrups, candy, and cookies are high in __________ carbohydrates
simple ; complex
What systems are involved in enterohepatic circulation?
small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and portal vein) liver gallbladder
What is protein complementation?
the process of combining proteins from different sources so that they collectively provide the proportions of amino acids required to meet the body's needs (and get all 9 essential amino acids) - traditionally combine two vegetable proteins (such as legumes + grains)
What is glucogenesis?
this is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose (specifically when you haven't consumed any for an extended period of time) - For instance, when you sleep your body deaminates (removes) body proteins and amino acids (for example alanine which has 3 carbons) to make pyruvate and a free ammonium ion.
how do you convert from pounds to kilograms
weight (lbs) / 2.2 = weight (kg)
Too much added sugar of all kinds — not just high-fructose corn syrup — can contribute to unwanted calories that are linked to health problems, such as ______________, _______________, ________________ and ______________. All increase the risk of heart disease.
weight gain (obesity), type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome and high triglyceride levels
what foods are high in prebiotics?
wheat, barley, rye, oats, Asparagus, garlic, bananas Fructooligosaccharides (FOS), Inulin, and Galacto-oligosaccharides
what food has the highest protein quality?
whole eggs which have a biological value of 94.
what food sources does fiber come from?
whole grains and fresh or dried fruits and vegetables
How do you calculate your body's total protein daily intake?
(0.85g protein) x (weight in kilo) = your body's protein intake daily Weight (lbs) / 2.2 = weight (kg)
what are the genotypes of type 2 diabetes?
- 15% if single parent affected - 50% both parents affects
What does hyperglycemia cause?
- Cardiovascular disease - neuropathy - nephropathy - retinopathy
What are the *nutritional* risks of gluten-free diets? Add either higher or lower to each of the following. ________ saturated fats consumed ________ fiber ________ carbohydrates ________ B-vitamins ________ folate ________ iron ________ calcium ________ sodium ________ zinc ________ niacin
- Higher saturated fats, carbohydrates, and sodium - Lower fiber, B-vitamins, folate, iron, calcium, zinc, and niacin
What does the microbiome in the human body affect?
- IBS, IBD, and cancer - Immunity allergy - Development and Function - Depression - Neurodegenerative Disease - Heart Disease - Diabetes
What is considered "bad" bacteria for the body?
- Lactobacillus and Strep. Mutans (in our mouth causes dental caries) - H. Pylori (in the stomach causes ulcers) - Campylobacter, enterococcus faecalis, C. dif, E. coli (pathogenic bacteria in the gut can be good or bad depending on the strain)
what are the risk factors of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
- Less severe (more common): food, acute gastrointestinal infection, mucosal inflammation, abdominal or pelvic surgery, meses - More severe (less common): life stress, somatisation, anxiety or depression, poor coping skills, poor social support, maladaptive cognitions, abuse
what are the guidelines for testing for diabetes?
- Testing should be considered in overweight or obese adults (BMI > 25 kg/m2 or > 23 kg/m2 in Asian Americans) - For all other patients, testing should begin at age 45.
What is recommended to manage type 2 diabetes and its *rationale*?
- Weight loss of 7% of body weight. (Will improve insulin sensitivity and thus decrease blood glucose. Will decrease hypertension, blood pressure, and LDL cholesterol) - increase soluble fiber intake (decrease LDL cholesterol and slow glucose absorption) - decrease simple sugars (will help weight loss by decreasing calories and triglycerides) - increase exercise (Will improve insulin sensitivity and increase GLUT4 transporters. Thus decreasing blood glucose.)
what are the phenotypes of type 1 diabetes?
- absolute deficiency of Beta cell insulin secretion - autoimmune disease
what are the genotypes of type 1 diabetes?
- between 2 and 5% if single parent affected - 10% if both parents affected
what are the phenotypes of type 2 diabetes?
- impaired Beta cell insulin secretion - insulin resistance - obesity (BMI > 25)
What are the effects of the keto diet?
- lose weight and muscles - urinate frequently - constipation - higher risk of heart disease - body in state ketosis (lower blood pH)
What causes colonic diverticula?
- low fiber diet (which causes constipation and wall stress) - fatty foods and red meat (which causes increased pressure and reduces the diameter of the intestines) Wall stress in general means decreased strength of intestinal walls and thus uncontrollable muscle contractions (which cause diverticula)
what are complications associated with diabetes?
- metabolic syndrome! - microvascular disease (nephropathy) - macrovascular disease - nervous system disorders (neuropathy)
difference between natural, refined, and artificial sweeteners
- natural sugars are found naturally in the whole foods or fruits and vegetables such as glucose and fructose - artificial sweeteners are sugars chemically modifies to provide a sweet taste without calories - refined sweeteners are sugar alternatives to provide a sweet taste such as saccharin and aspartame.
what are factors associated with diabetes?
- obesity/overweight - high blood pressure - high blood glucose (hyperglycemia) - high cholesterol (hyperlipidemia) - physical inactivity
What are the dietary guidelines recommended by the American Heart Association in regard to calories from added sugars per day for males and females?
- women consume less than 100 calories a day of added sugar and recommends most men consume no more than 150 calories a day of added sugar. - Consume less than 10% of added from total calories
it is recommended for the average person to consume ___ grams of protein per kilogram every day ; while athletes (depending on training) should consume ___ grams of protein per kilogram every day
0.85 ; 1.2-2.0
type __ diabetes is an autoimmune disease
1
type __ diabetes has an absolute deficiency of Beta cell secretion while type __ diabetes has impaired secretion of Beta cell secretion
1 ; 2
about __ in 10 people have diabetes which estimates to around _____ million people
1 ; 34.2
How does the ketogenic diet work?
1. Blood glucose is low due to low consumption of carbs (so, insulin is low) 2. the body breaks down triglycerides (fat) into fatty acids 3. then there is a surplus of acetyl CoA 4. Ketones are produced from the excess acetyl CoA 5. Thus, proteins are broken down into amino acids to make new glucose to fuel the brain
What are the six main functions of Carbohydrate/Glucose Metabolism?
1. Energy (ATP) (minimum 130 g Carbs/day) 2. DNA/RNA synthesis 3. Spares proteins/prevents the breakdown of proteins 4. Prevents ketosis (minimum 50 g Carbs/day) 5. Storage form of carbs → glycogen 6. [only if exceeds total kcal per day from excess glucose] triglyceride synthesis
What are three steps of the first exposure?
1. The trigger food is ingested and the proteins are broken down and absorbed. 2. The body's immune cells produce antibodies that are specific to the particular allergen. They spread in the bloodstream 3. Antibodies bind to the surface of mast cells (white blood cells). This primes (sensitizes) cells for second exposure.
What are three steps of the second exposure?
4. Protein allergens bind to antibodies on the mast cells. This activates a process called degranulation 5. Mast cells degranulate and release histamines and other chemicals into the blood stream 6. The body produces different food allergy symptoms. In severe cases, the body experiences anaphylaxis which includes throat swelling, severe asthmas, and a drop in blood pressure.
How does type 2 diabetes affect glucose uptake?
Adipose tissues (body fat) are affected by cytokineses and low-grade chronic inflammation with this type of diabetes. Inflammation causes fat tissue to become more insulin-resistant and thus affects the insulin receptors and causes insulin insensitivity. This results in hyperglycemia and its consequential effects
How does a cow's milk affect someone who has a milk allergy?
After ingesting cows milk, the protein induces the first exposure response. During second exposure, mast cells release histamines and trigger an inflammatory response through the GI tract. This will cause diarrhea, cramps, itching, swelling, nausea, vomiting and in worst case scenario anaphylaxis.
which of these are the benefits of probiotics? A. Suppression of endogenous pathogens B. Control of Irritable Bowel Syndrome C. Control of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases D. Alleviate food allergy symptoms in infants E. Strengthened innate immunity F. Reduction in risk of factors for colon cancer G. Improved lactose intolerance
All of the Above
Which of these are nutrients found in bread? I. Iron II. Niacin III. Thiamin IV. Riboflavin V. Folate VI. Fiber
All of the above
Which of these are sources of carbohydrates in the diet? I. Table sugars, corn syrup, and brown sugar II. Milk and milk products III. Fruits and vegetables IV. Bread, flour, cornmeal, rice, and pasta
All of the above I. Table sugars, corn syrup, and brown sugar are rich in sucrose (a simple carbohydrate) II. Milk and milk products are rich in lactose (a simple carbohydrate) III. Fruits and vegetables provide simple sugars, starch, and fiber IV. Bread, flour, cornmeal, rice, and pasta are rich in starch and sometimes dietary fiber
How do allergies differ from good sensitivities/intolerances?
Allergies affect the immune system and release histamines whereas food sensitivities and intolerances often only affect the digestive system and cause less serious systems.
what is D5w?
An IV solution containing 5% dextrose (sugar) in water. This spares the breakdown of body proteins and prevents the production of ketosis
What is celiac disease?
An autoimmune disease caused by intolerance to gluten, resulting in mucosal inflammation and villous atrophy (flattened microvilli).
What is stevia?
An herb-derived sweetener. It compares to artificial sweeteners (such as aspartame and sucralose which are cooked up in a lab) because it comes from a plant. However, it similarly has zero calories.
Celiac is a *food allergy* to gliadin which is a peptide found in foods that contain gluten. Therefore, individuals who have been diagnosed with CD must avoid gluten. This prevents the release of *histamines* in response to gliadin and protects the intestines from damage by the immune system. A. True B. False
B. False
Probiotics such as inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) can be found primarily in whole grain foods and some vegetables such as leeks, garlic, and onions. A. True B. False
B. False. Inulin and FOS are prebiotics found in whole grains and bananas.
How does the body digest lactose when lactose intolerant. And what are the reactions to this process?
Bacteria in the large intestine will metabolize/ferment the lactose when no lactase is present. As a byproduct, gas and acids will be released into the intestines. Then the osmotic effect will pull a lot of water into the intestine. Combined, the water and gas will increase the fluid load of the intestinal lumen. This will cause distention of gut walls and eventually result in watery diarrhea, malabsorption, flatulence, and borborygmus (grumble noise).
How does type 1 diabetes affect glucose uptake?
Beta cells are destroyed by the immune system (autoimmune disease) or a virus in the pancreas. Thus resulting in little to no insulin production. This results in hyperglycemia and its consequential effects
What is considered "good" bactera for the body?
Bifidobacteria, lactobacillus, and E. coli (depending on the strain)
Triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein are assembled into a ________ in the mucosal cell and it transports fat from the gut to other tissues in the body. A. Emulsifier B. Lipid Binding Protein C. Chylomicrons D. Low Density Lipoproteins E. Lipidocele
C. Chylomicrons
which of these is not an example of a GMO? A. Pest-resistant corn B. Delayed Ripening of tomato C. Frozen strawberries D. Small watermelons E. Fast-growing fish
C. Frozen strawberries
Which of these is populated by the most amount of microorganisms/colony-forming units? A. Stomach and duodenum B. Jejunum and ileum C. Large intestine
C. Large intestine
The following is/are necessary for triglyceride digestion and absorption EXCEPT? A. None of the choices. All are required for the triglyceride digestion and absorption. B. CCK C. Large intestine (colon) D. Bile E. Pancreatic lipase
C. Large intestine (colon)
_____________ interferes with the enterohepatic circulation of bile, thereby causing more LDL cholesterol from the blood to be used by the liver. A. Raffinose B. Insoluble fiber C. Soluble fiber D. Protein E. Amylopectin
C. Soluble fiber. This may lower "bad" cholesterol in the blood.
People who have diabetes are at higher risk of serious health complications for all of these below EXCEPT: A. Blindness (retinopathy) B. Kidney failure (nephropathy) C. Weight loss D. Heart disease E. Stroke F. Nerve damage (neuropathy)
C. Weight loss
If someone has a Urinary Urea Nitrogen level of 7, what would their protein levels be? A. 175 g protein per day B. 44 g protein per day C. 25 g protein per day D. 69 g protein per day
D. 69 g protein per day
What are synbiotics?
Combination of prebiotics and probiotics
What is butyrate?
Dietary fiber metabolized by colonic bacteria into butyrate. It is the primary fuel for the cells that line the gut providing up to 90% of their energetic requirements. In other words. This maintains the integrity of the gut lining "mucosa"
diverticulosis vs diverticulitis
Diverticulosis occurs when small, bulging pouches (diverticula) develop in your intestine's muscles. This turns into diverticulitis when these diverticula become inflamed or infected and bleed.
The primary reason(s) to reduce added sugars in the diet is/are: A. Added sugars contribute to excess. calories that can lead to obesity; Added sugars increase serum triglycerides in some individuals which increases their risk of Cardiovascular Disease; Added sugars cause diabetes B. Added sugars cause diabetes C. Added sugars increase serum triglycerides in some individuals which increases their risk of Cardiovascular Disease D. Added sugars contribute to excess. calories that can lead to obesity E. Added sugars contribute to excess. calories that can lead to obesity; Added sugars increase serum triglycerides in some individuals which increases their risk of Cardiovascular Disease
E. Added sugars contribute to excess. calories that can lead to obesity; Added sugars increases serum triglycerides in some individuals which increase their risk of Cardiovascular Disease
which of these are not health markers for plant-based diets? A. Decreases BMI B. Decreased risk for mortality C. Decreased risk for Obesity D. Decreased risk for Diabetes E. Cancer
E. Cancer
The following statements are true regarding the comparison of added sugars to either naturally occurring sugars or natural sweeteners. Except: A. Food sources of naturally occurring sugars higher in fiber, vitamins, and minerals B. Added sugar consumption may lead to excessive caloric intake C. Food sources of naturally occurring sugars are more nutrient dense. D. Added sugars compared to naturally occurring sugars may contributed to dental caries. E. Natural sweeteners (e.g. honey, coconut sugar, etc.) have greater nutritional value compared to added sugars (e.g. table sugar, high fructose corn syrup)
E. Natural sweeteners (e.g. honey, coconut sugar, etc.) have greater nutritional value compared to added sugars (e.g. table sugar, high fructose corn syrup)
how to diagnose diabetes?
Elevation of blood glucose, as determined by one of three tests: 1) Hemoglobin A1c higher than 6.5% 2) Fasting Blood Glucose concentration higher than 126 mg/dL or 7 mmol/L 3) Abnormal Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) higher than 200 mg/dL or 11.1 mmol/L
True or False: To asses the protein balance in a hospitalized patient, you would use serum albumin.
False, you would measure Urinary Urea Nitrogen
True or False. Gluten free diets promote digestive health for the general population?
False. Since gluten-free diets lack fiber and prebiotics, they do not promote digestive health [unless for those with celiac disease].
what are GMOs
Genetically modified organisms in which their (plants or animals) genes have been intentionally altered
Put the digestion of lipids in order: I. Chyme squirts into the small intestine II. Bile surrounds the triglyceride. Which is known as the emulsification process to make the fat water soluble. III. The monoglyceride and the two fatty acids will pass into the enterocyte (mucosal cell) through the brush border WITHOUT any transport. IV. The bonds will now be recreated (re-esterification) to form the triglyceride again. V. CCK is released and travels to the pancreas (to release pancreatic lipase), to the brain (to feel satiety), and to the gallbladder (to stimulate and release bile) VI. The triglyceride is packaged with a phospholipid, cholesterol, and a protein (this combination is a chylomicron which is a form of a lipoprotein) VII. The fat from your diet is transferred into the lymph system and then to the bloodstream to tissues (specifically the liver). emulsification process to make the fat water soluble. VIII. Pancreatic lipase breaks down the ester linkages of the triglyceride into one glycerol bound to just one fatty acid (a monoglyceride) and two fatty acids.
I. Chyme squirts into the small intestine V. CCK is released and travels to the pancreas (to release pancreatic lipase), to the brain (to feel satiety), and to the gallbladder (to stimulate and release bile) II. Bile surrounds the triglyceride. This is known as the *emulsification* process to make the fat water soluble. VIII. Pancreatic lipase breaks down the ester linkages of the triglyceride into one glycerol bound to just one fatty acid (a monoglyceride) and two fatty acids. III. The monoglyceride and the two fatty acids will pass into the enterocyte (mucosal cell) through the brush border WITHOUT any transport. IV. The bonds will now be recreated (*re-esterification*) to form the triglyceride again. VI. The triglyceride is packaged with a phospholipid, cholesterol, and a protein (this combination is a *chylomicron* which is a form of a lipoprotein) VII. The fat from your diet is transferred into the lymph system and then to the bloodstream to tissues (specifically the liver and adipose tissues).
Which of these are "bad" effects of ketogenic diets? I. Constipation II. Weight loss III. Headaches IV. Epilepsy V. Halitosis VI. Muscles cramps VII. ADHD VIII. Diarrhea IX. General weakness X. Rash XI. Increased LDL cholesterol
I. Constipation II. Weight loss III. Headaches V. Halitosis VI. Muscles cramps VIII. Diarrhea IX. General weakness X. Rash Not: IV. Epilepsy or VII. ADHD or XI. Increased LDL cholesterol
what are the values of protein in these food sources? I. Milk (1 cup 1% low-fat = ___ g) II. Yogurt (1 cup = ___ g) III. Cheese (1 oz cheddar = ___ g) IV. Meat (3 oz beef chuck = ___ g) V. Poultry (3 oz = ___ g) VI. Fish (3oz canned tuna = ___ g) VII. Dry beans (½ cup kidney beans = ___ g) VIII. Eggs (1 egg = ___ g) IX. Nuts (1 oz peanuts =___ g)
I. Milk (1 cup 1% low-fat = 8.0g) II. Yogurt (1 cup = 10.6g) III. Cheese (1 oz cheddar = 7.0g) IV. Meat (3 oz beef chuck = 15.3g) V. Poultry (3 oz = 21.3g) VI. Fish (3oz canned tuna = 21.6g) VII. Dry beans (½ cup kidney beans = 8.1g) VIII. Eggs (1 egg = 5.5g) IX. Nuts (1 oz peanuts = 7.3g)
Put the process of protein digestion in the correct order: I. Polypeptides are broken down into single amino acids and di/tri/tetra-peptides which pass through the amino acid transport. II. Peptides are broken down into amino acids in the enterocyte by peptidase. III. Proteins broken into polypeptides squirt into the small intestine as chyme. IV. In the brush borders, the enterokinase enzyme activates trypsinogen into trypsin. V. Trypsin activates other protease enzymes VI. Amino acids are transported in the blood vessels to tissues. VII. CCK stimulates the pancreas to release enzymes (enteropeptidase, trypsinogen and other proteases) into the small intestines.
III, VII, IV, V, I, II, VI (III) Proteins broken into polypeptides squirt into the small intestine as chyme. (VII) CCK stimulates the pancreas to release enzymes (enteropeptidase, trypsinogen and other proteases) into the small intestines. (IV) In the brush borders, the enterokinase enzyme activates trypsinogen into trypsin. (V) Trypsin activates other protease enzymes. (I) Polypeptides are broken down into single amino acids and di/tri/tetra-peptides which pass through the amino acid transport. (II) Peptides are broken down into amino acids in the enterocyte by peptidase. (VI) Amino acids are transported in the blood vessels to tissues.
put the progression of diabetic complications in order: I. Modification of biomolecules II. Organ dysfunction III. Glucose toxicity IV. Increased oxidative stress V. Cardiovascular disease/retinopathy/nephropathy/neuropathy/osteoarthritis/infertility/foot ulcers... VI. Beta cell damage and Insulin resistance
III. Glucose toxicity IV. Increased oxidative stress I. Modification of biomolecules VI. Beta cell damage and Insulin resistance II. Organ dysfunction V. Cardiovascular disease/retinopathy/nephropathy/neuropathy/osteoarthritis/infertility/foot ulcers...
Put the pathway of Carbohydrate Metabolism in the correct order: I. The pyruvate enters to mitochondria to perform [Aerobic] Glycolysis and breaks off into Acetyl-CoA. II. The pyruvate proceeds through the citric acid (Krebbs) cycle. Hydrogen is added to NAD to produce NADH which acts as an energy source. From NADH, manyyyy ATP is produced! III. Through [Anearobic] Glycolysis, glucose (which contains 6 Carbons) is split in half (3 Carbons) and into two units of pyruvate.
III. Through [Anearobic] Glycolysis, glucose (which contains 6 Carbons) is split in half (3 Carbons) and into two units of pyruvate. I. The pyruvate enters to mitochondria to perform [Aerobic] Glycolysis and breaks off into Acetyl-CoA. II. The pyruvate proceeds through the citric acid (Krebbs) cycle. Hydrogen is added to NAD to produce NADH which acts as an energy source. From NADH, manyyyy ATP is produced!
Put these foods in order of highest protein quality to lowest. I. Beef liver II. Fish III. Whole eggs IV. Wheat flour V. Peanuts VI. Whole wheat VII. Whole corn VIII. Milk IX. Rolled oats X. Beef round
III. Whole eggs (biological value = 94) VIII. Milk (biological value = 85) I. Beef liver (biological value = 77) X. Beef round (biological value = 74) II. Fish (biological value = 69) VI. Whole wheat (biological value = 67) IX. Rolled oats (biological value = 65) VII. Whole corn (biological value = 60) IV. Wheat flour (biological value = 52) V. Peanuts (biological value = 47)
Put the pathway of insulin on cellular glucose uptake: I. Glucose stimulates the [insulin dependent] glucose transporters (GLUT4) in the skeletal muscles to translocate the insulin receptors to the cell surface. This allows insulin to bind to the insulin receptors in the muscle. II. Glucose also travels to the liver and turns into glycogen and produces ATP. Thus, decreasing blood glucose levels. III. The glucose in your blood stimulates the pancreas to release insulin. IV. Amylose enters the intestine (duodenum) through the SGLT1 transporter. It breaks apart into glucose and glucose.
IV. Amylose enters the intestine (duodenum) through the SGLT1 transporter. It breaks apart into glucose and glucose. III. The glucose in your blood stimulates the pancreas to release insulin. I. Glucose stimulates the [insulin dependent] glucose transporters (GLUT4) in the skeletal muscles to translocate the insulin receptors to the cell surface. This allows insulin to bind to the insulin receptors in the muscle. II. Glucose also travels to the liver and turns into glycogen and produces ATP. Thus, decreasing blood glucose levels.
what happens in response to high blood glucose levels?
In response, the pancreas (B cells) releases insulin. The glucose will then be transported into cells and converted into glycogen in order to restore the normal blood glucose range.
what happens in response to low blood glucose levels?
In response, the pancreas (a cells) releases glucagon. This will result in the breakdown of glycogen into glucose and the increased synthesis of glucose in order to restore the normal blood glucose range.
What is gluten?
It is a protein found within the endosperm of a wheat kernel. It comprises of Gliaden and Glutenin
What are probiotics?
Live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit to the host
How do prebiotics promote the growth of beneficial microbes in our intestines?
Prebiotics are used by beneficial microbes already present in the large intestines. As more prebiotic compounds are consumed, these microbes have increased opportunities to use them as an energy source (in comparison to "bad" microbes). The continued supply of prebiotics provides a competitive advantage for good microbes to grow and divide more rapidly than undesirable ones. As a result, good microbes have an advantage when attaching to site on the wall of the large intestine causing "bad" microbes to decrease in number.
what are the potential health benefits of prebiotics?
Reduce the prevalence and duration of infectious and antibiotic-associated diarrhea Enhance the bioavailability and uptake of minerals, including calcium, magnesium, and possibly iron Lower some risk factors for cardiovascular disease Promote satiety and weight loss and prevent obesity Exert protective effects to prevent colon cancer Reduce the inflammation and symptoms associated with inflammatory bowel disease
What is gynoid obesity?
Small insulin-resistant adipocytes that result in excess fat around the thighs and buttocks ("pear" shape)
What are added sugars?
Sugars and syrups that are added when foods or beverages are processed or prepared. Such food products include honey, soda, energy drinks, fruit drinks, and tea. These can lead to excess calories and triglycerides while can eventually cause unhealthy body weight
What is enterohepatic circulation and what its most important function?
The pathway that bile takes from the liver to the intestines and back to the liver. - This is an extremely important system because it keeps our cholesterol in check. The liver uses cholesterol to recycle bile and thus decreases the LDL cholesterol in our blood.
What is re-esterification?
The process of reattaching a fatty acid to glycerol
What is fiber?
This is a dietary material (carb) containing substances held together by Beta linkages that our body does not have the enzymes to break them down.
What is Cholecystokinin (CCK) and its functions?
This is a hormone that sends messages to the pancreas (to release enzymes), gallbladder (to release bile), and the brain (to feel full).
What is insoluble fiber, where it can be found, and its main functions?
This is dietary fiber that does not dissolve in water. It is found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, beans (legumes), potatoes, and brown rice. - It prevents constipation by speeding up bowel movements by increasing fecal weight ("laxative effect") - decreases the risk of diverticulosis - decreases the risk of colon cancer
What is soluble fiber, where it can be found, and its main functions?
This is fiber that dissolves in water to become gummy or viscous. They are found in barley, oats, beans, soybean, and fruits - decreases blood cholesterol - regulates the use of sugars by slowing glucose absorption. thus decreases blood glucose - increases satiety
Are there health concerns regarding GMOs
Thousands of studies and safety assessments have been conducted over the past 20 years and have failed to show any negative health or nutritional effects nor any increase or decrease cancer risks.
What are triglycerides?
Three fatty acid chains bonded to glyceral backbone molecule by ester linkages - These fatty acids could be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated fats
A recent study showed that a semi-vegetarian diet (excluding meat, pork and poultry but including fish) to have the same overall cancer risk as vegetarians. True or False
True
What is type 2 diabetes and its warning signs?
Type of diabetes in which the body does not properly use insulin (because of insulin receptors). This can develop at any age - frequent infections - blurred vision - cuts/bruises that are slow to heal - tingling/numbness in the hands or feet - recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections - increases blood cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood pressure
What is type 1 diabetes and its warning signs?
Type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces little to no insulin. - frequent urination - unusual thirst - extreme hunger - unusual weight loss - extreme fatigue
Put the process of enterohepatic circulation in order: I. Once the mixture reaches the ileum, it is transported to the liver to be "recycled." II. The mixture is transported within the small intestine while the rest is absorbed into blood circulation. III. Bile combines with triglyceride, phospholipid, cholesterol, and protein to form chylomicron IV. The mixture is transported back to the gallbladder V. CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release bile.
V. CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release bile. III. Bile combines with triglyceride, phospholipid, cholesterol, and protein to form chylomicron II. The mixture is transported within the small intestine while the rest is absorbed into blood circulation. I. Once the mixture reaches the ileum, it is transported to the liver to be "recycled." IV. The mixture is transported back to the gallbladder and the cycle repeats
what are foods high in probiotics?
Yogurt (kefir), Fermented foods, Raw milk, buttermilk, Sauerkraut, Pickles
How do you calculate protein levels from urine?
You would calculate (UUN + 4) x 6.25 = __ protein per day
how to calculate total carb intake?
[Total kcal/d x (.45 or .65)] / 4 = __ g/d - This will equal around 225 - 325 g/d
what is protein quality?
a measure of how efficiently a protein in the diet can be used to make body proteins
_________ obesity is to large insulin-resistant adipocytes as _________ obesity is to small insulin-resistant adipocytes
android ; gynoid
What are the symptoms of celiac disease?
diarrhea, abdominal distention, fat malabsorption (nutritional deficiencies), bloating, weight loss, chronic fatigue, dermatitis herpetiformis, edema, and anemia.
In regards to colonic diverticula, __________ is to the condition of having ___________
diverticulosis ; diverticulitis
it is recommended to consume protein from whole foods such as _______, ______, and _______ rather than supplements
eggs, milk, and lean meat
What are the nutrients of concern for vegetarians
fiber, iron calcium, vitamin D, vitamin B-12, and protein
carbohydrates have _________ linkages ; proteins have ________ linkages ; triglycerides have ________ linkages
glycosidic ; peptide ; ester
For the general population, what level of serum albumin should a person have.
greater than 3.5. If the level is less than 3.5, that person is not consuming enough protein
_________ obesity is to "pear" shape as _______ is to "apple" shape
gynoid ; android
what is the function of glycogen?
it is the animal form of glucose (carbohydrate) storage
What are simple carbohydrates?
monosaccharides (such as glucose, fructose, and galactose) and disaccharides (such as sucrose (G+F), lactose (G+Ga), and maltose(G+G))
table sugar is to _________ sweeteners as honey is to _________ sweeteners as aspartame is to _________ sweeteners.
natural ; refined ; artificial
_________ sugars are more nutrient dense than ________ sugars
naturally occurring ; added
what are the signs and symptoms of colonic diverticula?
nausea and vomiting, pyrexia, and LLQ abdominal pain
naturally occurring sugars
nutrient dense sugars that are present as its original constituents, such as fructose and lactose that are found naturally in fruit and dairy foods
What are complex carbohydrates?
oligosaccharides (such as inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides, and raffinose) and polysaccharides (such as amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, starch, and cellulose)
red blood cells, the duodenum, and the pancreas all have insulin receptors ___________ therefore they are insulin ____________
on the surface ; independent
___________ protein is higher in fiber ; but ________ protein is higher in vitamin B and D
plant ; animal
Fill in the blank: _________ "feed" __________ to promote the growth of beneficial microbes in our intestines.
prebiotics ; probiotics.
what is complete dietary protein?
protein that provides essential amino acids in the proportions needed to support protein synthesis