IAIH Midterm ID's

Republicanism

- When: - What: is an idea, not a form of government o The key point is that the people hold popular sovereignty, rather than the people being subjects of a king o an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty o Certain political standing is expected of people in positions of power o Republic = Fear of centralized authority; rejection in the name of more balanced, more just representation more conducive to liberty - Who: Americans - Where: America (?) idk it's just an idea - Significance/legacy: State vs. federal power - who has the authority? o State rights: curb the centralized governments rights; supremacy of individual states o Federal: need the central power; supremacy of central gov't o Declaration of Independence: only set up the principle of independence o Confederation: left states weak, on their own (blows up through Shea's Rebellion) o Constitution: brought the states together under Federal power

Little Crow

- When: - What: notable for his role in the negotiation of the Treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota of 1851, in which he agreed to the movement of his band of the Dakota to a reservation near the Minnesota River in exchange for goods and certain other rights. o However, the government reneged on its promises to provide food and annuities to the tribe, and Little Crow was forced to support the decision of a Dakota war council in 1862 to pursue war to drive out the whites from Minnesota. o Little Crow participated in the Dakota War of 1862, but retreated in September 1862 before the war's conclusion in December 1862. - Who: chief of the Mdewakanton Dakota people - Where: Minnesota Region - Significance/legacy: has gone down in history as the leader of the Sioux Uprising of 1862

Jacques Le Moyne

- When: 1533-1588 - What: French artist and member of Jean Ribault's expedition to the New World. o Accompanied Jean Ribault's trip to colonize northern Florida. o He is best known for his artistic depictions of the plants, animals, and people of the Americas. o One of his most famous paintings (dubbed "The Oldest Painting of North America" in class) depicts an interaction between Timucua Native Americans and French explorers. o Painting shows natives and European conquistadors celebrating bountiful harvest essentially as equals and gives historians a glimpse of what native-European interactions of the time and region looked like. - Who: artist - Where: from France - Significance/legacy: His depictions of Native American, colonial life and plants are of extraordinary historical importance. o Historians have deemed le Moyne's work "some of the most accessible data about the cultures of the Southeastern Coastal United States."

Southeastern "Ethnogenesis"

- When: 1539-1543 - What: Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto departed Cuba for Florida and the American southeast. o De Soto led a group through Southeastern North America in search of precious metals; angered at not finding any, they pillaged and destroyed native populations and villages. o The combined violence and diseases de Soto's men transmitted to the natives significantly decreased native populations across the Southeast and forced many natives to change their living patterns - merging with groups from other tribes into smaller, independent villages. o From this blending of many tribes, ethnogenesis led to the emergence of new ethnic groups and identities for the consolidated natives who had managed to survive the invasion of European people, animals, and diseases. o After 1700, most North American Indian "tribes" were relatively new composite groups formed by these refugees who were trying to cope with massive epidemics and violence brought by the Europeans who were exploring the area - Who: Hernando de Soto - Where: violent rampage through present-day Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and east Texas - Significance/legacy: This shift in native populations and tribal affiliations represented a significant change in native ways of life pre-European contact. o Post-1700, most native societies in the region were heirs to this "ethnogenesis" - the formation of new identities/communities as a result of the havoc de Soto and other Europeans had wreaked on them and their predecessors o Spanish establish small-scale forms of coastal religious organizations - protect the Spanish trades returning from the Caribbean (Saint Augustine = the oldest city in North America) ♣ Site of multiple Spanish and other European (England, France, Holland) attempts to dislodge each other's influences in the area; Refuge centers for indigenous peoples seeking protection, guidance, cultural attributes that the Spanish had been providing, etc.

Juan de Oñate

- When: 1550-1626 - What: Spanish Conquistador, explorer, and colonial governor of the Santa Fe de Nuevo México province in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. o He led early Spanish expeditions to the Great Plains and Lower Colorado River Valley, encountering numerous indigenous tribes in their homelands there. o Oñate founded settlements within the province and in the present day American Southwest. o Chosen by King Philip II of Spain to explore the Rio Grande region and to settle modern-day New Mexico. o He established New Mexico's first capital, San Juan de los Caballeros, and later established/changed the capital location to San Gabriel. o Laid siege to reluctant pueblo communities (notably Acoma Pueblos) and incorporated them into Spanish rule by social and military authority. Intent on finding precious metals or gold in the region, he explored from the North American plains (up to modern-day Kansas) to the Gulf of California, but found nothing. Infamous for his brutal treatment of Native Americans. - Who: Don Juan de Oñate y Salazar - Where: primarily American Southwest - Significance/legacy: Oñate's establishment of Spanish rule and a capital in modern-day New Mexico were significant events o The regions he conquered stay part of the Spanish Empire and Mexican Republic until the 1840s o New Mexico became an epicenter of change across NA landscape: Western communities became home to great trading fairs that brought Spanish, Pueblo, and various indigenous peoples together.

Genízaro

- When: 1600s well into 1880s - What: Indian captives sold to Spaniards who then became household servants. o Most in New Mexico were Plains Indians (primarily Navajo, Pawnee, Apache, and Kiowa Apache) captured by other Plains tribes and then sold to individual Hispanos or Pueblos. o The legal basis for this arrangement is found in the laws of the Recopilacíon de Leyes de Reynos de las Indias 1681, which justified the purchase of captives under the Christian obligation to ransom captive Indians. - Who: Plains Indians and Spanish colonists - Where: New Spain region; Southwest US - Significance/legacy: these slaves were very mistreated and received land grants, which eventually, out of fear of attack by enemy tribes, were made into Spanish towns o Changed the landscape of people living in the region after the practice ceased - "mixed races" ♣ The nature of the Genízaro experience as being in the middle, living in two worlds with the possibility of incorporating the best of those worlds into the Genízaro identity. o Term came to mean "de-tribalizing" - social term for people who are not from some place but are often used for other purposes (military, etc.); people who settle on the outskirts of the community; diasporic people coming together to form own communities comparable to the indigenous communities ♣ Indigenous community member whose ancestors hail from a different place

Samuel de Champlain, (1609)

- When: 1608-1609 - What: French navigator, cartographer, draughtsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. o He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3, 1608. o He is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the Canadian coast and he helped establish the settlements. o He formed a French alliance with many different native societies, notably the Algonquians, and helped them fight the Iroquois ♣ Summer of 1609, French/Algonquians defeat Iroquois at Lake Champlain o He essentially served as the governor of New France, and oversaw economic and political dealings in the colony. - Who: "The Father of New France" - Where: Canada/East Coast - Significance/legacy: helped the French establish a significant foothold in North America His alliances with the Algonquians, Hurons, and other tribes determined large parts of European-native conflict and interaction

Fort Orange (1624)

- When: 1624 - What: was the first permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherland (the present-day city of Albany) o An attempt by the West India Company to establish a permanent economic and military center in North America, mainly for the purpose of fur trading o Named in honor of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. o Due to a dispute between the Director-General of New Netherland and the grant regarding jurisdiction over the fort and the surrounding community, the fort/community became an independent municipality, paving the way for the future city of Albany. o After conquest of the region by the English, they soon abandoned Fort Orange (renamed Fort Albany) in favor of a new fort: Fort Frederick, constructed in 1676. o The Dutch built Fort Orange on the land of the Mahicans, who they allied with and helped fight against the Mohawks with in 1626. In this battle, the Mohawks killed Fort Orange's commander, and the fort's inhabitants evacuated to Manhattan. - Who: Dutch - Where: present-day Albany Significance/legacy: Fort Orange represented the Dutch's economic interest in the Americas, especially regarding fur trading, as it was strategically located at a hub of fur trade in the region. The Dutch's conflicts with the Mohawk also demonstrate the political/social stress such colonization and trade brought to the Americas. Huge reason for success was the Hudson river.

Pequot War (1636-37)

- When: 1634-1638 - What: was an armed conflict between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the English colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their Native American allies (the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes) o First major conflict between Native Americans and English in northeastern North America. o It lasted eleven long months, involved thousands of Native and European combatants, and several major battles were fought o The Pequots lost the war. o At the end, about seven hundred Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity. Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies. Other survivors were dispersed. o The result was the elimination of the Pequot as a viable polity in what is present-day Southern New England. o The war initially started because tensions over fur trade - Who: Pequot tribe and English Colonists - Where: fought in present-day Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York. - Significance/legacy: Pequot War remains one of the most controversial and significant events in Colonial and Native history of America. o It forever changed the political and social landscape of southern New England. o The Pequot War lasted little more than a year and its events, specifically the "massacre" at Mystic Fort, had long-lasting ramifications as it demonstrated to Native peoples of the region the willingness of the English to wage total war. The defeat of the Pequot created a power vacuum in southern New England, followed by forty years of intertribal warfare.

Bacon's Rebellion

- When: 1676 - What: was an armed rebellion by Virginia settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley o The colony's disorganized frontier political structure, combined with accumulating grievances (including leaving Bacon out of his inner circle, refusing to allow Bacon to be a part of his fur trade with the Native Americans, and Doeg tribe Indian attacks), helped to motivate a popular uprising against Berkeley, who had failed to address the demands of the colonists regarding their safety. o Political revolt pertaining policies with the western frontier, fur trade, and decisions to attack native tribes o They burned the capital of Jamestown and drove Berkeley out o First event of a revolution and attempt to change or overthrow government o Nathaniel Bacon's ("King Tobacco") visions for a new political and economic order: "the poverty of the country is such that all power and sway is got into the hands of the rich, who by extoritinous advantages, have the common people in their debt, have always curbed and oppressed them in all manner of wayes." ♣ Peeved that the governor would maintain good, peaceful trading relations with Indians - why allow autonomy of these peoples when British we struggling to survive with what they had? Wanted to exploit the Indians ♣ Threatens to revolt Bacon is deemed a traitor by the VA governor ♣ Rebellion = essentially a civil war in VA; all about settlers wanting better, interior lands which were inhabited by the Indians - Who: rebellion let by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley - Where: Virginia Significance/legacy: historians have come to understand Bacon's Rebellion as a power struggle between two stubborn, selfish leaders rather than a glorious fight against tyranny.

Madame Le Suere, Fort St. Louis (1690s)

- When: 1690s - What: French colonization of Texas began with Fort Saint Louis in present-day southeastern Texas o In the early 1680s Spain's interest quickly shifted from southwestern to southeastern Texas. Spanish officials learned that France, their European rival, had established a fort on the coast of Texas. o In the winter of 1681-1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, sledded down the frozen Illinois River to the Mississippi River. He reached the mouth of the Mississippi on April 9, 1682, and claimed the river, all the lands it watered, and all its branches for France. He named the territory La Louisiane, or Louisiana, in honor of King Louis XIV of France. o La Salle returned to France in 1683 and asked King Louis XIV for permission to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi a French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi could control trade in the Gulf and the interior of North America. - Who: French Colonists - Where: Texas seacoast (Gulf of Mexico) - Significance/legacy: Important to see the expansion of the Europeans outside of their original regions

Reconquista (1694)

- When: 1694 - What: after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, another conquistador Diego de Vargas reconquers New Mexico from the Indians o This was the reconquering of The Santa Fe de New Mexico by the Spaniards from the Pueblo. It was prompted by two things ♣ The Spanish's fear of the French advances ♣ Need to create a defense frontier against the aggressive nomadic Indians o Problems of Governance after Revolt Return of Spanish wasn't really resented by the Pueblos - they were ready for governance again o Reconquista - pueblos cannot govern themselves after this 12-year period; subject to reconquering o The Spanish in El Paso rallied back against the Pueblo community, taking it back 12 years later Tribes under Spanish command surrounded the pueblos and they surrendered Spain reconquered the land and people. o This was the Spanish forces, led by Vargas, who initially created peace, but eventually turned to a quick and bloody recapture that concluded with the surrender of the Pueblo warriors. - Who: Spanish versus Pueblo - Where: Santa Fe, New Mexico/New Spain - Significance/legacy: Pueblo Revolt gained the Pueblo Indians a measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to eradicate their culture and religion following the re-conquest. o Moreover, the Spanish issued substantial land grants to each Pueblo and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Indians and argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts. The Franciscan priests returning to New Mexico did not again attempt to impose a theocracy on the Pueblo who continued to practice their traditional religion

"Four Indian Kings" (1710)

- When: 1710 - What: The four Native American leaders visited Queen Anne in 1710 as part of a diplomatic visit organized by Pieter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, New York. o They were received in London as diplomats, being transported through the streets of the city in Royal carriages, and received by Queen Anne at the Court of St. James Palace. They also visited the Tower of London and St. Paul's Cathedral. o The Chiefs requested military support against the French and also missionaries to offset the French Catholicism which was converting many people from their tribes. - Who: "Four Kings of the New World"; 3 Mohawk chiefs of the Iroquois Confederacy and a Mahican of the Algonquian peoples - Where: Albany, NY London, UK - Significance/legacy: it signifies the cooperation between Native Americans and Europeans

Tuscaroras (1714)

- When: 1714 = midst of Tuscarora War - What: They were a native American tribe otherwise known as hemp-gatherers or "shirt-wearing people", and they initially migrated and settled in a region now known as Eastern Carolina. o They were the most numerous people in the area, & they ended up engaging with the English colonists & their Indian allies in the Tuscarora War (bloodiest colonial war in NC) o Moved north after war and became the 6th tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy o War: The European settlers often cheated the Native Americans in trade and sometimes stole from them or killed them to obtain goods; the increasingly brisk trade in slaves further depleted the Indian populations. To the Tuscarora, land and the animals that roamed it were not personal property, but natural resources available to anyone in need. Yet, what they personally grew belonged to the grower, and they respected that ownership. But the colonists rarely understood when a Tuscarora raiding party took their livestock, or when they set fire to the land before their annual hunts in a ceremony that often destroyed timber and farmland claimed by settlers. - Who: Tuscarora peoples and Colonists - Where: North Carolina Significance/legacy: In the wake of the war, the Tuscarora emigrated on their own, joining the Iroquois of the Long House in New York. Entire villages left at first, and those that remained trickled northward in small bands, the last leaving North Carolina in 1802

Pierre-Joseph de Céloron de Blainville (1749)

- When: 1749 - What: French military leader and explorer of Ohio in the mid-1700s. His 1749 expedition to the Ohio Country is one of the more memorable of the era. o ordered Blainville to take 250 French soldiers to the Ohio Country to renew old friendships with local Native Americans and to drive the British traders from the region. o De Bienville carried several lead plates (pronouncements laying claim to the Ohio Country) Buried lead plates along the way as a symbol of reclaiming the land, then warned the indigenous peoples that they were trespassing on French land (nothing actually came of this) o At the places where major rivers joined the Ohio, the party stopped and buried one of the tablets. On a nearby tree, a metal plaque was placed, asserting the claims of France and stating that the tablet lay nearby Expedition failed French did not give up after De Bienville's expedition. o French traders quickly moved into the region, hoping to recreate the favorable trading arrangements that they had enjoyed with the Ohio Country's American Indians before King George's War. - Who: Blainville and French forces - Where: Ohio region - Significance/legacy: The French and Indian War (1756-1763) and the resulting Treaty of Paris (1763) would finally settle the issue of both countries laying claim to the region Due to its victory in the French and Indian War, Britain emerged from the conflict as the European owners of the Ohio Country. Many American Indians in the region did not consent toBritish ownership or control of land they considered their own, and conflicts continued in the region for a number of years.

Comanchería

- When: 1750s to the 1850s - What: The Comanches were the dominant group in the Southwest at the time, and the domain they ruled was known as Comancheria o It was a "hinterland" of resources from which these communities could procure food/goods/etc. o Confronted with Spanish, Mexican, and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, and Mexico, they worked to increase their own safety, prosperity and power o Although powered by violence, the Comanche empire was primarily an economic construction, rooted in an extensive commercial network that facilitated long-distance trade. o Dealing with subordinate Indians, the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region. o Their empire collapsed when their villages were repeatedly decimated by epidemics of smallpox and cholera in the late 1840 - Who: Comanche tribe - Where: inhabited a vast portion of US/Mexico Significance/legacy: Comanche's conquered an expansive section of southwestern America to create the Comancheria empire that rivaled the imperialistic efforts of Europeans

Chief Justice John Marshall

- When: 1755-1835 - What: He established that the courts have the power of 'judicial review' which is the authority to strike down laws that violate the U.S. Constitution. o Marshall has been credited with cementing the position of the American judiciary as an independent and influential branch of government. o The Marshall Court made several important decisions relating to federalism, shaping the balance of power between the federal government and the states. o Among these decisions are the three cases that form the basic framework of federal Indian law in the United States, referred to as the 'Marshall Trilogy.' - Who: longest serving Chief Justice in Supreme Court history - Where: Federal law over all else Significance/legacy: played a significant role in the development of the American legal system and federal Indian law

Treaty of Paris 1763

- When: 1763 - What: French recognize defeat in the Seven Year's War and this also ended the conflict. Some of its provisions included giving Canada to the British, Louisiana to Spain, and the French release all claims on the North American mainland. - Who: treaty between French and British - Where: North America, Caribbean, other Colonies in India - Significance/legacy: Big picture significance is the end of New France/Canadian France, but led to conflicts between British colonists and the Native peoples west of the Appalachians o Treaty of Paris ultimately encouraged dissension between Anglo-American colonists and the British Government because their interests in North America no longer coincided. o The British Government no longer wanted to maintain an expensive military presence, and its attempts to manage a post-treaty frontier policy that would balance colonists' and Indians' interests would prove ineffective and even counterproductive. Treaty of Paris ultimately set the colonists on the path towards seeking independence (differences between the imperial government and colonists on how to levy taxes to pay for debts on wartime expenses), even as it seemed to make the British Empire stronger than ever

Sullivan's Campaigns Against the Iroquois

- When: 1779 - What: one of the larger of the Continental Army's offensives during the American Revolution o It was an act of reprisal to break the Iroquois Confederation (a Native American political and military alliance that included the Seneca, Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, and Tuscarora tribes.) o The Iroquois, with the exception of the Oneida and Tuscarora, openly sided with Great Britain to protect their homelands. Together with Loyalists forces, they had ravaged the Pennsylvania and New York frontiers. The bloodiest of these attacks occurred in 1778 in the northeastern Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley and the Cherry Valley of New York. o General Sullivan agreed with his commander's goals, seeing his mission to convince the Iroquois "that we have it in our power to carry war into their country." If his forces destroyed the Iroquois food supplies, it would force the British to support them through the following winter, creating an additional burden. o Plan: From there, the combined force would travel into the Iroquois country and destroy everything in its path. Washington outlined the mission objectives for the "total destruction and devastation" of the Iroquois villages so "that the country may not merely be overrun but destroyed." The villages would be burned, the crops destroyed, and as many prisoners as possible to be taken as hostages to guarantee any settlement. - Who: General John Sullivan (& Washington) against the Iroquois - Where: Wyoming - Significance/legacy: Although the expedition devastated the Iroquois crops and towns and left them on the mercy of the British for the winter, one officer noted "The nests are destroyed, but the birds are still on the wing." The Iroquois continued their devastating raids throughout the war, but the war broke the Iroquois Confederacy's power. Following the war, much of the Iroquois lands would be absorbed by the United States. As for Sullivan, this was his most successful campaign and his last

Principal Chief John Ross

- When: 1790-1886 - What: Fought and influenced the tribe during the American civil war and during the relocation to Indian Territory. Fought against removal by whites. Influenced Johnson's treaties. o He served as a representative to the Cherokee lands in the west. o His first duty was negotiating treaty agreements establishing permanent boundaries for the Cherokee with the U.S. o During his service to the Cherokee people as Principal Chief, he witnessed devastation by both the Indian Removals and the U.S. Civil War. o After devoting his life to resisting U.S. seizure of his people's lands in Georgia, was forced to assume the painful task of shepherding the Cherokees in their removal to the Oklahoma Territory on the Trail of Tears - Who: Principal Chief of Cherokee Nation - Where: Born in Turkeytown, Alabama, 1/8 Cherokee but acted Cherokee through and through - Significance/legacy: Fought and influenced the Cherokee during Indian Removal

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

- When: 1803 - What: acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828 million square miles) by the United States from France o Napoleon Bonaparte, after failing to put down the Haitian Revolt (and sensing imminent war with the British), sold the Louisiana territory to Thomas Jefferson o Doubled the size of the US for a cheap price o Effect on Indian lands = new boundary issues, opens the door for forced removals and migrations o Part or all of 15 states were eventually created from the land deal, which is considered one of the most important achievements of Thomas Jefferson's presidency. - Who: United States and France - Where: Louisiana Territory stretched from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west and from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to the Canadian border in the north. - Significance/legacy: Demonstrated the nation's changing political landscape: no longer world of competing colonial powers - now a continental empire/republic o Led to new generation of Americans and new generation of Indian relations o Radically reorients the political organization o Put the Indians further west but then Americans settle on those lands remove them from those lands o More forcible migrations and removal

Johnson VS M'intosh (1823)

- When: 1832 - What: US Supreme Court case that held that private citizens could not purchase land from Native Americans. o Related to land issues and the interpretation of the Doctrine of Discovery in the United States. o Thomas Johnson bought land from the Piankeshaw Indians; William M'Intosh later obtained a patent to the same land from the U.S. federal government. o Court was asked to settle the dispute between the two men and sided with M'Intosh. o Court went on to say that the Indians did not own land outright, but that they had rights to occupy lands and only the discovering nation (U.S.) could settle those land rights. o Ruling: Indians could not sell lands to individuals and states do not have legal standing to settle aboriginal land claims. - Who: M'Intosh, Federal Court (Marshall) - Where: Supreme Court case - Significance/legacy: Gives US gov't the right to rule Indian lands o Aliens can't be taxed on their own land; "custodians of the land"; not simply people without rights o Aboriginal occupancy rights Created a system of monopsony which avoided bidding competition between settlers and thus enabled the acquisition of Native American lands at the lowest possible cost.

Chief Ouray

- When: 1833-1880 - What: Ute Indian Chief o Ouray was raised in the Taos valley and was influenced by the Spanish way of life. o Ouray joined his parents in Colorado at age 17, already speaking Spanish, Ute, Apache, and some English. o At 35, he became the chief of the Uncompahgre Ute Tribe. o Ouray believed peace was the best option for his people, otherwise, they would have to deal with the U.S. Government. o Gold, silver, and land were at the heart of what the whites wanted, and the Ute Indians were in the way. o Negotiations ensued for years, but with each treaty the Utes lost more and more of their land. o A massacre in northern Colorado occurred and the entire Ute nation was threatened by whites. o By 1880, the year of Chief Ouray's death, the Utes had lost their land and way of life in the San Juan Mountains. - Who: the greatest Ute Indian chief - Where: Colorado Significance/legacy: By and large, Chief Ouray garnered the respect of the Ute Indian Nation, the U.S. Government, and the Indian nations throughout North America because of his intelligence and diplomacy.

The Trail of Tears

- When: 1838-1839 - What: as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi River and to migrate to an area in present-day Oklahoma. o The Cherokee people called this journey the "Trail of Tears," because of its devastating effects. o Series of "complex" forced relocations of Native American nations - Who: Cherokee Muscogee, Seminole, Chicksaw, and Choctaw nations - Where: Southeastern US - Significance/legacy: Disbanded and destroyed power of tribes forever. o Still one of the cruelest human rights events of all time.

Laramie Peace Conference of 1851/Fort Laramie Treaty (1851)

- When: 1851 (*** Richard White Reading) - What: Americans drew borders for the Indian tribes so that they would have an excuse to intervene when they wanted to, by just waiting for a tribe to operate outside of their allotted territory (which they would inevitably, the tribes never had distinguished and long standing borders because they had to move around following the buffalo herds) o Did offer reparations to Natives for Whites disrupting their hunting grounds/food sources, BUT would withhold those funds in order to leverage the tribes into complying with whatever the States wanted from them o The agreement was largely ignored by the SIoux, who were the only indigenous group that really mattered at the signing, as they were by far the most dominant tribe on the plains at this time o Marked the height of the Sioux's political power - Who: United States & Natives of the Plains (de facto, Western Sioux) - Where: Great Plains region - Significance/legacy: Turning point in the American-Sioux relationship: within 4 years of the treaty there were conflicts between the two (had once acted as allies) o Rare showing of political cohesion of all the tribes of the Western Sioux Nation, they decided they would concede no more land to the Americans, which of course led to conflict

Dakota War of (1862)

- When: 1862 - What: 11 years after the Treaty of Traverse de Sioux o Minnesota was still a young state, part of a frontier inhabited by more than one million Indians; Times were hard and Indian families hungry o When the U.S. government broke its promises from the Treaty, some of the Dakota Indians went to war against the white settlers - Americans were trying to get travel through their land, keep them confined to their land and adopt American practices, cede their land to US and follow formal treaties o The fighting lasted six weeks and many people on both sides were killed or fled Minnesota. Former Minnesota governor Henry Sibley led an expedition of soldiers and Dakota scouts against the Dakota warriors. o Ended on December 26, 1862, when thirty-eight Dakota Indians were hanged in Mankato in the largest mass execution in U.S. history; Afterwards the government forced most of the remaining Dakota to leave Minnesota. For white Minnesotans, their experience of blood and terror negated all promises they had made to the Dakota - Who: Little Crow led the Dakota - Where: Minnesota - Significance/legacy: example of how the Americans reneged on their promises to the Indians, and when the Indians tried to fight for their rights they were punished further o The war had a profound impact in shaping Minnesota as we know it today. "They were implicated for being Dakota. Just being Dakota means that you were guilty before any consideration of being innocent."

Bear River Massacre of Northwestern Shoshoni (1863)

- When: 1863 - What: Northwestern Shoshone were killed along the Bear River, near present day Preston, Idaho, in perhaps the largest massacre in United States history; U.S. army under Colonel Patrick Edward Connor attacked Shoshoni where the Bear River and Beaver Creek meet o After years of skirmishes and food raids on farms and ranches (by the Shoshone people because settlers intruded their lands and took their resources), the U.S. Army attacked a Shoshone encampment o Three main events that preceded the massacre: ♣ First, three Northwestern Shoshone "troublemakers" stole some horses and cattle from white settlers. ♣ Next, a conflict between gold miners and another Shoshone band resulted in the death of the miners. ♣ Lastly, a fight between Shoshone boys and white boys resulted in the death of two of the Shoshone boys and two white boys. o The Northwestern Shoshone were not responsible for all three conflicts, the settlers did not recognize the difference between one band and another (as far as they were concerned all Indians were the same and all were guilty) o The Shoshone chief was shot in the hand but escaped in the Bear River at night, and returned to help survivors. Hundreds of Shoshone men, women and children were killed near their lodges, while only two dozen soldiers died. (The number of Shoshone victims reported by local settlers was higher than that reported by soldiers) o "The Indians tried to defend themselves, but what was an arrow and tomahawk against the rifles and side arms of the soldiers. The Indians were being slaughtered like wild rabbits. Indian men, women, children and babies were being killed left and right. No butcher could have murdered any better than Colonel Connor and his vicious California volunteers." - Who: between U.S. Army and Northwestern Shoshone people - Where: Northern Utah - Significance/legacy: largest massacre in U.S. history; highlighted the fact that settlers saw the Indians as wastes of the space and wanted to exterminate them o Mormon, however, stepped up to help the Shoshone people after the massacre: built them a 1,700-acre farming ranch and taught them to farm; when the government came wanting to move them to a reservation, the Mormons defended the Shoshone; gave them land but didn't make the tribe pay taxes

The Long Walk of the Navajo (aka Long Walk to Bosque Redondo)

- When: 1863-1864 - What: Indian removal effort by the United States government; Gen. James Henry Carleton, commander of New Mexico Territory, decided to solve, once and for all, the "Navajo problem." o More than 10,000 Navajos and Mescalero Apaches were forcibly marched to a desolate reservation nearly 1/3 of those interned there died of disease, exposure and hunger, held captive by the U.S. Army. o Navajos were forced to walk from their land in some 53 different forced marches that occurred between August 1864 and the end of 1866. o Traumatized their people and made them a new identity ♣ Made them march to relocation giving them no aid, causing malnutrition ♣ Never informed them where they were going or how long it would take - Who: Navajo people and Mescalero Apaches - Where: Arizona to eastern New Mexico (reservation called Bosque Redondo) - Significance/legacy: Some anthropologists claim that the "collective trauma of the Long Walk...is critical to contemporary Navajos' sense of identity as a people". o Walk was ignored by U.S. citizens because it was overshadowed by the Civil War o After four years at Bosque Redondo, the Army considered it a failed experiment and escorted the survivors back to their homeland — but only after an estimated 2,380 people died.

Sand Creek (1864)

- When: 1864 - What: Colonel John Chivington and his Colorado volunteers massacre a peaceful village of Cheyenne camped near Sand Creek in Colorado Territory, setting off a long series of bloody retaliatory attacks by Indians. o Chivington determined to burn villages and kill Cheyenne whenever and wherever he could. Settlers enlisted because they were Angered by frequent Indian attacks on settlers and the theft of their horses and cattle o Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle led group of Cheyenne to Sand Creek - flew American flag and white flag to signal peace Chivington refused to recognize that Black Kettle's settlement was peaceful. o At daybreak, Chivington and his 700 volunteers attacked the sleeping village at Sand Creek o Most of the Cheyenne men were away hunting, so the women, children, and elders were largely defenseless killed more than 100 women and children and 28 men; Black Kettle escaped the attack o The soldiers scalped and mutilated the corpses, hacking off body parts that included male and female genitals, and then returned to Denver where they displayed the scalps to approving crowds during intermission at a downtown theatre. - Who: John Chivington and Cheyenne tribe - Where: Colorado - Significance/legacy: resulted in a heavy loss of life, mostly among Cheyenne and Arapaho women and children o Result of another refusal by indigenous people to join the US and give them control over their territory o Another instance in which Americans completely disregarded Indians

Christopher "Kit" Carson (1864)

- When: 1864 raid against Navajo - What: well-known Western leader of the time o Enlisted to get the Navajo to fall into the US territorial control. o Navajo had previously peaceful relations with Spanish and were usually undisturbed. o Carson invades Navajo homeland which has never been done series of campaigns by going through canyon in middle of Navajo land. o He destroys all land and anything that could help the Navajo; uses indigenous allies a little bit to help him achieve this. o Carson succeeds in breaking down the Navajo and causes them to surrender. Thousands of Navajo were taken into the forts to decide what to do with them. o Led to Long Walk which was forced movement of the Navajo west to east in to the forts to wait decisions on them. - Who: Union Lt. - Where: Four Corners area (NM, UT, AZ, CO) Significance/legacy: responsible for waging a destructive war against the Navajo that resulted in their removal from the Four Corners area to southeastern New Mexico.

Tecumseh (Shawnee)

- When: 18th century - What: was a Native American religious and political leader of the Shawnee tribe, known as The Prophet or the Shawnee Prophet. o During the early 1800s, he attempted to unite American Indian tribes west of the Appalachian Mountains into a confederation. o Tecumseh believed that the land did not belong to a single tribe. In reality, no one owned the land except for the Master of Life, the Shawnees' principal god. o Tecumseh believed that the only way that American Indians could transfer land to the Americans was if every tribe agreed to it. Tecumseh wanted to force the Americans to deal with all of the tribes in unison. o Separately, the individual tribes did not have much power. Together, Tecumseh hoped, they would be a major deterrent to white expansion o Tecumseh's brother Tenskwatawa joined him at Prophetstown, also known as Tippecanoe in Indiana Territory and in 1808 the two men began recruiting a large multi-tribal community of followers under a message of resistance to settlers, the American government, and assimilation. o Tecumseh transformed his brother's religious following into a political movement, leading to the foundation of the Prophetstown settlement in 1808. After Prophetstown was destroyed during the Battle of Tippecanoe, the Shawnee chief fought with pro-British forces in the War of 1812 until his death in the Battle of the Thames. - Who: Shawnee Indian political leader and war chief - Where: Ohio Valley Significance/legacy:

Alfred Crosby's The Columbian Exchange (1972)

- When: 1972 - What: his take on 1492 and Columbus' arrival: "...the two worlds, which were so very different, began on that day to become alike." o The story of how 1492 sparked the movement of organisms, both large and small, in both directions across the Atlantic. This Columbian exchange, between the Old World and the New, changed the history of our planet drastically and forever. o Led to the trend towards biological homogeneity o Transfer of resources like animals, crops, people and technology between America and the Old World, all relating to after Columbus came to America in 1492 o New people, new ideas, technologies as well as diseases o Demographic boom for Europe but disaster for America o Entire eastern hemisphere trading with America (triangle trade) o Europe's demographic and economic revolution ♣ Global implications for currencies = "The universal equivalency of value" • 181 tons of gold; 16,000 tons of silver • Spanish trade, settlement, conversion and conquest o Spanish Trade, Settlement, Conversion, and Conquest - Who: Alfred Crosby - Where: Old World (Europe) and New World (America) - Significance/legacy: illuminated that the most important changes brought on by the voyages of Columbus were not social or political, but biological in nature; his book wrote of the changes in America and Europe after 1492

Anasazi at Chaco Canyon

- When: 200 BC - 1500 AD - What: Chaco Settlement is the largest settlement at the time - like a city, network of roads that extend into Mexico o Migrations and changing native responses with time migrate towards abundant water (travel, "maritime") and food supply; CA, Pacific NW, NE have more populations (proximity of water) o Evidence of the largest buildings ever built on the American continent until the 19th century o Built along one of the tributary rivers leading to a major river in the region (Rio Grande) o 1,000 years ago built pueblos in the Chaco canyon, which was the center of Anasazi civilization o Pueblos were used for ceremonial centers and administrative meetings o Influenced many other cultures on how to start up a civilization - Who: Anasazi = "ancient ones" of the southwest American Indian people - Where: New Mexico Significance/legacy: Pre-Columbian civilizations help us to see what life was like (social, economic, architectural, political, resiliency, survival, etc.)

Cahokia

- When: 600-1640 AD - What: Cahokia was the largest and most influential urban settlement in the Mississippian culture which developed advanced societies across much of what is now the central and southeastern United States, beginning more than 1000 years before European contact. o Cahokia's population at its peak in the 13th century, an estimated 40,000 o Characterized by the ancient Indian mounds that gave St. Louis the nickname Mound City in the 1800s were almost completely leveled by the turn of the century - Who: Cahokia people - Where: mid-West region; Missouri/Illinois - Significance/legacy: America's first city and arguably American Indians' finest achievement o became the center of ancient society Helps us conceptualize cities are started by small communities

Pueblo Bonito

- When: 830-1130 AD - What: One of the large buildings at Chaco Canyon, N.M.; "big house"; mud and straw (adobe), multi-tiered (3-4 stories) facility; large gathering spaces for social and ceremonial activities/meetings; most recognized for the Chacoan Great Houses - Who: Anasazi Indian tribe - Where: Chaco Canyon, NM - Significance/legacy: Pre-Columbian civilizations help us to see what life was like (social, economic, architectural, political, resiliency, survival, etc.) o Pueblo Bonito = largest indigenous housing ever; outstanding architectural achievements at the time; influential political and religious implications

April 26, 1607

- When: April 26, 1607 - What: arrival of first colonists in America o 3 ships arrived - established the most enduring colony in the British era; home to 4/6 first presidents o Results: deadly, violent, catastrophic o Virginians found the worst imaginable location to establish a colony ♣ Unfertile for crops/livestock; Mosquito infested rivers ♣ Lacked reliable water supplies, fields for harvest, mineral resources, exportable products, etc. ♣ Colonists unprepared for settlement life o Like Roanoke (failed colony) o 1607-1622: only 20% of settlers still alive - hunger, disease, violence from Indian tribes - Who: Virginia Company of London - Where: Jamestown, VA; Chesapeake Bay - Significance/legacy: this date is important because it is the beginning of English colonization of North America o Virginia = first English colony in America

Popé and the Pueblo Revolt (1680)

- When: August 1680 - What: Spaniards commenced to expand into what is now New Mexico and Arizona around 1540. They seized more than 100 Indian pueblos (villages). o Spanish soldiers and priests imposed a forced-labor system, encomienda, which resembled slavery, and prevented the Pueblo Indians from communing with their gods retaliation o Led by Popé (a medicine man from the pueblo of San Juan) they assaulted several Spanish settlements in August 1680, and achieved overwhelming success thanks to superior numbers - more than 8,000 warriors against fewer than 200 armed settlers. o Pan-Indian Unification: Despite different dialects, they coordinated their attack to occur everywhere at once. o They killed 21 Franciscan friars and more than 400 Spaniards. o drove 100s of Spanish settlers out of San Jose; destroyed the Spanish institutions (churches, religious icons, etc.); Pueblos drove the Spanish toward the Texas-NM border (El Paso) o Led to 12-year Spanish exile Reconquista return of Spanish wasn't really resented by the Pueblo Indians because they were ready for governance again - Who: Pueblo Indian and Spanish Colonists; Popé = ruler of New Mexico - Where: New Mexico - Significance/legacy: 1st American Revolution? - group of resident community members threw off the imperial society that imposed on their own practices

Cameahwait's Concerns (August 1805)

- When: August 1805 - What: "concerned" about the arrival of Lewis and three of his men. An army of 60 were gathered, but Lewis, bestowing gifts and trinkets, convinced Cameahwait that he came in peace. They ended up trading and negotiating for horses, and during this process, it was realized that Sacagawea was in fact Cameahwait's brother. o At camp, Cameahwait described to Lewis the impassable rivers and shores ahead, confirming that no all-water route could take the Corps through to the Pacific Ocean. o They would have to traverse the daunting Bitterroot Mountains to continue the expedition. o The Shoshones were most concerned about securing guns in return. o Lewis wrote that Cameahwait told him, "If we had guns, we could live in the country of the buffalo and eat as our enemies do, and not be compelled to hide ourselves in these mountains and live on roots and berries as the bear do." - Who: Cameahwait (tribal leader of the Lemhi Shoshone), Meriwether Lewis - Where: Shoshoni camp Significance/legacy: Lewis and his three men were the first white people the Shoshones had ever seen.

Bering Strait Theory

- When: Ice Age (13,000 years ago); theory first proposed in 1590 - What: There was once an above-ground exposed land bridge during the ice ages; began descending over 100s of years into the 'new world' - filled with an abundance of natural resources (game, fish, wood) - Who: early North American settlers; nomads tracking large herds - didn't really know where they were going/ended up; thought to be the "Clovis" people - Where: Bering Strait (narrow passage that connects Russia and Alaska); migration from Siberia to Alaska - Significance/legacy: could tell us where the first people that set foot on America came from o Thick sheet of ice still covered America at the time in the North, dense forests in the South o With the melting of the ice sheets came rising sea levels covered the land bridge o Warming atmosphere dryer lands, more forests, more rivers from melted ice

Acoma Pueblo (1599) (aka Acoma Massacre)

- When: January 1599 - What: Native American pueblo in New Mexico o In 1540, Coronado's expedition reported a peaceful interaction with the Acoma Pueblo; Oñate's expedition sought to colonize the Acomas, which resulted in conflict and abuse of Acomas o In 1595, the Acoma people decided to give Juan de Oñate, soon to be the first governor of Nuevo Mexico, food and provisions for his group of explorers and settlers. o Later, the nephew of Oñate, Juan de Zaldívar, returned and attempted to take provisions, and women, by force. Zaldívar fell to his death during the struggle, and in retaliation, in January 1599, Oñate took the pueblo by siege. o 3-day battle led to the massacre of 800 - 1,000 Acoma people, and the survivors were either mutilated, by having a foot cut off, or sold into slavery for a period to extend beyond 20 years. o A later trial found Oñate's behavior to be cruel and severe beyond the parameters of his duty as a representative of the King of Spain, and he returned to Spain after being stripped of the land, title, and wealth he had attempted to accrue at the northern edge of the New Spanish Empire. - Who: fought between Spanish conquistadors and Acoma native Americans - Where: what is now New Mexico Significance/legacy: The Acoma Pueblo is one of the oldest continuously-inhabited sites in the modern-day US. Despite sufferings inflicted by Spanish colonial takeover and rule, the Acoma

San Diego, July 1769

- When: July 16, 1769 - What: the first of the twenty-one great California Missions, marks the birthplace of Christianity in the west coast of the United States. o It is California's first Mission Church. o Father Serra established Mission San Diego and the California mission system was begun on a site overlooking the bay. The mission remained at this site for only five years; the water supply was not reliably sufficient to sustain the crops. The soil was not fertile enough and the American Indians were intimidated by the military. The decision to move the mission six miles east was made by the pastor, Father Luis Jayme (a young Majorcan) and approved by Father President Serra. - Who: founded by Spanish Friar Junipero Serra - Where: San Diego, CA - Significance/legacy: This remarkable and significant historical shrine provides an understanding and appreciation of the beginning of Catholicism in this corner of the world, so remote from the Mother Country of Spain and yet so similar

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

- When: March 18, 1831 - What: second case in Marshall Trilogy o In this case, Cherokee Chief John Ross tried to protect Cherokee lands, fight off removal, and to keep the laws of Georgia from being imposed on them by asking for an injunction in the United States Supreme Court. o Cherokees argued that they were a foreign nation and the laws of Georgia did not apply to them. o The Court denied the injunction and went on to say that the Cherokees were not a foreign nation, but they were a "domestic dependent nation." o The relationship between the tribes and the United States was like that of a "ward to a guardian." - Who: Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia - Where: US Supreme Court Case - Significance/legacy: This case outlined the sovereign nature of tribes as not like states, but not as complete foreign nations either.

Worcester VS Georgia (1832)

- When: March 23, 1832 - What: case in which the United States Supreme Court chose the conviction of Samuel Worcester and held that the Georgia criminal statute that prohibited non-Native Americans from being present on Native American lands without a license from the state was unconstitutional. o The last case of the "Marshall trilogy" o Involved a missionary, Samuel Worcester who was preaching on the Cherokee lands, which was prohibited by the laws of Georgia without a state license to do so. Worcester was imprisoned and filed suit against the State of Georgia claiming that the State did not have authority to control activity on Cherokee lands. o Ruling: Court sided with Worcester finding that the Cherokee Nation is a distinct community, occupying its own territory, and within which the laws of Georgia could have no force. o This decision again established that the federal government, not the states have authority over Indian affairs and that the tribes had inherent sovereignty, the authority to make and enforce their own laws within their lands. - Who: Worcester (missionary), Georgia (state legislature), Federal Government (Marshall) - Where: Supreme Court case - Significance/legacy: not very effective; Built the foundations of tribal sovereignty in the US

The Indian Removal Act

- When: May 28, 1830 - What: The law authorized the president to negotiate with Indian tribes in the Southern United States for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands. - Who: passed by Congress under Andrew Jackson - Where: Southeastern America Significance/legacy: led to Indian removal and relocation, and the subsequent Trail of Tears

Treaty of Paris (1783)

- When: September 3, 1783 - What: The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris by representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America ended the American Revolutionary War o This treaty, along with the separate peace treaties between Great Britain and the nations that supported the American cause: France, Spain and the Dutch Republic, are known collectively as the Peace of Paris. o Its territorial provisions were "exceedingly generous" to the United States in terms of enlarged boundaries - Who: King George III and representatives of the U.S. - Where: signed in Paris - Significance/legacy: ended the American Revolutionary War

"And with the Indian Tribes"

- When: U.S. Constitution - What: Commerce Clause - ARTICLE I, SECTION 8, CLAUSE 3: "The Congress shall have Power To ...regulate Commerce...with the Indian Tribes...." o gave the power of regulating commerce solely to Congress, without reference to the states. o In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), Chief Justice John Marshall confirmed the supremacy of federal authority over the states in regard to the Indians. o Articles of Confederation - failed. Most of us don't learn that first government of the US didn't work. In the original articles of confederation, provided colonies with first loose confederation. Powers exercised by central governing body - Congress. Important laws needed approval by 9 of 13 states, any changes needed unanimous vote. o Structure: deep abiding fear of centralized authority. Revolutionary leaders so scared of monarchical rule, they didn't want to set up any structures. So they set up government that was too weak, too decentralized. States did not want to cede any authority to anyone. States wanted to maintain general agrarian economies - Who: Framers of the Constitution - Where: - - Significance/legacy: The Commerce Clause grants Congress plenary power to regulate commerce between the United States and three other forms of sovereign entities: the states, foreign nations, and the Indian tribes. o Allows US to regulate trade with other countries and the Indian tribes o Leads to Marshall's view of federal government over Indian societies o gives Congress the power "to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes."

Monk's Mound

- When: around 1000 AD - What: 100 ft. high; 300 years to construct; provides a beautiful view of skylines; largest structure at Cahokia; used for ceremonial and political purposes - Who: Cahokia people; largest Indian settlement north of Mexico - Where: Cahokia = ceremonial city just east of St. Louis (near Collinsville, Illinois) - Significance/legacy: Considered America's largest earthwork - essentially a very tall mound o Europeans eventually settled here; important to know that the French occupied this land for a while from the early 1700s to the mid 1800s.

Silver & the Universal Equivalency in Value

- When: came with the Columbian Exchange, post-1492 - What: gold and silver from Americas made colonizers rich, monetize and assign set values to goods in their native countries. o Many precious minerals from America ♣ Gold drove the Spanish deep into the American hemisphere ♣ 181 tons of American gold resources were mined transported across the Columbian encounter - "Golden Age" = Spanish Imperial Crown following 1492; Spain was greatest empire of Europe at its time; Spain really benefited from the quick acquisition of raw minerals and resources o Silver was much more common ♣ Measured into small coins; a real universal value of currency ♣ 16k tons of silver to Europe ♣ fueled early commercial revolution mercantilism - Who: Americans and Europeans - Where: Triangle Trade of Columbian Exchange (Caribbean, Americas, Europe) - Significance/legacy: global implications for currencies and values of goods Infusion of wealth helped the growth of other European economies - Contracted other European countries to build ships, build weapons, serve as their armies, etc.

Five Nations of the Iroquois

- When: created around 1200-1300 AD - What: The League of the Iroquois nations characterized by a non-aggression pact between the five tribes, recognition of shared concerns, and structures for decision-making and leadership which brought together representatives from the five groups; they share a similar language base of Iroquoian o Around 1200-1300, the Iroquois experienced internal friction and fighting, but eventually came together under a shared principle and belief system originated by the Peacemaker. o They were militarily skilled (and feared/respected for that reason) and used this military skill to forcibly integrate both Europeans and other natives into their society (i.e. Eunice Williams). They also monopolized areas of the fur trade, and were a major economic ally of the Dutch in the 1600s. o In 1722, the Tuscarora joined, and the Iroquois became the "Six Nations." - Who: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk - Where: New York State - Significance/legacy: the oldest continuing political organization in the United States; thought to have influenced the creation of the United States government system in terms of structure and operation o The Iroquois represented a powerful force in colonial North America both to Europeans and other native peoples. For colonists, allying with the Iroquois meant a valuable "in" on the fur trade and helped secure borders. For surrounding natives, the Iroquois were not to be trifled with - they frequently raided/sent war parties to other villages, which helped increase their size if they conquered those populations. They continue to be a significant and populous society present-day in both the U.S. and Canada

Epic of the Peacemaker

- When: early 12th century? unknown - What: the traditional story of how the Iroquois Confederacy formed o The Peacemaker counseled peace between the fighting Iroquoian nations. o His follower, Hiawatha, was grief and revenge stricken as a result of losing his family to inter-tribal violence, but the Peacemaker convinced him to let go of his anger, and Hiawatha became a famous orator who helped spread the Peacemaker's message. o When Peacemaker united the Iroquoian Confederacy, they planted a tree of peace whose roots extended in the four cardinal directions, symbolizing the nation's unity and their desire to spread the roots of their nation/peace to reach other people's. o This was a political and cultural union of five Iroquoian-speaking Native American tribes created a powerful alliance of related Iroquoian peoples around the Great Lakes. - Who: Deganawida ("Two Rivers Flowing Together") is a more reverent name and is not usually spoken aloud except in ceremonial contexts - Where: present-day NY and northern PA - Significance/legacy: extremely important to Iroquoian identity and essential to understanding the roots and psychology of the Iroquois Confederacy o The Epic of the Peacemaker and the uniting of the Iroquois gave the Iroquois power, independence, and economic/military standing in colonial North America (and modern America/Canada). Some peoples, including Native American Bahá'ís view the Peacemaker as a manifestation of God.

Puritanism

- When: early 1600s - What: A religious dimension that came with the Columbian Exchange; name of extreme Protestants who wanted all Catholic influence gone from the Church of England. o Steadfast adherence to the original "pure" teachings of Christ o English population nearly doubled at this time which triggered political and economic transitions o Many English fled to practice their religion in their views by travelling to current Massachusetts, where they landed initially at the Virginia Colony in 1618, then in Plymouth in 1620 and around the Massachusetts Bay after. o John Winthrop was a key person in establishing the Massachusetts Bay Colony. - Who: British - Where: Massachusetts Bay Colony Significance/legacy: Important because this religious group shaped the New England colonies.

Powhatan Confederacy

- When: early 1600s-ish (well-developed upon arrival in Jamestown in 1607) - What: the indigenous people of Virginia o Bad relations with colonists from the start: the colonists' belief that the Indians would welcome them and willingly supply food; settlers failed to realize that the Indians lived very close to the subsistence level by hunting and gathering little more than their immediate needs required. o Tensions were heightened when the colonists allowed their livestock to wander into Indian cornfields, and especially when the whites used their superior firepower to extort food contributions from the tribes. o The primary native leader in the area was known to the settlers as Powhatan; He headed a loose confederation of about 30 Algonquian tribes from a village north of Jamestown on the York River. Powhatan was at first fascinated by English tools, but that interest was soon dampened by threats to native lands and food supplies o Warfare between the races continued for another decade, but no decisive battle was won by either side. The settlers gave up any pretense of coexisting with the Indians and embarked upon a policy of extermination. In 1632, the tribes were forced to make major land concessions in the western Chesapeake Bay area. - Who: alliance of about 30 Algonquin's in Virginia that were led by the Powhatan - Where: Virginia (Jamestown region) - Significance/legacy: The formation of this group is important because this was the first interaction between English and natives and shows the reaction of the natives to form a confederacy. o The Pocahontas Story occurred in 1614 - John Rolfe married Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas o Important to understand the first interaction of trade and conflict

Fort Duquesne, 1754

- When: est. in 1754 - What: was a fort established at the convergence point of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. o The Battle of Fort Duquesne was a British assault on the French fort (later the site of Pittsburgh) that was repulsed with heavy losses on 14 September 1758, during the French and Indian War. o Fort at the beginning of the Ohio River, and was fought over because of its prime location and possibilities. It later became fort Pitt of Pittsburgh after changing hands post Seven Year's War. George Washington was later sent to scope it out - Who: est. by the French - Where: Pittsburgh, PA - Significance/legacy: was seen as important for controlling the Ohio Country, both for settlement and for trade.

Pays d'en Haut

- When: established in 1610 - What: (French for "Upper Country") an expression used in the fur trade to refer to the area to which the voyageurs travelled to trade. Essential for trade and transportation in the North o was a vast territory west of Montreal, covering the whole of the Great Lakes north and south, and stretching as far into the North American continent as the French had explored. The area was dependent upon Canada. o The first mission by the French was in 1639 with the Huron's o By 1660, France started a policy of expansion into the interior of North America from what is now eastern Canada. The objectives were to locate a Northwest passage to China; to exploit the territory's natural resources, such as fur and mineral ores; and to convert the native population to Catholicism. o Important trading posts and forts were constructed along this area such as Fort Frontenac o As the French fur trade expanded, the pays d'en haut expanded with it o The people living within the region were the Algonquins (name referred to a language group the domain of whose speakers stretched far beyond the pays d'en haut; and not all of the people of the region were Algonquin speakers) o Many forts were built which provided French sovereignty in the area and facilitated commerce with the natives - Who: Majority were Algonquin who fought off the Iroquois, and also fought the Sioux in the region - Where: west of Montreal, north of Great Lakes region; extending from Detroit to Sault Ste Marie - Significance/legacy: led to many expansions and settlements in the region (many of which are still many important cities today - Ontario, Detroit,

Indios Bárbaros

- When: existed for a long time ... - What: umbrella term for Native Americans who had evaded Spanish colonial rule, some for over three centuries. Self-governing and partially nomadic, many groups used horses to increase their mobility o Wild, or unpacified, Indians.; Usually Indians of Central Mexico; peaceful or sensible Indians. o Around 1759, Spaniards also turned their attention to the unconquered, autonomous Indians on the fringes of the empire, and attempted to gain control of those peripheries through the establishment of peaceful relations with the independent tribes. o Spain tried to form peaceful alliances with some of these groups. Later, upon the formation of new Latin American countries, some groups maintained their autonomy as independent nations, but were never recognized internationally. o They were never formally controlled by Spain - Who: Comanches and Apaches of the American Southwest—all equestrians living in semiarid regions—the forest-dwelling Creeks and Choctaws of the southeastern United States. - Where: American Southwest and Mexico (I think?) - Significance/legacy: Spanish colonization exerted huge influence over the Americas, but despite centuries of Spanish rule, some native peoples still managed to maintain their autonomy, many using colonial technologies (i.e. horses, weapons) to their advantage

Virgin Soil Epidemics

- When: post-1492 - What: term coined by Alfred Crosby, defining it as epidemics "in which the populations at risk have had no previous contact with the diseases that strike them and are therefore immunologically almost defenseless." o William McNeill in which he connected the development of agriculture and more sedentary life with the emergence of new diseases as microbes moved from domestic animals to humans. o Unprecedented disease outbreaks because the people in these lands had no prior contact with European diseases o Domesticated animals, many European countries had already encountered many of the worlds diseases o 80-90% of the native American populations perished due to European-borne diseases or violence impositions of the Europeans - Who: Europeans brought the disease Native Americans perished - Where: America - Significance/legacy: led to massive casualties of Native Americans post-Columbian encounter o Colonialism brought catastrophic effect by disease/violence from the Europeans

Iroquoian "Mourning Wars"

- When: pre- and post-Columbian encounter - What: attacks Iroquois launched at neighboring tribes and Europeans in order to avenge deaths that happened at the hands of those tribes/Europeans and/or to replace numbers of people who died in such attacks or from epidemics like smallpox o Mourning Wars sometimes resulted in the killing of victims; other times the Iroquois would kidnap people. o As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to take vengeance and seize captives, generally adopted directly by the grieving family. o process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. ROLE OF WAMPUM - Who: Iroquoian tribes - Where: Iroquoian lands; eastern woodlands - Significance/legacy: symbolically replaced the dead through captives taken, an essential aspect of Iroquois culture. o Mourning Wars were part of Iroquoian culture before European arrival, they demonstrate another way Native Americans reacted to European arrival/consequences of their arrival. o Kidnapping colonists or avenging the deaths of those killed by smallpox were responses to the Columbian Exchange. o Mourning Wars also helped keep the Iroquois Nation populous and powerful militarily.

The "Play-off System"

- When: pre-French and Indian War (1754-1763) - What: Native American Tactic of playing the French against the British. This had worked for the past half century because of the Natives control of the fur trade. o The Shawnee tribe switched allegiances between the French and the British very often to try and play off the two powers against each other. o The Iroquois communication with both the French and the English and strategically "playing" them for trade, information, and favors. o Common political practice with the Iroquois: the Iroquois stay at an intermediate position in neutrality; seek trade goods/resources/information from others, threatening to use their neutral status to ally with other powers get what they want o Gain incentive to important actions o Bringing their concerns with the heart of the empire/inland - Who: Indian tribes (mostly Iroquois), British, French - Where: Pays d'en Haut region - Significance/legacy: This is important because these 2 imperial powers are competing for the Native's allegiance, trade, and information o Leads to the outbreak of the Seven Years War o The Ohio Company was granted 200,000 acres of land in the upper Ohio River Valley, a land inhabited by Native Americans This angered the Iroquois who feared that more of their land was being taken To mend relations, the British held the Albany Congress (focused on repairing relations with the Indians). Delegates assured they had no intentions on Iroquois lands. o The System ended in the 1740's because of the population increase, which resulted in the need of the settlers to expand West and North and the British resented the high price of furs, and realized they didn't need them to create successful colonies. Treaty of Paris: Indians could no longer pursue what had been a largely effective strategy of playing the French and British against each other to extract the most favorable terms of alliance and preserve their lands against encroachment by Anglo-American colonists.

Pontiac's Rebellion

- When: rebellion launched in May 1763 - What: In 1762, Pontiac enlisted support from practically every Indian tribe from Lake Superior to the lower Mississippi for a joint campaign to expel the British from the formerly French lands. According to Pontiac's plan, each tribe would seize the nearest fort and then join forces to wipe out the undefended settlements. o Tribes in the region were dissatisfied with British postwar policies in the Great Lakes region after the British victory in the French & Indian War (1754-1763) and decided to act against them o Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region. o Eight forts were destroyed, and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured, with many more fleeing the region. - Who: Ottawa leader Pontiac led the loose confederation of elements of Native American tribes primarily from the Great Lakes region, the Illinois Country, and Ohio Country - Where: Great Lakes/Ohio/Illinois - Significance/legacy: Pontiac's rebellion was that it was a powerful reminder to the British that their economic and military success in the region depended on them becoming co existent with the Native peoples.

Treaty of Traverse des Sioux (1851)

- When: signed on July 23, 1851 - What: agreement between the Sisseton and Wahpeton bands of Dakota and the U.S. government. o It transferred ownership of much of southern and western Minnesota from the Dakota to the United States. o The treaty is significant in Minnesota's history because, along with Treaty of Mendota signed that same year, it opened 24 million acres of land to immigration. - Who: signed by Little Crow - Where: Minnesota Territory - Significance/legacy: For the Dakota, these treaties marked another step in the process that saw them increasingly marginalized in and dismissed from land that was their home. o Broke down - Dakota War 11 years after Treaty U.S. government broke its promises some of the Dakota Indians went to war against the white settlers. o The fighting lasted 6 weeks and many people on both sides were killed or fled Minnesota.. Ended on December 26, 1862, when 38 Dakota Indians were hanged in Mankato in the largest mass execution in U.S. history; Afterwards the government forced most of the remaining Dakota to leave Minnesota

Wampum

- When: started as early as 1510; important once the settlers of New England arrived in 1630 - What: beads of polished shells strung in strands, belts, or sashes and used by North American Indians as money, ceremonial pledges, and ornaments o type of belts; a quantity of small cylindrical beads made by North American Indians from quahog shells, strung together and worn as a decorative belt or other decoration or used as money; "America's first currency" o Signified to the wearer of the belt: his station, his value (and obligation) to his people, as well as the spiritual message conveyed by the design of those shells o wampum became a prime commodity in the Northeast corner of North America in 1630, it forever altered the Native systems of reciprocity and balance in life, labor and trade. o Wampum include the white shell beads fashioned from the North Atlantic channeled whelk shell; and the white and purple beads made from the quahog, or Western North Atlantic hard-shelled clam. o "Hiawatha" belt symbolizes the unity provided the 5 Nations by the Great Tree of Peace - Who: Wampum tribe - Where: New England/Northeast - Significance/legacy: Wampum are significant most notably for their use in storytelling and recording events/treaties o Since Native American societies did not have written language, wampum played a vital role in keeping records and passing down stories o Specific wampum belts are also significant - for example, the wampum belt which records the formation of the Iroquois Confederacy and depicts the symbol of the confederacy.

The Five "Civilized Tribes"

- When: the term appears as early as 1876 - What: The term "Five 'Civilized' Tribes" derives from the colonial and early federal period. o The term was applied by Anglo-European settlers during the colonial and early federal period because these tribes had adopted many of the colonists' customs and generally, had good relations with the white settlers. o For example, Christianity, centralized governments, literacy, market participation, written constitutions, intermarriage with white Americans, and plantation slavery practices. o The Five "Civilized" Tribes tended to maintain stable political relations with the Europeans. o Differed from most others in the fact that their lands were held not on the same basis as reservations, but, by patents or deeds, with certain restrictions as to alienation and reversion, as well as other restrictions regarding timber, mining and grazing within their respective tracts. - Who: 5 Native American nations: the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole - Where: all 5 lived in SE U.S. forced to Oklahoma region after Indian Removal Act - Significance/legacy: the five tribes signified the American attempt to assimilate Indian tribes into American culture o Some tribes even fought in American Civil War

Segesser I Hide Painting

- When: unknown, unspecified battle - What: This painting represents an encounter between rival tribesmen, the attackers accompanied by a Spanish leader. o All of the varied terrains in the background indicate it took place over assorted terrains. o The who/when/where of the painting is the subject of debate among many scholars, though Segesser one portrays one or more Spanish officers with Indian allies. o The significance of the paintings are expressions of the actual life/war that the Indians experienced o Moreover, the tanned and smoothed hides carry the very faces of men whose descendants live in New Mexico today. Perhaps both paintings illustrate military expeditions dispatched from the Palace of the Governors, when it was called las casas reales, the royal houses. - Who: unknown - Where: located on display in the Palace of Governors in NM - Significance/legacy: Though the source of the Segesser Hide Paintings is obscure, their significance cannot be clearer: the hides are rare examples of the earliest known depictions of colonial life in the United States.

Indentured Servitude & Bacon's Rebellion (1676)

- When: widely employed in the 1600s and 1700s - What: was a labor system whereby young people paid for their passage to the New World by working for an employer for a certain number of years. It was widely employed in the 18th century in the British colonies in North America and elsewhere. o A 7-year work contract that the Virginia Company used unfortunate Englishmen were practically transported and enslaved for 7 years in exchange for a share in the company o After their time is done, they in return get land they could be sold to "planters" o Indentured servants played a big role in Bacon's Rebellion - Who: poor and criminals from Britain - Where: colonies of North America and elsewhere - Significance/legacy: beginning roots to colonial slavery; ceased once African slave trade started

Samuel Morton's Crania Americana

- When: written in 1839 - What: Morton = Philly physician; owned largest collection of human skulls o Book: argued that he was using purely scientific methods to compare skull size, brain size, etc. o Drew conclusions on the ranking of these skulls: finds that Americans are the smartest men on earth and that blacks are the least smart o Southern people loved the findings - that they were above all others o Morton believed that cranial capacity determined intellectual ability. He described Caucasians as, "distinguished by the facility with which it attains the highest intellectual endowments." Meanwhile he described Native Americans as "averse to cultivation, and slow in acquiring knowledge. He said that they were restless, revengeful, and fond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure." - Who: written by Samuel Morton - Where: Philly - Significance/legacy: Made Morton a pioneer of American race science and physical anthropology o He used work for his pro-slavery political agenda