IB Psych HL Summer Assignment
Hans Seyle
( General Adaption Syndrome) T: yes, with rats and humans → observations of symptoms E: yes, with rays A: yes, describes behavior change when stress is presented C: Alarm stage, resistance stage, exhaustion U: shows general response to stressors P: can predict behavior w/ stressors (GAS = ARE)
James Pennebaker
(TAT Test) A: To study if writing can show one's behavior M: TAT test → test that studies how one writes and then determines personality F: Positive writing = better health E: Ethical no harm, not very ecologically valid → not common for people to write a lot
Richard Lazarus
-The appraisal theory of emotion proposes that emotions are extracted from our appraisals of events. These appraisals lead to different specific reactions in different people. -Lazarus also distinguished between primary appraisal, which seeks to establish the significance or meaning of an event, and secondary appraisal, which assesses the ability of the individual to cope with the consequences of the event.
Joseph Le Doux
-To investigate the brain's emotional pathways - 2 pathways- fast route= thalamus to amygdala, less logical thought process, instinctive motor response. Slow route= thalamus to cortex to hippocampus to amygdala, analyzes stimuli to give suitable reaction, logic process took over instinctive emotional responses
Robert Cialdini
6 principles of social influence - authority -likability -reciprocity -consistency -consensus -scarcity
Golden & Baddeley
A:
Holmberg & Holmes
A: Appraisal theory M: Asked a group of men who were all married about their marriages F: found that men who had less happy marriages recalled early interactions in the marriage as being more negative than they really were E: high ecological validity
Giacomo Rizzolatti
A: N/A - accidentally discovered M: sensors placed in macaque monkey to study neurons F: Same neurons fired when monkey picked up food as it observed another rmoney picking up food (mirror neurons) E: ethical, no harm
David Reimer
A: Nurture vs nature in gender identity M: Was patient of John Money study F: Still displayed masculine behavior, psychosecual development + female hormones E: Unethical, David was put under lots of stress
Ellen Langer
A: Placebo effect; possible criticism of the biological perspective M: By simply telling a group of female maids that they should be losing weight, they began to lose weight. F: the placebo effect does indeed work E: deception
Lee Ross (FAE)
A: See if students participants would make the FAE even when they knew all the actors were playing a role M: Participants randomly assigned one of the 3 roles (host, contestant, and audience). After the game show audience members were asked to rank intelligence of the hosts F: Participants consistently ranked host 25 most intelligent E: Sample not representative
Simon LeVay
A: Studied if sexual orientation has any relation in brain physically M: Post-mortem study of gay and straight men F: Average size of the anterior hypothalamus larger in heterosexual men, gay men had the same size as women E: Ethical, no harm
Fritz Heider (FAE)
A: Study attributional process in perception (fundamental attribution error) M: Participants watched a short animation in which 3 figures (small and large triangles and a disk) were shown moving in different directions and speeds F: Subjects interpreted the animation in terms of animated beings, attributing motives and personality traits to the different objects E: interpretation differs from one another
Latane & Darley
A: Study the bystander apathy effect M: Participants were told they'd be having discussion about personal problems, subjects are unaware F: 31% of subjects tried to seek help E: applies to real life situations
Robert Gazzaniga
A: Study the effect of split brain on function M: studied the brains (specifically the hemispheres) of split brain epileptic patients test (check sperry) F: Information can not transfer across split hemispheres E: Ethical → split brain was for medical purpose
Henri Tajfel
A: Study the formation of ingroups and outgroups (ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination) M:48 boys shown paintings by Kandinsky and Klee then told to choose which they preferred. Boys told to give points to other boys (in any other group) F: Boys generally awarded more points to others in their own group, displaying in group favoritism E: relation to self serving bias, little ecological validity
Jane Elliot
A: Study the impact of prejudiced M: Separated her students into two groups blue eyes and brown eyes and favored one group one day and then the other group the next day F: When brown eye/blue eyed people were told they were better they got better grades E: applicable to the real world issues, stress for the students
Nancy Adler
A: Study the relationship between socio-economic status and health M: showed participants a ladder w 10 rugs and asked how they would rank themselves in terms of how well they are doing F: The lower you socio-economic status the more likely you will have health issues i.e. stress, obesity E: varies between cultures
Gary Wells
A: The Power of Affirmation/Confirmation M: showed people a video of a man putting a bomb in the building asked witness to pick who it was from the line up F: eyewitness were not accurate
Paul Broca/ Tan/ Louis Victor Leborgne
A: To determine if certain brain functions are localized M: Case studies of Tan, Leborgne (post mortem), and case study of Broca F: People suffering damage from damage to the left frontal lobe (Broca's area) were able to understand however could not make grammatical and complete sentences E: Testable in post mortem - Now in MRI
Tessa Roseboom
A: To determine if stressed mothers affected their fetus with negative stress hormones in their life (during dutch winter hunger) M: Studied pregnant women who were starving and stressed during Dutch Hunger Winter F: Early exposure to stress can cause people to be more prone to developing depression and other mental illnesses as adults E: longitudinal study- is testable and has ecological validity, prenatal stress impacts adult life
Herman Ebbinghaus
A: To determine the capacity of LTM M: Tested himself with nonsense syllables after delay, from 20 mins to 31 days F: Large proportion of info stored in LTM was lost quickly E: Ethical, but was on himself
Robert Sapolsky
A: To determine the correlation between stress levels and hierarchy in non humans (baboons) M: Studying the keekorok baboon tribe in kaya by taking blood samples, and observations F: Higher ranking baboon had less stress than low ranking baboons, which also had higher blood pressure, elevated heart rates, and higher levels of glucocorticoids, adrenalin in blood E: Baboons not humans were tested, some ecological validity, no harm done to the anima
Soloman Asch
A: To determine the extent a person would confirm to an incorrect answer on a test if the response from the other members was unanimous M: Placed participant in group of people. Group asked to compare sizes of lies and people in study chose either the correct or "wrong" answer F: About 75% of participants agreed with others in group (incorrect answer) at least once E: unethical (deception)
Sir Michael Marmot
A: To determine the extent which hierarchies contributed to stress levels M: Studied the British Civil service system gov, workers were organized in a hierarchy w/ testing F: Rank and amount of stress are closely correlated, lower the rank, the higher the risk of disease and a lower quality of life E: Very testable and high ecological validity
Philip Zimbardo
A: To determine the influence of situation on behavior M: Assigned college students to be either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison. Guards told to act as prison guards and prisoners were treated like prisoners F: Guards become harsh and abusive towards prisoners over time and prisoners ultimately became dependent and submissive E: Unethical caused stress and harm
Robert Ader
A: To determine the relationship between the brain and immune system M: Classical conditioning with rats → after giving rats sweetened mate shot then the immune drug was given to them F: Rats avoided sweetened water but when force feed they died → due to their immune systems E: Slightly unethical as rats were killed/harmed
Jim Jones
A: To gain a group of loyal followers that will go along with his belief and actions M: Founder and leader of People's Temple, led thousands of followers to Jonestown in Guyana by manipulation F: Led more than 900 people to preform mass suicide E: manipulation, unethical, deceptive
Ulric Neisser
A: To investigate accuracy of flashbulb memory M: Participants asked to report on circumstances of their learning about the challenger space in 1986 F: Participants were asked to report on the circumstances of their learning about the challenger space disaster on 1986. After 1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about the disaster on television Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V memories about how they had heard about the news had deteriorated significantly during the subsequent two and a half years. E: This suggested that FBM are not reliable (as influenced by post-event information)
Craick & Tulving/Lockart
A: To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall M:Participants presented with a series of 60 words about which they had to answer one of three questions, requiring different depths of processing. Participants were then given a long list of 180 words into which the original words had been mixed. They were asked to pick out the original words F: Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed. E: lacks ecological validity but has a strong control
Anderson & Pitchert
A: To investigate if schema processing influences encoding and retrieval. M: Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the other half was given the schema of a potential house-buyer. Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, previously rated by a group of people based on their importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement) or a burglar (10speed bike, colour TV). F: This shows that our schemas of "knowledge," etc. are not always correct, because of external influences. E: High ecological validity
Eleanor Maguire
A: To investigate navigational experience + role played by hippocampus in humans and whether brain can undergo plastic changes due to the environment M: Natural experiment, london taxi drivers with 18 + job experience give MRI to study hippocampus F: Taxi drivers had significantly increased posterior hippocampi in size, smaller anterior E: Does not show how change occurs only that it is present, no actual control
Peterson & Peterson
A: To investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide empirical evidence for the multi-store model. M: A lab experiment was conducted in which 24 participants had to recall meaningless three-consonant syllables F: The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled. Participants were able to recall 80% of nonsense syllables after a 3 seconds delay. However, after 18 seconds less than 10% of syllables were recalled correctly. E: Low ecological validity
Joseph Speisman
A: To investigate the extent to which manipulation of cognitive appraisal could influence emotion M: Participants viewed anxiety- provoking film with 3 different soundtracks meant to manip different emotional reactions F: Participants with trauma condition showed higher psychological measures of stress than penial + wellness E: Unethical, caused stress and deception
Sir Francis bartlett
A: To prove schema theory and its role in processing M: British students asked to serial reproduce Native American story (War on Ghosts) F: Stories got more concise, coherent, conventional and cliched E: Had some deception, no IV, DV, or control
John Money
A: To prove that nurture determined gender identity M: Longitudinal study on David Reimer, who was given a sex change after circumcision accident F: Bruce displayed masculine behavior with peers and family E: Unethical- deception + uniformed content, no protection, and caused stress
David Snowden
A: To study aging and alzheimer's M: Studied nuns - all lived same the same controlled lifestyle, read their autobiographical essay, did memory + cognitive tests post mortem F: All nuns showed some sight of decreased memory + cognition → alzheimer's and age linked with most have a greater chance of developing it E: Ethical , high ecological validity
Bennet Omalu
A: To study and further research on CTE, effects of concussions on one's brain M: Post -mortem studies on football players including Mike Webster F: Large amounts of CTE found in the brain E: Ethical- post mortem, however faced lots of opposition (especially from NFL)
Kitty Genovese
A: To study and understand the bystander effect M: Genovese was attacked and murdered outside of her apartment F: none of her neighbors ( 37 people who reported hearing an incident reported or called for help E: Development and bystander effect, led to studies
E.C. Toleman
A: To study cognitive maps M: Used rats in a maze, first group received no reward for finishing, second always received reward for finishing, final group received no reward for first 10 days, but did not for final 8 F: First group made consistent errors/ no improvement, second group showed consistent improvement, final group showed no improvement in 10 days but then jumped in last 8 days -> latent learning E: Ethical- rats, high ecological validity
Shelly Taylor
A: To study coping mechanisms for stressors in women M: Observation of chronically stressed women and measured oxytonic levels F: "Tend and befriend" principle → group therapy and caring, compassion may increase length of telomeres in chronically stressed women E: no person harmed, high ecological validity → a woman's reaction to stress situations compared to the male dominant "fight or flight"
Kurt Lewin
A: To study effect of different leadership styles M: Assigned leaders to different styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez faire) F: Autocratic- more dissatisfaction, behavior was either aggressive or apathetic Democratic - more cooperation and enjoyment Laissez faire- no dissatisfaction, but were not productive E: only tested among boys
Elizabeth Blackburn
A: To study effects of mothers raising disabled children M: DNA sample examination and testing as well as observations F: Chronic stress can lead to the telomeres to diminish, which is related to premature aging (+6 years), telomerase discovered → an enzyme that slows down aging E: Very testable and high ecological validity → a study on people who already live with chronic stress
Leon Festinger
A: To study his cognitive dissonance theory (people change opinions and behaviors to match social situations) M: Posed as cult member (cult believed the world would end of a specific day) to study these members he acted the same at other members F: Some cult members quit E: unethical (deception), ecological validity
Margaret Mead
A: To study how gender roles and norms are affected by culture and cultural norms M: Mead traveled to New Guinea and studied the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli cultures and the varying gender roles and cultural norms F: Both males and females of Arapesh are gentle and cooperative; males and females of the Mundugumor are violent and aggressive; In Tchambuli the men are sensitive while women are the more dominant ones E: ecological validity
Clive Wearing
A: To study how memory is retained in a brain damaged patient M: case study F: Suffered damage in hippocampus from encephalitis, extensive, had retrograde + anterograde amnesia, still had implicit memory, can play piano and remembered wife E: high ecological validity, unethical- violation of patient privacy, name was released
Jay Geidd
A: To study how the adolescent brain develops M: MRI to show brain growth, fMRI to show neurons and brain growth F: what teens do doing their adolescent years can impact how their brains develop E: Ethical + valid → explains the development
Marian Diamond
A: To study impact of one's environment on life M: Rats in different environments (Impoverished: 0 toys, 1 rat; Standard: 3 toys, 3 rats; Enriched: 12 rats, 12 toys + TLC) F: Lifeline longer the more enriched the environment was (due to: proper diet, exercise, TLC) Impoverished: 200 days Standard: 600 days Enriched: 900 days E: ethical + high ecological validity however possible harm to animals in impoverished environment
Carol Shively
A: To study impact of stress on body M: Studied monkey, in hierarchies and focused on arteries and weight gain F: Arteries are impacted by stress and cannot expand to pump blood effectively- leads to an increased risk of heart attack. Monkeys at bottom have less dopamine is system, also more obese "bad fat" E: An animal study bad valid conclusion made, no animals were harmed
Muzafer Sherif
A: To study intergroup conflict when two groups are in competition for limited resources M: 22 twelve year old boys randomly assigned to one of the two groups and sent into a camp. Groups were kept separate at camp and each group bonded within each other. Groups then competed in activities F: Boys characterized their own groups favorably as "in group" and the other group as the "outgroup" E: conflict triggers prejudice, stress
Carl Wernicke
A: To study localization of function in language producing M: Post mortem studies/ case studies F: Patients could produce speech but could not understand if when left posterior superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area) was damaged E: Testable and measurable as it is a physical part of the brain - hard to test →need someone who already has damage (unethical to harm one)
H.M
A: To study memory + how it was retained (STM and LTM) M: case study F: had retrograde damage after operation for epilepsy, nothing was able to be stored in LTM, childhood memories intact as well as working memory, hippocampus needed for number and transferred into LTM E: unethical a violation of privacy
Andrea Yates
A: To study post- partum depression M: Killed her children in the bathtub because she believed she was saving them and then called 911 F: Put in institution → pleased guilty by insanity E: Her children were harmed, case study
Susan Fiske
A: To study prejudice and its formation M: Showed pictures of people with disabilities, homeless, addicts, older, rich businessmen, and olympic athletes Evoked emotions: pity, disgust, envy, pride by using fMRI to show brain activity F: Insula is activated when looking at pictures of homeless- as if one is looking at trash E: Ethical and testable
Thomas Bouchard
A: To study similarities and differences of twins separated at birth M: Same-sex twins separated at birth + named in different families studied F: Twins had 70% identical coincidence rates, 40-50% fraternal rate → genetic link in our environment E: Ethical, families chose to raise children apart
Abigail Baird
A: To study the adolescent brain and explain the behavior and how teens make decisions M: fMRI to show what parts of brain were used to make decisions testing both adults and teens F: Adults visualize and use their PFC, however teens don't visualise and just use their PFC→ which is not fully developed + amygdala E: Teens and adults make decisions differently, ethical, no harm`
Roger Sperry
A: To study the consequence when hemispheres are split M: Patients who needed surgery for epilepsy were given test to identify objects by using the different hemispheres F: Objects shown on left side will only be recognized if shown on left again, only objects shown to the right were able to be written down or named E: Natural experiment, high ecological validity, surgery for partiers w/ epilepsy had no harm done
Phineas Gage
A: To study the damage done to change and how he was still able to function M: Longitudinal study of Gage F: After damage he could function normally, until after it healed he no longer had emotional control or solid intellectual abilities E: ethical → case study
Genie
A: To study the effect of an impoverished environment on child development M: Case study, "the forbidden experiment" Genie spent 11 years locked in a basement w practically nothing (impoverished environment) F: The impoverished environment left her with a lower IQ that could not be improved much and a smaller brain E: Genie was put in an environment that had caused her harm and stress, took advantage of Genie
Stanley Milgram
A: To study the effect of authority on obedience M: The participant (teacher) was told to give the learner (member of exp) an electric shock every time the learner got a question wrong (15 volts - 450 volts). When teacher refused to administer shocks, the experimenter gives a serial of orders to teacher F: 65% of participants continued to highest level (450 volts). All went to at lear 300 volts E: unethical (deception, stress, and "harming" another human
V.S. Ramachandran
A: To study the effect of mirror neurons on sensory M: Touched patient's faces to activate sensations in hand area of the brain (amputees), known as phantom limb F: Patients felt pain in phantom limb Penfield map, mirror neurons→ reason we are able to copy one by watching (also reason for sympathy) E: ethical, no one harmed + testable
Charles Hofling
A: To study the effect of unorthodox orders on obedience (with nurses) M: A doctor called the nurses at hospital 22 different occasions and asked them to give 20 mg of the drug "astron" to a patient F: 21 out of 22 of the nurses complied with the order, breaking multiple rules E: Unethical (deception), ecological validity
Jose Delgado
A: To study the effects of ESB (electrical stimulation of the brain) on localization of function M: ESB planted into a bulls head on an area he believed would produce fear F: The bull stopped→ fear function is localized E: not very ethical due to harm of an animal
Cole & Scribner
A: To study the effects of formal school/education (relation to culture) on memory M: tested memory ability of non-schooled children in Kpelle tribe in Liberia and then compared them to the memory of US children → children expected to remember items on a world list F: Kpelle children did not improve performance in the same way as US children, school children used a categorical recall E: ethical + high ecological validity
Bruce McEwen
A: To study the effects of stress on brain cells M: Studied and tested hormone levels and affections in functioning F: "stress makes you stupid" → cortisol inhibits ability of hippocampus E: Testable, high relevancy, brain cells changed by stress causing brain circuits to be changed
Rosenthal & Jacobson
A: To study the experimenter expectancy effect (w/ teachers and students) M: Gave students an IQ test and told teacher that it was a Harvard test of Inflected Acquisition. Some teachers told that their students were top of the class and some said the opposite F: Students labeled 25 top of class showed higher IQ increases at the end of the year and vice versa E: deception, real life situation
Kenneth & Mamie Clark
A: To study the psychological effects of segregation of African American children M: Children were asked multiple questions about dolls (ex: which they preferred, the ugly one, etc) F: Majority if black children preferred the white doll, said the white doll was good/ black doll was bad, and that the white dolls looked like them E: essential study for Brown vs. Board
Geert Hofstede
A: To study the role of cultural dimensions M: analyzed a database of employee value scores collected within IBM between 1967-1973 F: identified the 5 cultural dimensions E: different between cultures
Albert Bandura
A: To study the role of modelling in learning M: 72 kids were split into 4 groups (watched aggressive acts, non aggressive add and then another one as well but with the bobo doll and other group watched neither) Then kids were put into a room with bobo doll F: non aggressive group- almost no aggression Aggressive group - 88% E: not much ecological validity
Miquel Sabido
A: To study the role of modelling in learning M: Produced TV shows promoting adult literacy etc. Mexico F: increased enrollment in adult literacy classes in Mexico E: Builds off Bandura's social learning theory
George Miller
A: To study the storage capacity of STM M: Tested STM by chunking information and asking participants to repeat set/recall information later F: 7+/- 2 = STM can only retain this amount of chunks E: Ethical and high ecological validity
Yuille & Cutshall
A: argues and criticizes against Loftus and Palmer's viewpoint on the accuracy of EWT in real-life settings as their research lacked ecological validity M: Have a similar gun shooting situation F: eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the findings of the vast majority of previous research into eyewitness testimony, which had all been from laboratory experiments. E: has a lot of ecological validity
Elizabeth Loftus
A: how another factor, 'repression' may influence recovered memories, thus leading to unreliable answers from eyewitnesses, investigated on. M: Participants heard a discussion in the room next door and there were two conditions one a guy w a knife the other nothing then the people had to figure out who the guy was (line up of 50) F: Loftus' research indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using post-event information. These results indicate that memory is not reliable E: lack of ecological validity, deception
Brewer & Treyens
A: see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office. M: Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office. F: Participants recalled things of a "typical office" according to their schema E: Lacks ecological validity, controlled variables
Brown & Kulik
A: to investigate flashbulb memories/ how it works M: Interviewed 80 Americans (40 white, 40 black) had to answer questions about 10 major events. Mostly assassinations/ attempts, then asked how asked how they felt about the events F: JFK assassination had to most flashbulb memories (90%) African Americans recalled more movements of civil right leaders (MLK) E: high ecological validity, diverse group of participants, may have caused some stress
Oliver Sacks
A: wanted to study clive wearing to understand memory more M: case study, CW F: He could not transfer information from STM to LTM. His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. Wearing still had the ability to talk, read, write, conduct and sight-read music (procedural knowledge) Wearing's episodic memory and some of his semantic memory were lost. MRI scans of Wearing's brain showed damage to the hippocampus and some of the frontal region E: no privacy for CW
Stanley Schater
A:To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenalin M: Gathered large group of males, some were given a placebo and others were given adrenalin F: emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective experience of emotion E: deception
Bransford & Johnson
A:identify the processing stages where schemas are likely to influence M: participants heard a long speech, conditioned beforehand with a title, no title, and title after F: 2.8 ideas were remembered in "no title", 5.8 in "title", 2.6 for "title after" E: High ecological validity
Aaron Beck
CBT
Chris Nowinski
Former player who had a mass of CTE in his brain due to various concussions
Baddeley & Hitch
It is a model of STM and it includes several components: The central executive: a kind of controlling system that monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components, which are called slave systems. Its most important job is attentional control. This happens in two ways: the automatic is based on habit and is controlled automatically (riding bike to school); the supervisory attentional deals with emergencies.The episodic bluffer: Role is to act as a temporary store until the information is needed. The phonological loop: The first component is the articulatory control system, can hold information in a verbal form. The second component is the phonological store, which holds speech-based material. The visuospatial sketchpad: deals with the visual and spatial information from either sensory memory or LTM.
Atkinson & Shiffrin
Multi-score model: model thinks of humans as information processors.The model is based on two assumptions: memory has a number of separate stores; and that memory processes are sequential. Information from the world enters sensory memory--related to different senses. Information stays here for a few seconds, and only a very small part of the information attended to continues into the short-term memory. The capacity of STM is around seven items and duration is normally about 6-12 sec. Material in STM is quickly lost if not given attention. The long-term memory store is conceptualized as a vast storehouse of information.
Albert Ellis
RET
Eric Kandel
Showed that learning means formation of a memory, in other words growing new connections or strengthening existing connections between neurons to form neural networks.
Jean Piaget
T: Schema theory is testable. E: the studies by Anderson & Pitchert and Brewer & Treyens. Applications: Schema theory has been applied to help us understand how memory works. It also is helps us to understand memory distortion. C:Schema cannot be observed. U:Schema theory is applied across cultures. There is no apparent bias in the research P: The theory helps to predict behaviour. We can predict, for example, what types of information will be best recalled when given a list of words.
Walter Cannon
T: Testable → body reaction + adrenaline levels E: Adrenaline increases blood flow, pupils widen, heartbeat becomes faster, loss of hunger, etc A: Applied to living thing/ survival reaction/ survival of the fittest/ evolution C: very valid appears in all animals U: unbiased P: yes, behavior can be predictions
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
T: yes it is E: Yes A: yes, this theory can show us why some feel happier after doing physiological things that activate muscles that you associate with happiness C: Yes U: there is argument that this is biased because you know what is occurring P:yes
Cannon- Bard Theory of Emotion
The Cannon-Bard theory states that the emotional stimulus enters our sensory systems which causes us to feel emotions which causes emotional expression responses (somatic, endocrine, and autonomic). ie. feeling happy makes you smile
Lawrence Kohlberg
Theory of moral development- used Piaget's storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.
James McGaugh
stress hormones such as epinephrine and cortisol play a critical part in determining why we remember some things more vividly than others
