III. Reading Development: Comprehension

Semantic feature analysis

Form of scaffolding which help students to compare features of words A math teacher designed a grid to help students compare features of mathematical objects. On the left side of the grid is a list of terms in the category and across the top is a list of features.

Word web

Form of scaffolding which helps students to understand and retain new words and concepts. During reading, as students encounter each word, they write down around the word different words or phrases that will help them remember the meaning.

During Reading Informational Texts: Compare and Contrast

Good readers can evaluate and draw conclusions in a text. Teachers should provide students tools for identifying similarities and differences between two concepts, ideas, or texts. T-chart / Venn Diagram

Modeling

Instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a concept or skill and students learn by observing When a teacher encounters a difficult word in a text, she thinks aloud to show how she can use the context clues to discover the meaning

Diversity

Representations of people with their different cultures, which can be in language, social status, age, ethnicity, or other traits within a group.

Moral

Lesson or message to be learned. Common in fables or children's stories.

Morphemic Analysis

Morphemic analysis, also known as structural analysis or simply word analysis, is using meaningful word parts, known as morphemes, as clues to determine the meaning of a word. Morphemes are categorized as roots and affixes. When readers break words into meaningful parts, determine what those parts mean, and put them back together to determine the meaning of the whole word, they are using morphemic analysis. Let's use the word unexpectedly as an example: · The prefix un- means not · The root expected means likely · The suffix -ly means like · All the morphemes together mean in a way that is not likely, which is the definition of unexpectedly While morphemic analysis is a useful strategy, it doesn't always work. For example, some word parts that appear to be affixes are really just part of the word as a whole. · As an example, ing is a suffix commonly used at the end of present-tense verbs. However, here it is part of the noun: ceiling.

Folktale

Stories that are orally passed through generations "The Three Little Pigs" and "Little Red Riding Hood" are examples

Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific Words: Create Word Sorts

With closed sorts, students put words into predetermined categories. With open sorts, students create and discuss their own categories. Example: History students are given a list of presidents to sort. Some students sort them by the political party they represented. Other students sort them by the length of their term in office. Students then describe their grouping to the rest of the class.

Listening vocabulary

Words a listener can recognize when heard People typically have a larger ___________ ____________ (compared to writing vocab), as the meaning of words can be determined from the context.

Bloom's Taxonomy

a hierarchy of levels of knowledge; each level has associated verbs teachers can use to start questions

Structural/morphemic analysis

using meaningful word parts (morphemes) to study a word and determine its meaning

Background knowledge

-AKA schema, information or experience that the student has prior to learning When students can connect their background knowledge to the texts they read, it aids their comprehension.

A Three-Part Model for Measuring Text Complexity: 1) Qualitative measures

1) Qualitative measures: Aspects of a text that can only be measured by a reader. These include the complexity of: meaning or purpose structure language conventionality and clarity knowledge demands

A Three-Part Model for Measuring Text Complexity: 2) Quantitative measures

2) Quantitative measures: Aspects of a text that are too hard for a reader to measure. These are typically measured by computer software. These include the complexity of: word length frequency of difficult words sentence length text cohesion

A Three-Part Model for Measuring Text Complexity: 3) Reader and task considerations

3) Reader and task considerations: Aspects of reading a text that relate to the reader or the reader's purpose in reading the text. These considerations are determined and measured by teachers based on their professional judgement, knowledge of their students, and knowledge of the subject. Reader considerations include: motivation, knowledge, experiences Task considerations include: the complexity of the assignment related to the reading, questions asked about the reading Reader and task considerations rely on a teacher's experience and training. While there are many software programs for quantitative measurement, tools for qualitative measurements are the most challenging to find. There are four primary qualitative factors that can be used to develop effective analysis tools.

Index

A catalogue list at the end of the text containing all of the topics discussed

Reading Comprehension Overview

A child's literary comprehension skills start to develop long before a child has learned how to read. Children as young as prekindergarten are able to comprehend with increasing accuracy what they hear. In prekindergarten, introductory comprehension strategies should be taught to children through the use of read-aloud activities. This includes modeling good reading habits and teaching questioning and inferencing strategies. At this age, children can demonstrate their understanding through their questions, comments, and actions. As children get older, they develop the ability to read and comprehend texts.

Inference (when reading)

A conclusion or opinion based on information that is given, and that is sometimes called an educated guess. Sam's parents __________ that he had gotten in trouble at school when they received a call from the principal.

Semantic mapping

A form of scaffolding which helps students to develop connections among words Have a variety of formats. In one method, students write an example, a non-example, a synonym, and an antonym. Can be used to visually display the meaning-based connections between a word or phrase and a set of related words or concepts. Teaching the semantics of English is a key part of effective language arts instruction.

Prefix

A letter or letters at the beginning of a root word that changes its meaning re, de, un

Suffix

A letter or letters at the end of a root word that changes its meaning s, es, ed, ing, ly, er, or, ion, tion, able, and ible

Affix

A letter or letters that change a root word's meaning prefixes or suffixes

Glossary

A list of important words to know along with their meanings

Elements of Literary Analysis: Structural Elements

A literary text uses certain structural elements to help develop the text and contribute to the reader's understanding and enjoyment. These elements include: · Paragraph breaks · Chapter breaks · Following a plot structure (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution) · Using dialogue · Sentence structure variation Authors use these features, as well as figurative language or characterization to create an effect for the reader. Long paragraphs can simulate the character's feelings that an event is droning on. Short, choppy sentences move quickly, and can create a feeling of suspense or action for the reader. The use of dialogue allows readers to experience the characters as if they were real people, and helps to develop the character in the reader's mind.

Frayer Model

A popular form of semantic mapping which helps students to identify and define unfamiliar concepts and vocabulary Students place the following information on a chart divided into four sections - the definition of a concept, its essential characteristics, examples and non-examples.

Anticipation guide

A series of statements used to preview and activate prior knowledge before reading a text

Memoir

A story or account of someone's life or a part of that person's life. A Moveable Feast, by Ernest Hemingway— written during his time of living in Paris.

Tier 3 words

Academic words that are specific to a particular content area or discipline. These are words that would appear, for example, in a subject-specific textbook or in the glossary of an informational text.

Tier 2 Words

Academic words that students will encounter frequently and that are used in multiple content areas. Many of these are process words that commonly appear in assessment.

Factors Affecting Vocabulary Development

A student's vocabulary consists of four categories that work together: speaking, listening, writing, and reading vocabulary. · Listening Vocabulary - words understood when heard · Speaking Vocabulary - words known and used in speech · Reading Vocabulary - words encountered, recognized, and decoded while reading · Writing Vocabulary - words used in writing While these categories work together, they are also developed at different rates and composed of different words. Consider how young children begin to understand the meaning behind simple words like "dog," "fork," or "dada" long before they are able to say, write, or read these words. Also consider how speaking vocabularies rely on gestures, facial expressions, and tone to communicate a message, while writing requires carefully chosen, additional words to communicate the same message.

Teaching Literary Analysis

A true literary analysis is not just a summary of what was read, but a discussion of why or how an author wrote what they did. Teachers should explain common story elements and literary tools to students and provide them the opportunity to work with them in their reading. Model how to conduct a literary analysis and use contextual clues to decipher "the how" or "the why." Modeling is the key to teaching students how to conduct a literary analysis. It is imperative that students can describe and comprehend the text before having them attempt to analyze it.

Figurative language

A word or phrase that does not have its normal everyday, literal meaning hyperbole: I'm so hungry I could eat a horse!

Cause and Effect

A writing method in which the author explains reasons why something happened or the effects of something that has happened A politician's speech in which all of the bad actions of an opponent are listed to argue that the politician should be elected instead.

Reading Comprehension Overview, cont.

According to the TEKS for English Language Arts and Reading (ELAR), students in kindergarten to second grade should be able to do the following with adult assistance: -establish purpose for reading assigned and self-selected texts -generate questions about text before, during, and after reading -make and confirm predictions using text features and structures -create mental images to deepen understanding -make connections to experiences and ideas in other texts -make inferences and use evidence to support understanding -evaluate details to determine what is most important -synthesize information to create new understanding -monitor comprehension and make adjustments such as re-reading, using background knowledge, checking for visual cues, and asking questions when understanding breaks down And by third grade, students should be able to perform the same tasks without adult assistance.

Before Reading Informational Texts: Strategies

Activate Prior Knowledge KWL chart (what we KNOW, what we WANT to know, and what we LEARNED). Students complete the first two columns before reading and the final column after reading. Anticipatory Sets Example: In a science class, the teacher provides a list of statements for the students to agree or disagree with before reading the text. After reading the text, the students compare their initial opinions with the opinions of the author.

Active reading

Actively engaging with a text while reading When reading a text, students should employ the active reading strategies of visualizing, monitoring, questioning, summarizing, synthesizing, evaluating, and making inferences.

Speaking vocabulary

All the words known and used by a person in speech Students typically have a clear understanding of a word in order to use it in their ____________ ____________

Writing vocabulary

All the words known and used by a person in writing A students __________ ___________ is typically more formal than their speaking vocabulary.

Author's POV

An attitude or perspective toward the topic of what is being written or spoken by the author or narrator

Character's POV

An attitude or perspective toward the topic of what is being written or spoken by the character within the story.

Word wall

An on-going bulletin board with common terms used frequently in the classroom. Vocabulary words are added as they are introduced

Spatial order

An organizational approach where ideas are arranged related to physical space

Claim and Refutation

An organizational approach where the author argues against a statement, fact, or claim.

Compare and Contrast

An organizational approach where the author provides similarities and differences about two ideas

Annotate

Making notes in a text and questioning unfamiliar ideas while reading something new

Analyzing Author's Craft

Analyzing a piece of writing may also involve analyzing the author's craft. Author's craft describes how the author uses language while writing a text in order to best communicate the intended message. Examples of components of an author's craft include: diction, syntax, imagery, details, figurative language For example, diction is a key element in establishing the mood or tone of a text, and describing a character as "reserved and quiet" communicates a very different message than describing the character as "taciturn and antisocial." While the focus of analysis will depend on the text and objective, the overall approach has predictable steps.Since literary analysis requires high-level thinking skills, students will need scaffolding and repeated modeling before they should be expected to successfully complete a literary analysis on their own.

During Reading Informational Texts: Annotate the text

Annotation is a structured way to "mark up" text so that it is more manageable. Students use annotation to highlight important information like main ideas (argument or claim), supporting ideas (evidence), key content vocabulary words, definitions, and transitions within the text. Example: While reading a section of the Declaration of Independence, a history teacher encourages students to ask questions and answer them while reading, consider the author's point of view, and make connections between the document and when it was written.

Types of Vocabulary, cont.

As the listening and spoken vocabulary are increased and the student learns letters and basic phonics, the listening and spoken vocabulary can be used to help the child decode written text and increase their reading and writing vocabularies. Students who have a larger vocabulary will be able to recognize words more quickly and read more fluently. This vocabulary helps students comprehend what they read and apply background knowledge and schema to a text. Strong readers use their knowledge of vocabulary, academic terms and jargon, and background knowledge to create meaning in a text. To successfully comprehend a text, a student has to be able to combine the contextual meaning of the words in the text with his background knowledge and experiences to glean the text's meaning and purpose.

Quantitative Measures of Texts

Aspects of a text that are too hard for a reader to measure. These are typically measured by computer software. Word length, frequency of difficult words, sentence length, text cohesion

Qualitative Measures of Texts

Aspects of a text that can only be measured by a reader Meaning or purpose, structure, language, conventionality and clarity, knowledge demands

Reader and task considerations (Reader considerations include: motivation, knowledge, experiences; Task considerations include: the complexity of the assignment related to the reading, questions asked about the reading)

Aspects of reading a text that relate to the reader or the reader's purpose in reading the text. Determined and measured by teachers based on their professional judgement, knowledge of their students, and knowledge of the subject.

Assessing Reading Comprehension

Assessment of reading comprehension should occur during and after reading a text. Specific assessments will vary depending on the grade/reading level of the students and the particular aspect of comprehension to be assessed. Remember, reading comprehension (the understanding of what has been read) encompasses a wide variety of skills and levels! Some activities to assess reading comprehension include: · retelling or drawing a picture of what happened · responding to guided questions during reading or after reading · identifying key elements (such as the main idea) of the text · writing an analysis essay over an assigned text · completing projects that require the analysis of the text's theme or other elements

Root

Base words to which prefixes, suffixes, and syllables can be added

Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific Words: Create Word Webs

Before reading a passage, share a list of words that students will encounter in their reading and have students put each word in the center of a word web. During reading, as students encounter each word, they write down around the word different words or phrases that will help them remember the meaning. Example: History students learning about the characteristics of a democracy create the word web below.

Literary Genres

Books and other forms of text can be divided into two basic categories: nonfiction and fiction. Each category is made up of various genres, each with some distinct and some overlapping characteristics. To analyze a text, an understanding of the literary elements and structural features of the genre is essential. Nonfiction is true information. Fiction is created from the imagination.

Vocabulary and Background Knowledge

Building upon schema and background knowledge makes it easier for students to connect new learning to established knowledge. Let's say a class is reading about tornadoes. One student already knows the academic terms "tornado," "air pressure," and "funnel cloud." This student is at an advantage while reading because she does not need to learn these concepts as well as any more new information presented. By coming to the text with appropriate background knowledge, she can focus on the main ideas and think more critically about the content.

; Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific WordsCreate Nonlinguistic Representations

Creating pictographs, drawing images, or acting out words can increase a student's likelihood of remembering a word. Example: Students are more likely to remember the terms for the parts of the plant and animal cell if they actively draw them.

Poetry

Creative writing written in verse and often including rhymes or heavy use of figurative language

Organizational structure

Can include cause/effect, problem/solution, main idea/details, and/or sequence

Reading Comprehension Strategies for English Language Learners

Capitalize on positive language transfer. Literacy skills are known to transfer across languages. This includes capitalizing on cognates, words that share similar appearances, pronunciations, and spellings between languages. Activate prior knowledge and build background knowledge. If the text contains historical or cultural topics, make sure to explicitly explain or clarify any references that English learners might not understand. Take advantage of students' existing knowledge by making associations between students' experiences and the text. Teach vocabulary explicitly. Identify and pre-teach key vocabulary words by providing simple, brief definitions that English learners can easily understand. Use contextual support such as realia (actual items that represent vocabulary words), pictures, gestures, examples, and demonstrations. English learners also benefit from extra instruction in signal and directional words. Use scaffolds. Outlines provided before reading a text and/or graphic organizers to complete before, during, or after reading a text. 1. Graphic organizers, such as story maps, timelines, Venn diagrams, and KWL charts, help students organize information without using a lot of language. Summary graphic organizers assist students with putting things in sequential order and summarizing after reading. 2. Word banks and sentence/paragraph framesassist students by providing the appropriate language to use during class discussions and writing assignments related to text (e.g. providing sequence words and phrases facilitates student ability to summarize events in a story). Provide different ways for students to demonstrate understanding. Drawing or using images or brainstorming in one's native language can help students show their understanding if they have limited English speaking and writing skills. Model think-alouds. Verbalize a difficult concept, or show how a strategy is used to aid comprehension. Teach students how to reread or read ahead for a bit to find an answer. Continuously check for comprehension during and after reading (e.g. asking questions, completing graphic organizers, using exit tickets, or short written activities usually given at the end of a lesson to check student comprehension). Chunk texts, focusing on specific vocabulary words or themes in each section of text.

Universal theme

Common ideas that appear in literature across all cultures Some examples include love, courage, friendship, and good succeeding over evil.

Tier 1 Words

Common words that are already familiar to students when they enter school. These do not need to be taught in a classroom setting.

Intervention - Reading Comprehension

Comprehension issues can stem from a variety of factors. Determining the reason behind the issue will dictate what kind of differentiation is needed. Ensure that a student's comprehension issues are not related to fluency because fluency challenges often have a significant impact on comprehension and need to be addressed as well. It is likely that a student will need specific intervention in both fluency and comprehension. Some comprehension issues are related to background knowledge. It is difficult for students to make sense of text without a basic understanding of what it is about. In other words, it's difficult to build on knowledge that is not there. The experiences that students have in their schema are vastly different depending on their cultural, linguistic, and family background. Teachers should not assume students have the background knowledge needed to comprehend the text. Teachers should help build background knowledge before students read, and teach students strategies for independently developing their schema when approaching a new text.

Assessing Reading Comprehension for ELL Students

Consider that students' schema may be vastly different depending on their cultural, linguistic, and family background. When assessing the reading comprehension of an ELL student, the subject of the text, and therefore the vocabulary used, can have a significant impact on student performance. Choose assessment texts that will offer accessible context for all students. If a separate text cannot be used to evaluate the student, say in the case of standardized tests, be sure to refer to the student's proficiency level while assessing. A student in the beginning stages of English language acquisition may only be able to convey comprehension verbally or through images. Asking him or her to write complete paragraphs is only setting them up for failure. After the assessment, use the results to guide instruction or differentiate instruction to meet the needs of not only ELL students, but all students in the classroom. As always, a variety of assessment types (oral, written, performance, etc) will provide a better picture of any student's (not just ELL's!) understanding of a text.

Texas PreKindergarten Guidelines - Vocabulary Development

During prekindergarten, children experience major growth in their understanding of vocabulary. According to the Texas Prekindergarten Guidelines, prekindergarten children should be able to use a wide variety of words to label and describe people, places, things, and actions. They should also understand the terms used in the instructional language of the classroom. In fact, by the end of prekindergarten, a child is likely to know the meaning of 3,000 to 4,000 words, many more than he or she uses in speech.

Cultural sensitivity

Dealing with difficult topics carefully and considering how different cultures would interpret the information.

Texas Prekindergarten Guidelines

Detailed descriptions of expected behaviors across multiple skill domains that should be observed in children from the beginning to the end of __________ Offers suggestions on ways to deliver developmentally appropriate experiences for __________ children

Teaching Reading Comprehension - Informational Texts: After Reading Strategies

Determine fact and opinion: Students should learn strategies to distinguish fact from opinion in an informational text. This is a key step in determining the author's purpose. Complete a Main Idea Graphic Organizer: Students locate the main idea of the chapter, section, or entire text and write it in a large box at the top of the page. The main idea is what the section of text is mostly about. Below the main idea, draw enough boxes to place the supporting details from the text that support the main idea. Summarizing: Students write a paragraph by answering these questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Answer Questions: Asking students higher level questions leads them to greater understanding of the material covered during instruction. The Bloom's Taxonomy pyramid is a reference tool for teachers to use when creating questions at a high level. The top three levels of the pyramid (in order from lowest to highest) are analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Here are examples of questions at each level. 1. Analyzing: At this level, students are moving beyond simply recalling information, and are asked to reflect on their interpretations of the text. Questions to ask: What can you infer from this passage? What details provide validation for your interpretation? 2. Evaluating: At this level, students are asked to justify why they believe what they believe about a text. Questions to ask: What information would you use to support this idea? How could you prove this idea using details from the text? 3. Creating: At this level, students take different aspects of what they have learned and make something new. Questions to ask: What could be changed to make aspects of the text better? What final outcome would you predict for this situation? Venn Diagram: If the teacher wants to lead students in a compare/contrast exercise, students complete a diagram with two overlapping circles. The left and right sides of the circles contain the differences between the 2 readings, and the center contains what they have in common.

Appropriateness

Determine whether the subject matter is aligned with the students' maturity level

Reciprocal teaching

Dialog between teachers and students regarding segments of text; there are four parts: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting Ex. The teacher used this concept to make the text more meaningful to her students.

Intervention - Reading Comprehension, cont.

Differentiated instruction to support comprehension can be incorporated into reading instruction in a variety of ways, with some that can be done independently and some with direct teacher support. Some examples include: · Graphic organizers - Story maps are useful tools for fiction narratives, while other organizers can be specifically selected to fit structures of different informative texts. Sentence stems can also be provided as a guide for response. · Think-alouds - either with the teacher or with a partner, stopping periodically to comment on the text encourages metacognition. With this strategy, students' understanding can be evaluated and corrected while they are reading instead of waiting until the end of a text. Students can also use a modified version of this activity independently by writing in the margin at pre-selected points. · Text options - It can be beneficial to provide students texts on their reading level, when possible, to ensure that the learning objective isn't negatively affected by comprehension issues. · Teacher readings of grade-level texts - If a student is reading below grade level, the teacher can read the text aloud and discuss it with them to support their understanding. · Audiobooks - Students can listen while they read an audio version of the text. This frees them to focus on comprehension skills when fluency-related issues are still a factor. In some situations, the above strategies can be further differentiated by scaffolding with text-specific questions. For example, in a traditional think aloud, the student would volunteer a thought on their own. If a student is struggling with comprehension, the teacher could provide questions for the student to answer aloud at specific points in the text. This provides an opportunity to support student comprehension by drawing their attention to important story elements. Many general best practices for teaching reading comprehension can also be used as interventions. If fluency issues cause comprehension issues, consider allowing the student to listen to the text to focus on comprehension. Fluency issues can be addressed through alternate interventions.

After Reading Informational Texts

Directed Activities Related to Text (DARTS) -Activities that require students to reconstruct a text or diagram by filling in missing words, phrases or sentences, or by sequencing text that has been jumbled. -Reconstruction activities: 1. Text completion (fill in missing words, phrases or sentences) 2. Sequencing (arrange jumbled segments of text into logical sequences) 3. Grouping (group segments of text according to a category) 4. Table / diagram completion (complete an unfinished table or label a diagram) 5. Prediction activities (write the next step or stage of a text or the end of a text) -Analysis activities 1. Text marking (underline parts of text that contain specific information) 2. Text segmenting and labeling (separate the text into chunks) 3. Table / diagram construction (draw a table or diagram explaining a concept in the text) 4. Summarizing (summarize the text)

Teaching Tips to Increase Vocabulary III

Even though many words are learned indirectly, some vocabulary words (especially those academic in nature) must be taught directly. Strategies that can enhance students direct vocabulary development include: · Teach new/unfamiliar vocabulary from a text before having students read the text. Focus on words that support the big ideas in the text. This method can improve comprehension of the text while learning these new words. · Provide ways to actively engage students with new vocabulary. This engagement might include a graphic organizer such as a simple concept map. The Frayer Model, shown here, provides four standard boxes around the vocabulary term.

Fiction

Fiction writing comes from the imagination of the author. It may be inspired by real events or experiences, but it is not factual. While readers can learn from fiction, the author's purpose is typically to entertain. A narrative text is fiction that tells a story. Narrative texts are written in a number of formats including novels, short stories, and vignettes. Common types of narrative text include: · Fairy Tale - children's story about magical creatures and imaginary lands; often adapted by various authors; Cinderella, Jack and the Beanstalk, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs · Fantasy - story about supernatural events or characters o Lord of the Rings series by J. R. R. Tolkien, Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling · Folk Tale - story or legend passed from generation to generation that typically teaches a moral lesson; The Three Little Pigs, Little Red Riding Hood, Hansel and Gretel · Fable - story with a moral lesson; often use personified animals as characters; Aesop's Fables, such as The Fox and the Grapes and The Tortoise and the Hare · Myth - story about an event of the distant past that tries to explain the origin of civilization, human, or natural phenomena; Ra the sun god from Egyptian mythology, Poseidon the sea god from Greek mythology, Cupid from Roman mythology · Realistic Fiction - story created by an author that resembles real people, places, and events; To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee,The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton, Wonder by R. J. P

Narrative text

Fictional stories, plays, poems. Usually contains some element of plot or conflict. Peter Pan, Romeo and Juliet

Factors Affecting Vocabulary Development, cont.

For young children, listening and speaking vocabularies are increased as the student learns letters and basic phonics. The listening and speaking vocabularies can then be used to help the child decode written text and increase their reading and writing vocabulary. As children's reading skills progress, not only will the reader encounter a much wider variety of words through reading, they may understand words' meanings through context even if they do not understand the word well enough to use it in their own speaking or writing. The relative size of each vocabulary category changes as a child develops, but research shows the importance of reading to expand a person's overall vocabulary. It is through books that children will be exposed to the greatest variety of words. The important impact of reading on vocabulary development is described by the Matthew effect.

Concept / Vocabulary Map

Form of scaffolding in which a new concept or vocabulary word is written in the center and pictures or descriptive words are written surrounding it A map with the word "weather" in the center is surrounded by words such as clouds, heat, wind, air and rain.

Anticipatory set

Form of scaffolding in which students make predictions prior to reading a text In a science class, the teacher provides a list of statements for the students to agree or disagree with before reading the text. After reading the text, the students compare their initial opinions with the opinions of the author.

Word sort

Form of scaffolding in which students put words into categories With closed sorts, students put words into predetermined categories. With open sorts, students create and discuss their own categories.

During Reading Informational Texts: Build Vocabulary

Good readers know how to read for new information and vocabulary. Some graphic organizers can be completed while reading. Vocabulary notebook. Example: In a science class, students record new and/or difficult words, a simple definition, a relative sentence, and/or include a drawing of something that helps them remember the word. Word walls - A designated area in the classroom with challenging or content-related vocabulary. Example: In a geography class, students can create and post illustrations of the various landforms they encounter in a reading. Concept or vocabulary map - The new concept or vocabulary word is written in the center and pictures or descriptive words are written surrounding it.

During Reading Informational Texts: Cluster Concepts

Good readers make connections between related important concepts or ideas in a text. Teachers should provide students with tools like charts, outlines, and webs to scaffold drawing these connections.

Story map

Graphic organizer in which elements from a story (characters, setting, problem, solution, etc.) are recorded to help with literary analysis

Types of Vocabulary

Having a strong vocabulary knowledge influences a reader's ability and comprehension in many ways. A student's vocabulary consists of four categories that work together - speaking, listening, writing, and reading vocabulary. · Listening Vocabulary - words that are understood while being spoken to o Young children begin to understand the meaning behind simple words like "dog," "fork," or "dada" long before they able to say, write, or read these words. · Speaking Vocabulary - words known and used by a person in speech · Reading Vocabulary - words a reader can recognize and decode while reading a text · Writing Vocabulary - words used in written language

Teaching Literary Analysis, cont.

Here is a breakdown for teaching students to examine a text for meaning: 1. It is helpful to have the text projected, or for students to have copies of the passage or story. 2. Choose the area to be analyzed, such as the characters, plot, theme, or setting, followed by a question about the area such as "Why did the main character act this way?" 3. Locate specific textual evidence that helps answer the posed question. This is why it's helpful for students to have access to the text. 4. Students can use colored markers to highlight specific points to support their idea. 5. Using specific evidence from the text, students can draw a conclusion to answer the initial "Why?" question. Graphic organizers, such as story maps, can be used to help students identify elements to analyze. For example, a common way for students to analyze a simple plot is for them to fill out a plot graphic organizer, shown below:

Digital resources

In an ELA classroom, students may be able to use these to hear a word said aloud, see more examples of words being used, and/or see visual representations of a word.

Elements of Literary Analysis, cont.

In stories, these additional elements can come up: · Characters - who is in the story, and often their personality traits · Character's Point of View - the perspective through which a character tells the story; this often reveals how a character feels about a situation or other character · Setting - place or places where the story takes place · Theme - central topic or message presented throughout the story; common themes include courage, heroism, love, and good vs. evil · Moral - a specific lesson or message that is to be learned from the story · Plot - events that occur throughout a story; includes both the conflict and resolution · Tone - the general feeling of the story; might be comical, serious, frightening, joyful, or a combination (it can change throughout the plot) · Figurative Language - language devices such as metaphor or simile used to enhance the style and story meaning Generally speaking, this device examines how individual elements impact the text as a whole. For example, once students have identified the figurative language in prose and poetry, they should assess why the author included it and how the figurative language enhances the reader's understanding of the theme or main idea of the text. Why did the author use this metaphor here? How did the conflict cause the main character to grow as a person?

Steps to Take When Students are Struggling

Informational texts, if unfamiliar to students, can pose a challenge. After completing before, during, and after reading comprehension strategies, there are several additional strategies teachers can attempt in order to help students fully comprehend the text they are reading. · Rereading: After reading one section of the text, the teacher encourages the student to monitor his or her own comprehension by asking, "What is this section mostly about?" If the student is unable to answer this question, the teacher encourages the student to reread the section again to acquire the main points and supporting details. · Questioning: At any stage in the reading or instructional process, the teacher can invite the students to answer questions about the reading. These can range from basic, lower-level knowledge questions (such as recall questions) to higher level ones (such as analytical or evaluative questions). Teachers can use Bloom's Taxonomy levels to guide them as they scaffold questions. · Utilizing Resources: Many reference guides can help students make sense of what they are reading. Encourage students to read or revisit the resources within the text (table of contents, headings, subheadings, graphics, captions, glossary, index) or apart from the text (encyclopedia, dictionary, other articles) to gain additional information on the topic.

Cross-Curricular Applications - Reading Comprehension

It's important for students to be able to apply reading comprehension skills across all subject areas. Learning to process the data found in a text is the foundation of learning in any discipline. For example, reading in science requires the ability to synthesize complex information, assess intricate arguments, and follow detailed procedures. Reading in history requires an attention to detail, comprehension of a series of events, and understanding cause and effect relationships. There are many strategies for scaffolding and building student reading comprehension. Some comprehension strategies can apply to all texts, while others differ depending on the type of text. For example, it's always a good idea to encourage students to pause periodically while reading to reflect on segments of text, but it probably isn't necessary for students to scan text in a math word problem.

Word consciousness

Method of vocabulary instruction that encourages student interest in new and unfamiliar words Providing students with opportunities to share interesting words they come across in their reading is a strategy used to promote this concept

Teaching Tips to Increase Vocabulary II

Most vocabulary is learned indirectly and can be enhanced in the following ways: · Give students many opportunities to participate in oral language through hearing and conversing with others, especially adults. The more experiences that children have, the more meaningful vocabulary they will learn. · Provide times for reading aloud to students regardless of the age or grade. It is important for the adult to stop intermittently to explain unfamiliar words and then to have a conversation about what was read. · Allow various opportunities for students to read on their own. It is vital that students have high-quality reading material on their independent reading levels available to them for optimal vocabulary development. Provide a wide range of text types, including fiction and nonfiction in both print and digital forms.

Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific Words: Pre-teach Key Vocabulary

New/unfamiliar vocabulary from a text should be taught before having students read the text. This method can improve comprehension of the text while learning these new words. Example: Before reading a history passage, the teacher shares a list of key words that students will encounter. Students pronounce each word and predict the meaning. When the student arrives at the word in the passage, the teacher further discusses the meaning with students.

Nonfiction

Nonfiction writing is based on factual information. While readers may enjoy nonfiction, the author's purpose is generally to inform or persuade. An informational text is any kind of fact-based text. Here are some main types of informational texts: · Expository text - describes and discusses a topic, or sometimes tries to persuade; magazine and newspaper articles, school textbooks · Procedural text - information about how to do something step-by-step; cookbooks, manuals, how-to guides · Persuasive text - uses facts and opinions to convince the reader of a particular position; op-ed articles, features in magazines and newspapers, transcripts of debates The special features of informational text include headings, sidebars, hyperlinks, captions, graphs, bold or italic print, table of contents, indexes, and glossaries. The structure of the text itself can be cause/effect, problem/solution, main idea/details, and/or sequential/chronological.

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills - Vocabulary Development, cont.

Note: English language learners (ELLs) will need additional English vocabulary instruction. When introducing vocabulary to ELL children, teachers should use a variety of approaches and use real-life objects or pictures when appropriate. Additionally, using cognates and making cross-language connections can be helpful for vocabulary development.

Realia

Objects used in everyday life brought into the classroom to enhance instruction The teacher brought in realia from her closet when teaching a lesson about choosing clothes to match the weather to her ELL students.

Semantics

The study of word or symbol meaning. "love" which has many different meanings in English Literal vs figurative meaning of "Raining cats and dogs"

Nonfiction, cont.

Other common nonfiction genres are about the lives of real people. · Biography - an account of a person's life written by someone else; Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow, Who is Michelle Obama? by Megan Stine, A Beautiful Mind by Sylvia Nasar · Autobiography - a self-written account of a person's life; typically about the entire life of a famous person with an emphasis on facts and history; The Story of My Life by Helen Keller, Long Walk to Freedom by Nelson Mandela, The Story of My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi · Memoir - a self-written account of part of a person's life; typically focusing on an emotional experience of the writer; Night by Elie Wiesel, Out of Africa by Karen Blixen, I Am Malala by Malala Yousafzai

Transition words

Phrases and words used to link sentences, paragraphs, and ideas together. First, next, last, on the other hand

Textual evidence

Proof or support of the meaning of what is being read or has been read. This can be a direct quote, transition words in time and space, a statement of purpose, and/or making an argument. Students had to write down proof of their answer to the questions on the test over the story they just read.

Sentence stems

Provided to students to use when generalizing, summarizing, or transitioning between ideas. "According to the author..." "We see in Chapter 2 that..." or "While X does this, Y.."

Read Aloud

Read alouds can occur both in whole class and small group settings. They serve as engaging anchors for lessons and promote critical thinking and class discussions over a vast variety of topics. The texts chosen for read alouds should be: · high quality: interesting, well written, engaging illustrations, etc. · culturally relevant and diverse: will students relate to the characters and events in the story? · appropriately complex: contains a plot, characters, themes, etc. that will relate to instructional goals Teachers can use the read alouds to help young children develop student understanding of literary texts and basic story structure by employing some of the following strategies: · Ask students questions about the text while reading it aloud · Provide opportunities for students to act out scenes from the story · Facilitate the creation of story maps that identify that beginning, middle, and end · Facilitate story retelling with the use of story cards · Encourage student participation by allowing them to provide sound effects that fit what is happening in the story · Use the elements of the story to plan centers that allow for continued exploration of the story

During Reading Informational Texts: Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocal teaching is when students become the teacher in small group reading sessions. Students learn to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. This prevents the student tendency to speed read through a text without comprehending anything, a common problem with science texts. Example: Students in a history class are separated into groups of four to read a text about the causes of the American Revolution. After reading a few paragraphs, one student summarizes what was read, another student creates questions about what was read, the third student clarifies any confusion, and the last student predicts what will come next in the reading. The roles in the group then switch and the next selection of text that is read.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: Before Reading All Texts

Schema Development: Good readers connect their schema (background knowledge) to the information that is being read. Teachers should activate, review, and/or develop background information before starting to read a text. · Viewing and discussing relevant videos, pictures, etc. · Ask pre-reading questions o "Have any of you ever...? o Can you tell us something about...? o What do you know about ..." Previewing: Good readers can gain a basic understanding of what they are going to read before they begin. Teachers should provide students the opportunity to make predictions about their reading based on structural elements of the text. · Look through the text · Make predictions Start a KWL: A great tool to use before reading is a KWL. A KWL is a graphic organizer used to record what students know, what they want to know, and what they learned about a topic. Fill in the K and W portions before reading, and come back to the L section after.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: During Reading All Texts

Self-monitoring: Self-monitoring happens as readers check in with themselves while reading. They know when they understand what they are reading and when they do not. Teachers should provide students ample opportunity to pause and reflect on reading. When students realize they are not understanding, they can then use "fix-up" strategies to identify and resolve any problems with comprehension. · Paraphrasing the difficult passage in their own words · Skimming back through the text to see if some parts need to be re-read · Skimming forward into the text to search for information that might be helpful · Asking for help from a teacher or peer · Visualizing: making mental pictures about what is happening Questioning: Good readers will actively ask themselves questions while they are reading. Teachers should provide students the opportunity to ask and answer text-dependent questions about what is being read. Students can also generate their own questions while reading. These questions provide focus and purpose to the reading, and can also be used after reading for review. Questions can focus on different elements of the text, such as: · Main Idea o What is the text mostly about? · Cause and Effect o Why did _______ happen? o What was the effect of _______ ? · Making Predictions o What do I think will happen next? Using Graphic Organizers: Good readers will be able to translate what they are reading into a visual representation by using graphic organizers. Teachers should provide students different organizational tools for mapping the structure of a text or making connections between ideas. Some example tools include: · Sequencing maps · Concept maps · Venn diagrams

Drama

Serious and thought-provoking dramatic literature Hamlet by William Shakespeare A story told through dialogue and stage directions Will begin with a list of characters and will contain stage directions to describe settings and the movements of the characters Meant to be performed

After Reading Informational Texts: Re-creating text in a different form

Skits -Example: Science students could recreate the journey of blood through the heart in a skit. RAFT: assign a role for a specific audience, in a specific format, on a specific topic -Example: Students studying health and nutrition could be asked to write as a vitamin or mineral (role), to an audience of unhealthy eaters (audience), in the form of an editorial (format) about the benefits it provides (topic). *When reading a text, students should employ the active reading strategies of visualizing, monitoring, questioning, summarizing, synthesizing, evaluating, and making inferences.

Limited vocabulary

Smaller or more restricted bank of words than is typical Student says "that one" instead of referring to item by specific name.

Academic vocabulary

Specialized vocabulary Many of these words, like "analyze," "describe," and "reflect", are important and relevant across all content areas

Think-Aloud

Strategy in which a teacher states his/her thoughts to demonstrate how the students should go about solving a problem or understanding a text Math teachers model thinking by reading a problem and verbalizing figuring out what it is asking what needs to be done. Language arts teachers ask themselves questions about the text as they read to the class.

Contextual Analysis

Strong readers should be able to use contextual analysis also. Contextual analysis is using the surrounding text to determine the meaning of a word. The text that is helpful in determining the meaning of an unknown word is known as a context clue. Following, you will see five different types of context clues. In the examples the unknown word is underlined, and the context clue is italicized: · Definition - unknown word is defined in sentence o direct - A Buche de Noel is a filled cake rolled and decorated like a log. o appositive - A Buche de Noel, or a filled cake rolled and decorated like a log, is my favorite Christmas dessert. · Example - an example of the unknown word is provided o In geography, we are learning about biomes, such as deserts. · Synonym - a word that is similar to the unknown word is provided o The new student acted timid and shy on his first day. · Antonym - a word that is opposite in meaning to the unknown word is provided o Unlike my dog who is friendly, my neighbor's dog is crotchety. · Inference - definition of unknown word is implied by the situation or other clues o Alice was so fatigued that she could barely keep her eyes open.

Close reading

Teaching strategy in which students carefully and purposefully read and reread a text In a math class, the students first read the text slowly, at least twice. Then, they think about the problem and highlight or circle important details. Next, they pick a strategy to use to solve the problem and label the variables. Finally, students solve the problem and reread the text to ensure their answers make sense.

Teaching Active Reading

Students must be taught how to actively engage with their reading. Metacognition, thinking about one's own thinking, is an essential component of active reading. Instruction in metacognition can help set students up for success with reading comprehension, which is understanding what they read. Whether fiction or nonfiction, use strategies to facilitate metacognition and encourage students to actively read a text: 1. Guided questions before, during, or after a reading 2. Annotations 2A. Scaffold students from basic reactions like, "interesting!" or "is this true?!" to more complex or insightful comments in the margins of the text. 3. Graphic organizers to record thoughts, reactions, or conclusions from a text 4. Making connections to their reading - The following examples are responses to the statement, "This article mentions that avoiding one-time use plastics is an effective way to reduce landfill waste." 4A. Text to Text - connect their reading to ideas read in other texts. For example, "I read a book once where the character took her own bags to the grocery store." 4B. Text to Self - connect their reading to their own thoughts and experiences. For example, "I pack my lunch in refillable containers. It's easier to throw things away than clean them, but I think it's important to try." 4C. Text to World - connect their reading to what is happening in the world or society outside of themselves. For example, "Maybe communities should focus on adding refill stations to parks to reduce landfill waste." 5. Think Alouds: 5A. Modeling - Model metacognition through "think alouds." Model this process by stopping periodically while reading a text to share your thinking about it. 5B. Students - Students can practice thinking aloud in pairs or small groups. Teachers can mark specific locations in the text for students to stop and share their thoughts about it aloud. Metacognition often comes up on exams. It's commonly associated with ensuring students are actively engaged and monitoring their comprehension of the content.

Teaching Reading Comprehension

Students need help moving from learning to read to reading to learn. Students should be taught specific comprehension skills so they can have a clear understanding of what they read. There are many strategies for building student comprehension. Students can demonstrate their comprehension orally or through writing. Teachers should pick the strategy based on the specific skill or part of the text they want students to focus on.

Teaching Reading Comprehension - Informational Texts

Students read informational texts to learn about a topic or to learn another's opinion on the topic. Some examples of informational, or non-literary, texts include: · Newspapers · Textbooks · Instruction Manuals · Encyclopedias · Magazine Articles · Editorials · Advertisements · Scholarly Articles (print or electronic) · Business Letters and Memos While literary texts rely on figurative language, imagery, and descriptive language to communicate with the reader, informational texts utilize facts, details, and rhetorical devices. Specific comprehension strategies can be taught to help students set their purpose and fully understand the informational text they read.

Reading Comprehension TEKS: Kinder

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft discuss topics and determine basic theme using text evidence*/identify and describe main character(s), describe elements of plot development, including main events, problem, and resolution for texts read aloud*, describe the setting/discuss text structure, use of print and graphic features, and author's purpose for writing text*, discuss how the author uses words that help the reader visualize*, listen to and experience first- and third-person texts (*=with adult assistance)

Reading Comprehension TEKS: Fourth

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft infer basic themes supported by text evidence/explain character interactions and the changes they undergo, analyze plot elements, including rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution; explain the influence of cultural/historic settings on the plot/describe how the author's use of simile and metaphor, and sound devices such as alliteration and assonance achieves specific purposes, identify and explain the use of anecdote

Reading Comprehension TEKS: Fifth

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft infer multiple themes within a text using text evidence/analyze relationships and conflicts among characters/explain the purpose of hyperbole, stereotyping, and anecdote

Reading Comprehension TEKS: Third

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft infer the theme of a work, distinguishing theme from topic, write a response to a literary text that demonstrates understanding/explain relationships among characters, analyze plot elements, including sequence of events, conflict, and resolution; explain influence of setting on plot/identify the use of literary devices, including first- or third-person point of view, explain author's purpose and message within a text, describe how the author's use of imagery, literal and figurative language such as simile and hyperbole, and sound devices such as onomatopoeia achieves specific purposes, discuss how the author's use of language contributes to voice

Reading Comprehension TEKS: Second

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft write brief comments on literary texts that demonstrate understanding/describe main character(s)'s internal and external traits, describe the importance of setting/discuss the use of descriptive, literal, and figurative language, identify the use of first or third person in a text, identify and explain the use of repetition

Reading Comprehension TEKS: First

Students should be able to identify the following characteristics and structures of literary texts Topic and Themes/Plot Elements, Characters, and Setting/Author's Purpose and Craft write brief comments on literary texts/describe main character(s) and reason(s) for their actions describe plot elements for texts read independently/discuss text structure, use of print and graphic features, and author's purpose for writing text*, discuss how the author uses words that help the reader visualize*, listen to and experience first- and third-person texts (*=with adult assistance)

Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension

Students who are struggling to identify and read words are less able to comprehend the meaning of the text as a whole. If a student has to devote time slowly decoding difficult words in a text, he loses the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Each sentence that is broken up affects his ability to comprehend the paragraph and the text. Students who come to a text with a strong vocabulary and ability to read fluently will naturally comprehend more easily.

Intervention - Vocabulary

Students who struggle to understand because of a limited vocabulary will need direct instruction to support their comprehension of texts. Pre-teaching vocabulary will support these students with grade-level texts. Teachers can preview a required text and anticipate which words could be challenging for the students, preparing their struggling readers for these higher-level words. Visual supports are also a useful tool for helping students build vocabulary. Seeing picture representations of unfamiliar words can help students incorporate them into their lexicons faster, and also help students overcome any instructional obstacles not knowing the words may produce. Anticipate vocabulary needs ahead of time to set students up for success. Teaching structural analysis is also a useful tool in support of vocabulary development. Students who recognize common prefixes and suffixes can use that knowledge to decipher word meaning. Students struggling with vocabulary may need reteaching and extra practice with this skill. To build vocabulary over time, ensure students are reading on-level books for independent reading. This will help develop their vocabulary by not overwhelming them with texts that are likely to contain so many unknown words that they are unable to comprehend the text.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: After Reading All Texts

Summarizing: Teach students to summarize the content. Students should be able to pull together important information from the text and put it into their own words by paraphrasing. Teachers should scaffold summarizing skills to focus students on including only the main points, rather than in-depth details. Prompts to help students focus on the key points can be provided. For example, students could be provided the following framework to generate a summary: · Somebody... · wanted... · but... · so... · then... Drawing Conclusions / Making Inferences: Not everything students need to understand about a text is directly stated. That's why students need to draw conclusions and make inferences to fully comprehend the text. Conclusions are drawn and inferences are made when readers use background knowledge plus clues in the text to form an idea. For example, when students are asked to determine how a character feels in a story, teachers can prompt them to think about what they know about how people show their emotions, plus how the character acted to make their inference. · Schema + Text Evidence = Idea

During Reading Informational Texts: Text Frames

Teachers can include text frames throughout a reading with questions designed to prompt students to think about relationships between key ideas, concepts, and events in a text. Example: A science teacher includes a compare/contrast text frame with questions about the similarities and differences between animal and plant cells.

Text frame

Teachers can include these throughout a reading with questions designed to prompt students to think about relationships between key ideas, concepts, and events in a text. A science teacher includes a compare/contrast _________ with questions about the similarities and differences between animal and plant cells.

Using Resources for Word Analysis Skills

Teachers should approach the use of world analysis resources with the goal of developing independent readers who can successfully determine the pronunciation and meanings of unfamiliar words. Model and have students practice using dictionaries, glossaries, and other sources including technology to verify the meaning, spelling, and usage of unfamiliar words. Some common word analysis resources include: · Dictionary - provides a word's denotative meaning and proper spelling · Glossary - similar to a dictionary, but only covers words used in the passage or textbook · Thesaurus - provides alternative words with similar meanings

Gradual Release of Responsibility

Teaching strategy in which students are slowly given less direct guidance ELA: Teachers who choose to use this approach can close read a section of the text and then direct the students to read the remainder of the text on their own, following the example set by the teacher.

Informational Text

Text that provides factual information such as in newspapers, magazines, chapters in a textbook, how-to manuals or directions, such as the school newspaper

During Reading Informational Texts: Close Reading

The Close Reading strategy asks students to read and reread a text carefully and purposefully. Using this strategy, students focus on what the author says, what the author's purpose is, what the words mean, and what the structure of the text tells us. Example: A math teacher directs her students to use close reading techniques to understand a complicated word problem. The students first read the text slowly, at least twice. Then, they think about the problem and highlight or circle important details. Next, they pick a strategy to use to solve the problem and label the variables. Finally, students solve the problem and reread the text to ensure their answers make sense. Note: Teachers who choose to use the gradual release of responsibility approach can close reading a section of the text and then direct the students to read the remainder of the text on their own, following the example set by the teacher.

Factors Affecting Vocabulary Development: The Matthew Effect

The Matthew effect refers to the theory that in certain areas of achievement, there is a tendency for initial success to make later success more likely, while an initial deficit may make continued progress increasingly more difficult. In primary education, it describes the tendency for students who show early strength in reading to build exponentially on that strength, while students who struggle early on continue to struggle, widening the gap between them and higher achievers. While extensive reading is an important part of vocabulary development, simply reading a wide variety of words will not establish new words as a functioning part of a person's vocabulary. Similarly, direct instruction alone will not adequately expand a child's vocabulary. New words need to be used and encountered in different situations to become a working part of a child's vocabulary. Because of this, a child's familial, cultural, educational, socioeconomic, linguistic, and developmental characteristics all play a role in their ability to learn and retain new vocabulary. If new words are not used and encountered in other parts of the student's life, the words and their meanings are less likely to be retained. To support the in-class vocabulary instruction, teachers should look for opportunities to extend the use of new words outside of the classroom in all four of the categories of vocabulary.

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills - Vocabulary Development

The TEKS for ELAR (Kindergarten through Grade 6) provides some details about the expected behaviors that should be observed in children in grades K-6. By first grade children should be able to use a dictionary to find words. By second grade, children should be able to use context to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words and understand the meaning of antonyms, synonyms, idioms, and homographs in context. As children get older, they should understand the meaning of different affixes and be able to use newly acquired vocabulary appropriately. Some instructional strategies that teachers can use to help develop children's vocabulary include: · Reinforcing words in different contexts · Providing students with multiple related exposures or experiences with words that occur close in time to the first exposure (the use of themes can assist with this) · Creating ways to interact with and use new vocabulary in meaningful contexts · Pre-teaching vocabulary before reading a text · Explicitly teaching vocabulary with context · Drawing on background knowledge to relate vocabulary to students' experiences · Using word walls, anchor charts, graphic organizers, and semantic mapping · Using visuals and gestures to enhance understanding · Fostering word consciousness (an awareness of and interest in words) · Encouraging students to read and listen to audiobooks as much as possible (as most vocabulary is learned incidentally through linguistic experiences such as these)

Evaluative comprehension

The ability to analyze text by questioning whether it is fact or opinion, determining if there is faulty reasoning, and explaining how the characters are developed. Explain why you think this story is factual or an opinion. Readers evaluate or analyze the text through questioning. · Analyzing character development · Evaluating word choice · Detecting faulty reasoning · Explaining point of view

Vocabulary/Vocabulary development

The ability to effectively know and use words in their listening, speaking, reading, and writing the foundation of developing comprehension in reading. Children's vocabulary acquisition is largely dependent upon their interactions with adults. Talking about experiences, reading stories, singing songs, and playing word games are all important for developing vocabulary.

Reading comprehension

The ability to read a text and understand its meaning Jessie read the book and was able to explain to me why the character lied in Chapter 3 Includes fluency (accuracy, prosody, speed), vocabulary, background knowledge, and skills (literal, evaluative, inferential) describes the processes through which students construct meaning from the printed page. Comprehension is the primary reading skill: all other skills are based upon it. Students cannot acquire any other reading skills, such as identifying the main idea and supporting details or inferring, if they do not have comprehension. Comprehension is not actually a single skill, but a number of different factors working together. These include: · ability to read fluently · previous reading experiences and prior background knowledge · ability to use skills, such as self-monitoring and understanding of the characteristics of specific texts Reading comprehension is composed of these factors and lays the foundation for additional skills students need to fully understand and analyze what they read.

Reading fluency

The ability to read with appropriate speed, accuracy, and prosody

Metacognition

The ability to think about one's own thought process

Tone

The attitude of the author in writing, and which might be comical, serious, frightening, joyful. Sometimes called diction.

Author's Purpose / Primary Purpose

The author's intention for writing. Could be persuasive, narrative, expository, or informative. Organization and style choices should reflect the purpose for writing.

Theme

The big idea or major message in a story which is often universal in that it goes beyond cultural boundaries. Harry Potter books have several of these including good vs. evil and making good choices.

Literary analysis

The careful examination of a text or one element of a text, including theme, plot, characters, or setting, in order to determine why and how the particular text was written. The specific steps are often: 1. Center on the area to analyze. 2. Collect and analyze textual evidence. 3. Write a summary or conclusion about what has been discovered.

Lexicon

The collective vocabulary of a person or language Reading over the summer increased the student's __________ for the following school year.

Plot

The events included in a story (may or may not be sequential).

Utility (in vocabulary)

The frequency with which a word will be encountered Vocabulary words with high ________ are more likely to be remembered by students.

Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific Words: Analysis of word parts

The meaning of root words, prefixes and suffixes should be taught, and words should be disassembled and reassembled to derive meaning. Example: If students know that the prefix homo- has the meaning "same or alike," they are more likely to understand and remember the meaning of the word homeostasis. Especially in science, root words, prefixes, and suffixes can be helpful to understanding. (e.g. hyper = above, beyond > hypertension; para = beside, near > parasite)

Matthew Effect

The tendency for stronger readers to build exponentially on their strengths and weaker readers to continue to struggle with their weaknesses, thus widening the gap between weak and strong readers To prevent the this phenomenon, teachers should provide individualized support to struggling readers when they notice a knowledge gap developing.

Culturally Responsive Reading Instruction

There are many considerations teachers make to help all students feel welcome in the class environment and have opportunities to expand their worldviews. The books used in the classroom are one of these important considerations. To promote culturally responsive reading instruction, it is important for students to be exposed to a diverse selection of texts, written by a variety of different authors, in different genres and styles. Students should be exposed to texts that reflect the diversity of the classroom and school communities. This includes having a variety of characters that exhibit diversity in: race and ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, ability, age, national origin. Ideally, each student should be able to see themselves in addition to those completely different than themselves represented in the texts they read. It is an effective practice for teachers to select texts with universal themes, which are common to most cultures, such as love, courage, friendship, and good succeeding over evil. Folktales tend to have universal themes, making them well-suited for students in a multicultural classroom.

A Three-Part Model for Measuring Text Complexity

There are three equally important parts of text complexity. One measure alone is not adequate to have a clear understanding of the complexity of the texts. While quantitative measures are very useful, they cannot (at least at present) capture all of the elements that make a text easy or challenging to read. Quantitative measures--along with professional judgment--are important tools for ensuring that text complexity matches the needs of students and of specific learning objectives and tasks. Another key factor is that students may be able to read easily and efficiently in one kind of text--say fiction--but have difficulty in another such as a science text. Another tool that is sometimes brought into measuring the complexity of a text is the background and skills of the student. This can be a major factor with ELL (English Language Learners) students as well as at-risk students. All three (qualitative, quantitative, and reader/task) of the elements should be considered when determining text complexity and appropriateness.

Cross-Curricular Applications - Academic Vocabulary

There are three types of words: Tier I, Tier II and Tier III. Tier I contains basic, everyday words found frequently in conversation (e.g. big, small, house, family). Tier II contains high-frequency words found across different content areas (e.g. explain, justify, summarize). Tier III contains low-frequency, content-specific words (e.g. coefficient, photosynthesis, consensus). Students should be given the opportunity to acquire new vocabulary using a variety of learning modalities or formats that actively engage them in the learning process.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: Implementing Strategies Effectively

There is a general process teachers can follow when teaching any of the comprehension strategies. As with many concepts, scaffolding students through a gradual release of responsibility is a great framework for your teaching. This isalso known as an "I do, we do, you do" method of instruction. · I DO: Explanation of the why and how: The teacher provides clear, direct, and explicit explanation about why the strategy is helpful and when to use it. · I DO: Modeling and "Think Aloud": The teacher models the strategy and says out loud what he or she is thinking as he or she reads. The teacher then asks students to do the same. "Think aloud" sentence starters include: o This reminds me of ... o I didn't understand that part so I will read it again... o I wonder why... o I think that ... will happen next because ... · WE DO: Guided practice: Students practice the strategy with the help of the teacher. · YOU DO: Independent practice/application: Students utilize the strategy independently in the context of a specific reading task or project.

Determining Meaning of Words

There is a time and place for direct vocabulary instruction in the classroom. However, indirect vocabulary instruction is common. So, strong readers also need strategies for determining the meaning of unknown words they come across in text. Morphemic analysis and contextual analysis are two such strategies.

Using Resources for Word Analysis Skills, cont.

These and other resources can be accessed in print or digital form. Students will need instruction on and practice with both forms because students will not always have both options available. For example, some testing environments will not allow students to access to digital resources but will allow students to access a printed dictionary or thesaurus. Print forms of dictionaries, thesauruses, and glossaries require students to have a strong grasp of alphabetic order and the ability to alphabetize words to the third letter. Direct instruction and practice with these resources can improve student comfort with them and increase the likelihood of them being used regularly for students' benefit. Students will typically prefer digital resources, but even in classrooms with extensive access to technology, students should be taught and encouraged to practice using print resources. Digital resources are generally more attractive to young students and will not only include digital versions of dictionaries and thesauruses but generally provide content beyond what is available in print. These resources will not require alphabetizing skills to look up words, and students may be able to hear the word said aloud, see more examples of the words being used, and/or see visual representations of the word.

During Reading Informational Texts: Model a Think Aloud

Think Alouds help students to monitor their thinking and understanding of a text. Example: A math teacher models his thinking as he reads a problem aloud and figures out what it is asking him to do.

Tiers of Vocabulary

Tier 1: Basic Vocabulary: Common words that are already familiar to students when they enter school. These words do not need to be taught in a classroom setting. o Examples: ball, shoe, run, stop Tier 2: High-Frequency Academic Words: Words that students will encounter frequently in multiple content areas. Many of these are process words that commonly appear in assessments. o Examples: describe, explain, analyze, evaluate Tier 3: Low-Frequency, Domain-Specific Words: Academic words that are specific to a particular content area or discipline. These are words that would appear in a subject-specific textbook or in the glossary of an informational text. o Examples: photosynthesis, catalyst, division, square root, economy, politics

Choosing Culturally Responsive Texts

To foster culturally responsive reading instruction, teachers should keep these questions in mind when selecting texts. · Diversity - What cultures are represented? Does the identity or experience of this text's author or characters in the story support the inclusion of diverse voices in the curriculum? Deliberately choose a variety of texts that allow students to explore both their own and other cultures through reading. · Cultural sensitivity - How would people from different cultures react to this text? Do you have any concerns about generalizations, stereotypes, or misrepresentations in the text? · Appropriateness - Is this text appropriate for these students' culture and age level? What is the historical, social, or cultural context in which this text was written? A culturally responsive text functions as both a mirror, which reflects students' identities, experiences, and motivations, and a window, which provides insight into the identities, experiences, and motivations of others.

Draw conclusion

To make final comments/summation over what has been read or written

Literal comprehension

Understanding of the facts in the written text such as stated main idea or specific details. What were the names of the main character's parents in the story we just read? Readers understand the facts from the text. · Identifying the stated main idea · Recalling details · Identifying point of view If the answer can directly be found in the actual text, it's literal comprehension. Literal comprehension is the simplest form of comprehension, but it is a necessary step for developing inferential or evaluative comprehension.

Inferential comprehension

Understanding parts of the written text without it being stated explicitly such as determining cause and effect, drawing conclusions, and making predictions. What was the cause of the children in the story being locked out of their house? Readers can infer or understand parts of what has been read without it being stated explicitly. · Drawing conclusions · Inferring cause-and-effect relationships · Determining morals, lessons, and themes · Making predictions

Relationships Among Words

Understanding relationships among words can help students in a lot of ways. These relationships are part of the semantics of the English language, which refers to the meaning of words and phrases. A strong understanding of semantics helps students build vocabulary, read with deeper comprehension, and add variety to their writing. Here are some semantic relationships to know: Synonyms - different words that have the same or a similar meaning o big/large Antonyms - words that have opposite meanings o tall/short 1. Homonyms - words that share the same spelling or pronunciation, but have different meanings (homographs and homophones are 2 kinds of homonyms) 1A. Homographs - words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings; bass (a deep sound) / bass (a fish) 1B. Homophones - words that are pronounced the same, but have different meanings; four (the number) / for (as in, "I got this for you") Analogies - compare two things that are usually thought of as different but have something in common o hand is to glove as foot is to sock o cold is to hot as wet is to dry

Word Consciousness

Word consciousness approaches vocabulary instruction by encouraging student interest in unfamiliar words and new words that can be used to replace familiar ones. It focuses both on the meaning of new words and how they are used in sentences. Promoting students' word consciousness is a key part of the effort to help students expand their vocabulary because directly teaching all vocabulary is impossible. Some strategies for promoting word consciousness include: · word games · studying and discussing word origins, also known as etymology · analyzing morphology · facilitating student word investigation by providing direct instruction on and opportunities to practice researching etymologies, analyzing morphology, discovering different usages, etc. · facilitating student collection of interesting words in a word log or other format · providing students opportunities to share interesting words

Reading vocabulary

Words a reader can recognize while reading a text People typically have a larger __________ __________ (compared to speaking), as the meaning of words can be determined from the context

Strategies to Teach Tier III / Content-Specific Words

Use of contextual clues in the text (e.g. descriptions, examples, definitions, synonyms) -Students use contextual analysis to infer the meaning of a word by looking closely at the surrounding text. Students can highlight, underline, or circle the unknown words and mark the clues or key phrases in the surrounding context and then predict the meaning of the word. -Example: Students in a science class are reading about an experiment in their textbook. The text states, "A science experiment was done to test the buoyancy of an orange in water. The results found that the orange with the peel floated, but the orange without the peel sunk." Despite not knowing the meaning of the word buoyancy, the students can predict the meaning using the details about floating and sinking included in the following sentence. -*Note: This can be used when reading history, science and social studies texts, but might be more difficult in a math story problem, as math problems are typically short and do not provide enough context for students. Student-friendly definitions and examples -The meaning of a new word should be explained to students by characterizing the word and how it is typically used and defining the word within context. When an unfamiliar word is likely to affect comprehension, the most effective time to define it may be the moment the word is encountered in the text. Students can write down the sentence in which the word appears, show their understanding by paraphrasing the definition and using the word in a sentence of their own or drawing pictures to help remember the word. Remember, reading research has found that it is not helpful for students to simply copy (word for word) definitions from a dictionary or from a glossary in the back of their books. Context matters!

Literary device

Used by authors to communicate specific idea to the reader, such as a metaphor

Analogies

Used to compare two things that are usually thought of as different but have something in common; hand is to glove as foot is to sock

Structural / Morphemic Analysis

Using meaningful word parts (morphemes) to study a word and determine its meaning

Context clues/contextual analysis

Using the words before and after an unknown word to determine its meaning It was a beautiful day that made it idyllic for swimming.

Genre

Various forms of texts including short stories, essays, folktales, fairy tales, poetry, historical fiction, biographies and autobiographies, memoirs, comedies and tragedies.

Graphic organizer

Visual display of the relationships between facts and ideas; includes story maps, timelines, venn diagrams and K-W-L charts; helps students classify information.`

Teaching Tips to Increase Vocabulary I

Vocabulary Development refers to students' ability to effectively know and use words in their listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Research on how students learn to read demonstrates that effective vocabulary development promotes comprehension and reading overall. Students cannot comprehend material if they don't know the meaning of most of the words. When learning and using new vocabulary, students must be able to not only define and know when to use a word, but also be able to use the term in multiple contexts and recognize when the word is used incorrectly. Encourage the use of context clues to help students define new vocabulary words while reading. Students should interact with the word in multiple contexts, manipulate the word by changing its tense or part of speech, and actively use the word in spoken communication. Related Skills: · Identifying roots, prefixes, and suffixes · Using context to infer meaning · Distinguishing between denotative and connotative word meanings

Increasing Vocabulary Using Writing

Vocabulary development is achieved through constant exposure to new words in context. Students should be encouraged to incorporate new vocabulary in their writing to deepen their level of understanding of the term. Writing activities that may help develop new vocabulary include: · short writing prompts that require students to use academic vocabulary words · connecting writing assignments to reading assignments that contain new or academic vocabulary · allowing students to edit writing to include new and varied vocabulary · using semantic gradients to support the use of precise language The following graphic organizer is an example of a semantic gradient for the word "cool." To the left, the words describe temperatures increasingly warmer, and to the right, the words describe temperatures that are increasingly colder. Notice that some boxes contain multiple words because they both describe a similar intensity of cold or warm temperature.

Cognates

Words in two languages that share a similar meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. family-familia; computer-computadora, and bicycle-bicicleta

Signal words

Words or phrases that show the connection between ideas To teach text structures, a teacher can have students find these words within the texts and examine topic sentences that clue the reader to a specific structure.

Assessment of Vocabulary

Vocabulary development is assessed in a variety of ways including but not limited to: · Students write the definition of a word. In words with multiple meanings, students should be able to know those meanings. · Students read a paragraph or page containing new vocabulary words and then paraphrase the meaning of the text they have read. · Students develop their morphemic skills as they attain knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and roots. They make lists of a few words that contain common affixes. Then students divide the words into parts and write the meanings of the entire words. 1. For prefixes, words beginning with dis: disagree, disconnect, dishonest, dislike, and disobey. Next a list of words beginning with re: reappear, remove, rename, recount, and redo. 2. Words with suffixes might be a bit more challenging such as words that end with able: agreeable, believable, breakable, enjoyable, usable, and likable. · Students write a few sentences or paragraphs to determine if they are correctly using new vocabulary words. This kind of assessment might provide more accuracy in learning by having students write several short paragraphs using new words correctly in each of the paragraphs. · Students make a short speech using as many new vocabulary words as possible. This requires them to utilize oral language after studying new content or literary-related words. · Teacher provides for assessments that are multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank at the end of units in content areas. · Teacher provides quizzes with two columns, one for newly-studied vocabulary words and the other for a synonym or definition of the meaning. An option would be to list antonyms of the first column in the second column. Students draw lines from a word in the left column to the appropriate word on the right.

Vocabulary and Word Recognition/Fluency

Vocabulary impacts a reader's word recognition and fluency. Students who have a strong knowledge of sight words and a wide range of vocabulary can use their knowledge to more easily decode new words. For example, a student who is familiar with the pronunciation and meaning of "aqua" can more quickly recognize "aquatic."

Choosing Targeted Vocabulary Words

Vocabulary words should be chosen primarily based on academic relevance and usefulness or frequency encountered. · Many academic vocabulary words, like analyze, describe, and reflect, are important and relevant across all content areas. Other academic vocabulary is more subject-specific. Teachers can preview upcoming content to determine what words are important to understanding the new concepts and are best suited to be used as targeted vocabulary words. · The frequency with which a word will be encountered (also known as its utility) can also determine its usefulness as a vocabulary word. If the word will be encountered regularly, students are more likely to retain the word's meaning because they will have frequent opportunities to interact with it. · While teacher-selected vocabulary words can ensure a word is academic and has utility, it is equally important to let students guide vocabulary instruction. Responding to student interest in a word's meaning and encouraging students to use new words they've discovered will build a student's confidence and interest in growing his vocabulary.

Main idea

What a piece of writing is mainly about / central message

Positive Language Transfer

When L1 knowledge facilitates the acquisition of L2 Occurs when students use what they know about sentence structure in their native language to help them understand sentence structure in the language they are acquiring

Assessing Reading Comprehension, cont.

When assessing comprehension, teachers should look at all levels of reading comprehension. Literal Level: Answering basic questions about what is happening in the text: o Is the student able to summarize the story? o Is the student able to produce facts and important ideas from the text? o Is the student able to identify the setting, plot elements, and characters? Inferential Level: Inferring meaning from text: o Is the student able to make inferences about character traits or motivations? o Is the student able to identify and describe cause and effect relationships between events? o Is the student able to make predictions about what comes next? Evaluative Level: Evaluating or analyze the text: o Is the student able to determine and express their own opinions about the meaning and message of the text? o Can the student compare the meaning and message of the text to those of other texts?

Homophones

Words that are pronounced the same as another word but have a different meaning and may be spelled differently carat, carrot, caret: to, too, two

Homographs

Words that have the same spelling as another word but have different meaning A reader might be confused if they think of the dialogue, "I object!" in a dramatic courtroom scene as an object you can hold in your hand. Context is key! Bass (the fish, rhymes with class) and bass (the instrument, rhymes with ace); bark (the sound a dog makes) and bark (the covering of a tree).

Antonyms

Words with the opposite meanings; hot/cold; and big/little

Synonyms

Words with the same or a similar meaning angry/mad/furious; bad/evil/immoral/tainted; and fast/quick/rapid.

Word bank

Written list of key vocabulary words or phrases used to support students in writing In an English class, a teacher may create this with extreme adjectives to be used instead of using "very"

Graphic features

charts, graphs, photos, and graphic organizers

Teaching Tips to Increase Vocabulary IV

· Another method of enhancing students' vocabulary development is having them add new vocabulary to a student-developed dictionary or journal. They can paraphrase the definition or draw a simple picture that will help them remember the definition. · It is important that students repeatedly use the new words in various contexts in order for them to really learn the vocabulary and meanings. Children are more likely to understand and remember these meanings the more they see, hear, and use the new vocabulary. · Reading research has found that it is not helpful for students to simply copy (word for word) definitions from a dictionary or from a glossary in the back of their books. Context matters! · Provide a word wall with words and images.

Elements of Literary Analysis

· Main Idea - the central idea conveyed through the text · Supporting Details and Facts - how the author reinforces the main idea · Author's Purpose - why the author wrote the text · Author's Point of View - the perspective through which the author tells the story; this often reveals the author's attitude toward the subject matter · Inference - using clues from the text to assume meaning · Conclusion - similar to main idea, a repetition of the main point

Teaching Reading Comprehension - Informational Texts: Before Reading Strategies

· Previewing: Students look at the title, subtitles, captions, pictures, graphics, and bolded words. This helps students to make predictions about what the text could be about, priming their brains to receive new knowledge. · Anticipation Guide: The teacher provides a sheet with opinion statements related to the text. Students are asked to either agree or disagree with the statements.

Teaching Reading Comprehension - Informational Texts: During Reading Strategies

· Reading Rate: When reading to learn about an unfamiliar subject, it is often helpful for students to slightly decrease their regular reading rate to allow more time to process information. · Two-Column Notes: Students write questions on the left side of the column and the answers to the questions on the right side of the column. · Think-Pair-Share: The teacher asks students to think about the text, talk in their pairs concerning a certain question, and share out to the class. · Annotating: Students make notes in the margins of the text. Common annotations include a summary, key points, or vocabulary words of note. · Text Structure: A text's structure or organization can provide comprehension clues for the reader. Students can be taught to recognize transition or cue words that give clues about what type of text structure they are working with. Important organizational frameworks: o description o cause / effect o problem / solution o compare / contrast o sequence / chronological order