IMMUNE SYSTEM
opsonization
"coating of organism": phagocytosis, gives phagocyte a better "handle" part of phagocytosis, adherence is more probable and efficient when complement proteins or antibodies coat foreign particles, a process call opsonization..."to make tasty" enhances adherence by (coating) organism, with complement proteins and/or antibodies
adaptive specific
"specific" recognize specific agents, extra time required.. T cells-cellular immunity (lyse like NK cells) specific B cells: humoral immunity
immunoglobulins
(antibodies) proteins secreted by plasma cells in response to exposure to an antigen that are capable of bonding to antigen structure: consists of 4 looping polypeptide chains linked together by disulfide bonds AB or IG abbreviations
antigen processing
(before immunocompetent T cell can bind/become activated) the antigen must be processed by APC and then be "presented" to the T cell...this involves the MHC proteins all body cells have MHC I (except RBC), if these become infected, they take the pathogen and present it on the surface of MHC I surface protein the cell 'presents" the protein to the T cell APC's such as macrophages have the MHC II class of surgace antigen.. a macrophage processes an antigen by phagocytosis, some of the disassembled proteins are moved to the cell memebrane where they are attached to MHC II proteins the macrophage presents the foreign antigen
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***specific t or b cell can only recognize one specific antigen of the millions in body, need large population to handle all the antigens
immunocompetent T (cytotoxic) cells
activated when they bind to MHC I proteins
immunocompetent T (helper) cells
activated when they bind to MHC II proteins on APC's helpers educate T and B cells.. *****helpers are link between humoral (B) and cell mediated (T) HIV wipes out helpers..
antigens
adaptive defenses relate responding to antigens 3rd line mobilizes immune system can be free floating or found on surface of pathogen define "Self" antigens (MHC's) are usually tolerated by the immune system; whereas "Non-self" antigens are identified as intruders and attacked by the immune system. Autoimmune disorders arise from the immune system reacting to its own antigens. immunogenesis: antigen determinant-a, b, RH are examples antibodies bind to the determinant! complete antigen, stimulates a response from the immune system (formation of antibodies in response to antigen determinant) Haptens- not capable of stimulating immune response..allergic reactions
mechanisms of phagocytosis
adheres>engulf>fuses>digests>destroys in order for phagocyte to adhere it must recognize carbohydrate signature "receptor" on pathogen membrane
mhc 1
all cells have except erythrocyte
immuno-incompetence
an improper reaction
dentritic cells
antigen presenting cell found in epithelium and connective tissues nodes and spleen: (lymphatic structures)
complement/kinin (inflammation)
antimicrobial protein, part of innate immune system: group of 20+ plasma proteins, a major mechanism for destroying foreign substance in the body, activation unleashes chemical mediators that amplify virtually all aspects of the inflammatory process, and enhances both innate and adaptive defenses. 2 pathways: classical-antigen-antibody complex>C3>opsonization>insertion of MAC and cell lysis alternative-spontaneous activation>plus stabilizing factors (BDP), no inhibitors on pathogen surface>C3> enhances inflammation(histamine release, increase bv permeability, attracts phagocytes by chemotaxis etc)>insertion of MAC and cell lysis MAC- membrane attack complex forms and stbilizes a hole in the membrane that ensures lysis of the target cell by inducing a massive influx of water opsonisation and phagocytosis.
interferons
antimicrobial protein..part of innate immune system: secreted by infected cells, interferes with ablility of virus in nearby cells to copy itself by blocking protein synthesis and degrading viral RNA lym
innate defenses
barriers, skin mucous membranes: psudo-stratified columnar with (goblets) epithelial membranes are protective, keratinized epithelial, stratified squamous cells acidic (acid mantle) epiglottis cilia- hairs defecation/vomiting urine vaginal secrestion saliva gastric juices lacrimal apperatus lysozyme-antimicrobial substance found in sweat/tears/saliva chemicals/cells mast, denditric, endothelia, free and fixed macrophages
olfactory nerve, 1
birth control pills interfere with olfactory (mate selection) nerve...relates to cranial nerve 1/ olfactory nerve
flowchart inflammation
body way of mobilzing defenses and repair systems as quickly as possible to restore homeostasis... tissue injury Injured and stressed tissue cells (phagocytes, lymphocytes, basophils, and bood proteins) release of chemical mediators (complement, kinins, prostaglandins, histamine) vasodialation, which increased capillary permeability, attract neutrophils, lymphocytes to area(chemotaxis) increased blood flow to area(hyperemia), exudate formation(capillaries leak) etc.
t cells
cell mediated
antimicrobal proteins
complement: cascade, 2 paths (20-30 kinds), causes cytolysis (MAC: membrane attack complex), phagocytosis, inflammation interferons-interferes with viral replication transferrin: inhibits growth of bacteria by reducing available iron antimicrobal peptides: causes lysis of bacteria
Killer Tc cell (CD8) cytotoxic
contain perforin and lymphotoxins release cytokines ATTRACT macrophages and phagocytosis the only T cells that can directly attack and kill other cells displaying antigen to which they have been sensitized main targets: virus, bacteria, parasites, cancer cells, foreign tissue/blood:transplant rejection
CD8/T8 cytotoxic T
cytotoxic or killer t cells, (not NK cells) MHC I directly destroy foreign pathogens adaptive immune system
specific rolls of T lymphocytes
cytotoxic/killer Tc (CD8) helper Th cell (CD4) memory Tm cell suppressor cell
immunodeficiency
decreased reaction..AIDS
serum
define: plasma without the clotting factors
MHC 1
eating, digesting bacteria/virus, then wearing part of it's victim on outside related to phagocytes/phagocytosis found on every nucleated cell in body, except RBC certain type of receptor embedded in membrane Antigenic peptide
APC's
engulfs antigens and presents fragments of these "wears" these antigens on it's surface, uses the antigens to "challenge" lymphocytes.. particularly T lymphocytes... APC's: macrophages -phagocyte neutrophils-phagocyte activated B lymphocytes langerhans (dendritic cells) in epidermis and connective tissues. or nodes
antimicrobial proteins
enhance innate defenses by attacking microorganisms directly, or hindering ability to reproduce interferons complement
antibodies
float freely in blood and lymph bind to bactiera, bacterial toxins and free viruses once bound, temporarily inactivates the pathogen and marks them for destruction by /complement/phagocytosis or chemotaxis
immunocompetence
found within thymus or bone marrow able to recognize a specific antigen and bind to it environmental conditioning- genetic programming/inheritance..ex. leprosy
Xenografts
from different species (pig heart...etc)
isografts
grafts donated by genetically ident. twin
inflammatory response
heat, pain, swelling, redness temp. joint immobility in response to physical injury, intense heat, irritating chemicals, infection by viruses, fungi, or bacteria sets stage for spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues, disposes of cell debris pathogens, sets stage for repair inflammatory chemicals "alarm" are released: mast cells release histamines...which causes arterioles to dialate , this increases permeability..promotes diepesis..swelling, increase tissue temperature ...macrophages to migrate to injury begin to engulf debris pus can develop, collagen fibers
CD4/T4 helper T
helper T cells...programmed by APC's Type II MHC, HIV targets helpers involved in stimulating other parts of immune system adaptive immune system
b cells
humoral immunity plasma cells are B cells receptors engage antigens b cells protect from pathogens indirectly ...by producing a protein which responds to the antigen b cell is activated to produce a clone army most of clones are plasma cells -plasma cells are responsible for directly producing antibodies secondary response:results in more rapid response , antibodies, memory cells
luekocytosis
increase in WBC specific to neutrophils
hypersensitivity/allergies
increased or over reaction 4 types: 1-3: antibody/humoral mediated type 4: cell mediated type 1: immediate, anaphylaxis. IgE antibodies and massive release of histamine by mast and basophils type 2: 1-3 hours, IgG, and IgM, cytotoxic reaction, lysis example: wrong blood type transfusion causes this type 3: 1-3 hours, IgG, IgM..immune complex reactions, intense inflammatory that damages tissues, antibody-antigen complex under basement membranes of epithelium..examples: lupus, RA Type 4:12-72 hours, T cell mediated/no antibodies...ex. commonly allergic contact dermatitis, poison ivy
nodes
infection: large, not firm,movable very tender cancerous: enlarged, firm, nontender
phagocytosis
ingestion/endocytosis adheres engulfs fuses-lysosome fuses with phagosome digest removes
INNATE
innate "nonspecific", act against anything that is not self and is fast. barriers internal defenses-cells and chemicals phagocytes (neutrophils, monocytes..macrophages) inflammation- antimicrobal proteins- fever- other defensive mechanisms: vomiting diarrhea Nk cells-NOT PHAGOCYTIC..atypical large granular lymphocyte (others are small and agranulated)..derived from lymphocytes, but innate nonspecific defense via apoptosis(programmed cell death) same as cytotoxic T cells...can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus infected body cells by detecting lack of "self" cell surface receptors, OR UNIDENTIFIED SUGARS. specific
phagocytosis
innate/nonspecific cell eating ...monocytes (macrophages), neutrophils
4 steps inflammation
intiate repair, confines/destroys organism leukocytosis>margination>diapedisis>chemotaxis neurtrophils enter blood from bone marrow neutrophils cling to capillary wall neutrophils flatten out and squeeze through capillary wall The cellular component involves leukocytes, which normally reside in blood and must move into the inflamed tissue via extravasation to aid in inflammation. Some act as phagocytes, ingesting bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. Others release enzymatic granules which damage pathogenic invaders. Leukocytes also release inflammatory mediators which develop and maintain the inflammatory response. Generally speaking, acute inflammation is mediated by granulocytes, while chronic inflammation is mediated by mononuclear cells such as monocytes and lymphocytes. neutrophils follow chemical trail 911: prevents spread of infection via edema, dispose of cell debris and phathogens via phagocytosis, sets stage for repair MAST CELLS release histimine
natural killer cells
killed like a neutrophil, infuses perforin and other enzymes perforin- protein like spear, and ganzymes destroy plasma membrane, inducing apoptosis (similar to killer T cells) atypical lymphocytes (granular)...have granules and are large. innate/nonspecific are called "pit bullsA" of the immune system are able to lyse and kill cancer cells and viral cells before adaptive immune system has been activated
phagocyte mobilization
leukocytosis: increase in WBC, neurophils release from bone marrow in response to (leukocytosis -inducing factors) margination: n. crawl clinging to adhesion molecules on the inner surface of endothelium in response to epithelial cell sprouting CAM's..cell adhesion molecules. diapedesis: n. squeeze between cells in capillary wall, enter tissues Chemotaxis: neutrophils (move up chemical gradient) follow chemical signals, such as Kinins...within 1 hour neutrophils are collecting at site and devouring foreign material. Later macrophages arrive to releive neutrophils
prostaglandins
lipid hormones that are released by nearly all cell types in response to damage mediate inflammation contribute/enhance to pain
lymphocyte activation
lymphoctyes are activated (challenged, educated) in lymphoid tissues Tcells are challenged in lymph nodes, thymus (lymphoid tissue)
T cell development
lymphocytes originate from red bone marrow hemocytoblast> (chemical signal)luekopoiesis(LPO) tells cell to become white blood cell -interleukins involved in telling which kind of white blood cell to become- white blood cell development: lymphoid or myeloid immature lymphocytes lymphocytes immature lymphocytes go to thymus become mature T lymphocytes.. both kinds are activated by APC'c dendritic and phagocytes:nuetrophils, and monocytes
know chart p.645
lymphocytes range and size 5-17 .... RBc approx. 8 NK larger..-17-ish lifespan...lymphocytes (memory cells) years to decades phagocytes: neutrophils, monocytes phagocytes
autoimmune
misdirected reaction against self transplant/transfusio
acquired immunity
natural acquired active immunity-signs and symptoms artificial active acquired immunity-vaccine (given antigen) passive natural- antibodies to newborn or fetus...IgA, IgG passive artificial-injection of immune serum
protection phagocytes
neutrophils- quicker more numerous(70% of wbc's), first responder, also release antimocrobial chemical defensins (spear), also self destruct in the process of phagocytosis macrophages/monocytes- free, fixed: dust cells (chronic infection)-aveolar macrophage kupffer cells-liver microglia-brain
immune system
not a system grouped with lymphatic/immune system primarily cardiovascular and lymphatic
allografts
not genetically identical, but from same species (grafts)
mhc 2
only certain immune cells, particularly the ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS, have mhc2 APC's associated with macrophages (phagocytes) wears it victim
lymphocytes
originate in bone marrow (hemocytoblast) >lymphoid stem cell >lymphoblast >lymphacytes end up B or T cells 778 know details
challenge process
p 779 occurs in NODE, not thymus
cytokine
p 790 cytokines are released by macroophages they include hormone-like glycoproteins released by activated T cells and macrophages
APC
p.779 read presents antigens to lymphocytes "APC programs, educates or challenges a lymphocyte"..specifically a T lymphocyte or some lymphocyte lymphocytes are programmed, educated, challenged...APC cells do this! APC will most likely be a dendritic cell or a phagocyte dendritic- skin (langerhans) lymph nodes, spleen, lymphoid like structure or B lymphocyte APC: nonspecific/innate effects: inflammation, complement APC's: might have different MHC receptor on them (MHCI or MHC II) ***denditric cells are link between innate and adaptive!
primary and secondary humoral response
peak titer: 10 days initial exposure second exposure titer: more and quicker
complement
positive feedback related process group of 20-30 plasma proteins provide major mechanism for destroying foreign pathogens in a cascade reaction by way of inflammation and phagocytosis once activated, compliment proteins directly LYSE the cell promotes phagocytosis by macrophages(osonization) and stimulates release of histamine thereby promoting inflammation It is part of the immune system called the innate immune system that is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime. Normally inactive, can be activated by two pathways 2 pathways: classical-an antibody binds to pathogen, then a compliment protein binds to the antibody and becomes activated (antigen-antibody complex) alternative- some of the complement proteins bind to the polysacchrides on the sureface of pathogen and become activated .. C3>either opsonization (classical)or inflammation(alternative)> FORMS MAC (cytolysis) MAC-cytolysis...membrane attack complex: punches or burns holes into microbe membranes
leukotrienes
produced by mast cells and basophils increase permability increase chemotaxis adherence of phagocytes to pathogens
lymphocytes
programmed, educated, and challenged cells "APC programs, educates or challenges a lymphocyte"..specifically a T lymphocyte or some lymphocyte
IFN's interferons
protects uninfected cells with PKR activates macrophages and mobililzes NK cells alpha-secreted by leukocytes beta-secreted by fibroblasts gamma-secreted by lymphocytes used as antiviral agents-genital warts, hep c, transplants Interferons (IFNs) are proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens—such as viruses, bacteria, or parasites—or tumor cells. They allow communication between cells to trigger the protective defenses of the immune system that eradicate pathogens or tumors. IFNs belong to the large class of glycoproteins known as cytokines. Interferons are named after their ability to "interfere" with viral replication within host cells. IFNs have other functions: they activate immune cells, such as natural killer cells and macrophages; they increase recognition of infection or tumor cells by up-regulating antigen presentation to T lymphocytes; and they increase the ability of uninfected host cells to resist new infection by virus. Certain host symptoms, such as aching muscles and fever, are related to the production of IFNs during infection.
basic antibody structure
protein produced by body in response to antigen y shaped disulphide bonds stem region heavy and light chains compliment binding site macrophage binding site
complement
proteins function together in cascade causing lysing promote inflammation and phagocytosis "cytolysis"
interferon
proteins involved with interfering with viral replication
fever
pyrexia pyrogens- reset the hypothalamus, wbc's release these -Moderate fevers are beneficial -makes nutrients less available to pathogen -increases metabolic rate of tissue cells, speeding up repair process -intensifies interferon effects
MHC proteins/receptors
read 777 SELF ANTIGENS magor histocampatibility complex specific receptor that all cells have.. all cells of body have MHC proteins aka HLA (human leukocyte antigen) used when typing blood allow body to recognize "SELF" "ID markers" other antigenic determinants: not self
memory cells
read book about these helpers cytotoxic T's/killer...not NK!
supressor T cells
release cytokines "suppressive factors" that suppress the activity of both B and other T cells
histamine
released from basophil, mast cells causes increase in capillary permeability and vasodialation histamine released by mast cells
kinins
released from neutrophils and lymphocytes causes increase in capillary permeability and vasodialation chemotaxis of more leukocytes stimulation of complement system The kinin system generates proteins capable of sustaining vasodilation and other physical inflammatory effects.
memory Tm cell
remains in body for years similar purpose as memory B cells when stimulated by antigen it can quickly divide into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells
primary response/secondary response
secondary=more antibodies and more memory cells
plasma cells
secrete antibodies second most abundant plasma protein is globbulin first most abundant albumin secrete antibodies antibodies remain in circulation p781,782 define titer: level
platelet derived growth factor
secreted by platelets and endothelial cells of blood vessels stimulate fibroblast (produce scar tissues/collagen) repair of damaged tissue
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see 791 read detail helpers 792,793 cytoxic T
innate
short term: innate/nonspecific, present at birth, fast skin: keratinized epithelial membrane mucous membranes: psuedostratified columnar with goblets epiglottis: prevents microbes from resp. tract cilia: with mucous traps and removes hairs: filters microbes and just in nose cells and chemicals: phagocytes: neutophils (70% of all wbc) are first responders eosinophils: defend against parasites(weak phagocytes) macrophages/monocytes: free (in lung alveoli, ct, epidermis) and fixed (microglia, and kupffer..liver), inflammation: confines and destroys microbes, initiates tissue repair fever: leukocytes secrete pyrogens, resets hypothalamus to higher temp
fever
systemic innate response to invading microorganisms hypothalamus is reset upwards in response to pyrogens, which are secreted by leukocytes and macrophages that are exposed to foreign substances in the body dangerous because heat denatures enzymes mild or moderate fever is beneficial since this cause the nutrients that bacterial need to be sequestered in the liver and spleen making them less available..fever also increases metabolic rate of tissue cells speeding up repair process
interferon
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kinin
...
clonal selection and differentation
t cells mature in the thymus gland they are immunocompetent/inactive able to recognize pathogens..but have not been activated yet they must be activated by coming into contact with the foreign antigen **AT THIS POINT THERE IS A LINK BETWEEN SPECIFIC AND NONSPECIFIC IMMUNE YSTEMS...denditric APC cells are the link
t cells
t lymphocytes cell mediated immunity direct attack cancer cells responsible for rejecting organs and graphs
interleukin
20-30 different kinds of cytokines aka co-stimulators When a co-stimulator binds to an activated T cell, it either stimulates it to divide, or stops the activation process
aspects of the adaptive immune response
3rd line of defense specific systemic memory
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE
5 types antibodies IgG: 75-80% of all antibodies..responsible for most of the protection against bacteria and viruses by enhancing phagocytosis, neutralizing toxins and activating the complement system..the only antibody to cross the placenta to fetus...most abundant IgA 10-15% of all antibodies produce mucous membrane found in breast milk and all mucosal secretions including tears decreased during stress/lowers resistance IgM 5-10% of all antibodies first to fight invaders by lysis of microbes anti A and anti B antibodies in the blood plasma are alos of this type (abo typing) presense suggests recent invasion by foreign antigens
WBC population
60, 30, 8, 2, 0 never let my engine blow T>B>NK most common to least common Leuko- <1% part of formed elements lympho- 15-50% of leukocytes -see rhyme t lympho- 68-75% lymph b lympho-10-20-% of lymph nkc-5-10 % of lymphocytes NK- rarest form
mechanisms of anitbody action
785 complement: binds to antibodies -leads to lysis neutralization: blocks specific sites causing loss of toxic effects agglutination: causes clumping by cross -link of antibodies to antigens precipitation: soluable molecules are cross linked into large complexes that settle out
t cells
787.778 involved in rejection of foreign grapts attack directly..tumor and virus cells ***are in plasma and lymph lymphocytes originate from bone marrow,..hemocytoblast> lymphoid stem cell, lymphoblast, lymphocyte lymphoctye migrates from bone marrow and part of mature life is spent in thymus T cells outside of thymus, development in spleen and lymph nodes.. CD4/T4 helper T CD8/T8 cytotoxic T these are distinguished by which surface glycoproteins they display
puss
A liquid, usually yellowish (to green) that is formed in certain infections and is composed of white blood cells, bacteria and cellular debris.
t cell selection in thymus
APC's denditric, and phagocytes present an antigen antigens are used in the education of lymphocytes lymphocytes are challenged/educated so they know what to do.. if T cell does not respond properly it is programmed to die "apoptosis" APC presents an antigen to T cell>self antigen> recognzes>will populate nodes and lymphatic system,, if it does not recongize, it dies APC's program lymphocytes...where?
helper Th cell
CD4 also produces antibodies secretes interlukin-2>stimulates T and B cell production stimulates inflammation are regulatory cells that stimulate proliferation of other T cells and B cells that have already become bound to antigen once activated by binding to MHC II protein/antigen Th cell rapidly divides begins releasing interleukin 2 which stimulates both Tc and B cells without helper T cells there is no adaptive immune response because the helper T cells direct or help complete the activation of all other immune cells
AIDS
CD4 count falls below 200 (normal-500-1500) or opportunistic infections body tries to fight HIV by antibody production HIV blood test: western blot/ELISA
IgD, IgE
IgE less than .1% of all antibodies located on mast cells and basophils (allergies) both release histamine associated with allergies , hypersensitivity provide protection against parasitic worms IgD about .2 % of all antibodies involved in activation of B cells
Killer T(cytotoxic)/NK
KT smaller Nk large atypical granulated lymphocyte
autographs
tissue grafts transplanted from one body site to another in same person
leukopoietin
trigger for a hypothetical substance presumed to be the humoral means of regulating leukopoiesis.
sentinel node
very 1st node that filters fluid away from area of concern (guard)
MHC2
who contains mhc2? APC presenting immune cells
lymphocytes
T ,B, and NK adaptive immunity (b and t lymphocytes) NK (innate/nonspecific)
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T cells- direct killing/cell mediated B-Cells- producing plasma cells, plasma cells producing antibodies both adaptive
lymphotoxin
Tc cells: releases lymphotoxin and bore through the cell membrane
