Individual Differences FHS 1 MCQs

universal prevention approach to mental health

e.g school programs, or mass media campaigns -aimed at general population, or segment of general population, regardless if you have higher-than-average risk of developing disorder -implemented to populations not identified on basis of potential risk of symptoms

stigma reduction explanation and negative impact: 'chemical imbalance' (Kemp et al., 2014)

e.g. depression as chemical imbalance of serotonin 'chemical balance' group: -no effect on self-blame -BUT more pessimistic about prognosis -reduced perceived ability to regulate emotional states -increased belief in efficacy of pharmacotherapy vs psychotherapy (despite evidence of similar efficacy

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders, questions

e.g. shout in pain for others to support e.g. fever to help fight disease so if psychological disorders are common, harmful and heritable, why survived natural selection

common challenge of psychological disorders: risk factors not disorder-specific - social and environmental

e.g. social and environmental factors 1) Bullying associated with: depression, anxiety (SAD, GAD), self-harm, psychosis, EDs 2) child abuse associated with: depression, anxiety, PTSD< antisocial behaviour, SCZ, psychosis, self-harm, bipolar disorder, EDs 3) social inequality associated with: antisocial behaviour, SCZ, depression, anxiety

mental states examples (in context of ToM)

e.g.vsiaul perspective, emotions, propositional attitudes

brief psychotic disorder (DSM)

presence of psychotic symptoms lasting 1 day- 1 month

anxiety disorders: DSM-5 prevalence

prevalence: - epidemiologically universally most prevalent mental health difficulty (high impairment and co-morbidity)

Unspecified Feed or Eating Disorder

when clinician chooses not to specify the presentation of the ED or there is insufficient information for more specific diagnosis

Weschler (1944) Weschler-Bellevue sex differences

when eliminate subtests producing large sex effects in pilot versions, found small advantage for females 'sneaking suspision' females of the species more deadly and more intelligent'

concurrent validity

when new and established tests are administered at same time to check correlation - there is difficulties with how we interpret deviation of scores on new test: new invalid? but surely not want them to have same results else then new test in futile?

intelligence and life outcomes

why research big interest in intelligence, wrt fairness, diversity, social justice, equality etc also correlations with: -job/ work - longevity/ mortality -health behaviours -health outcomes

Risk factors to PTSD - event' related

-preparation for event (more likely if not prepared) -severity -type of event (interpersonal, human more than natural disasters -number of events

categorical approach to classifying abnormality

-presence/ absence of symptom pattern -QUALITATIVE differences between normal and 'abnormal' e.g. DSM-V yes/ no in response to criterion for GAD OWN EVALUATION: do people choosing, have these disorders?

Summary risk factors for Conduct Disorder

-smoking during pregnancy (but may be linked with post-natal factors e.g. parenting promoting externalising symptoms) -genetics e.g. fi smoke during pregnancy associated with forming partnerships with antisocial males -possible genetic overlap with breastfeeding in pregnancy

individual level social risk factors of mental health x 2

-social defeat stress (and cumulative exposure to adverse events) -social contagion (influence of those around us) and role of social media

OECD 'Our World in Data' of social inequalities in UK and depression (2014) and universal replication

-social inequalities: more socially disadvantaged e.g. reduced opportunity for education, more unemployment -adults aged 25-64 -decreasing prevalence of depression in higher levels of education (tertiary) and increase through upper secondary and post-secondary to below upper secondary -in general, total population higher prevalence than the subgroup active seeking employment, and active higher prevalence than employed -biggest difference between 'below upper secondary' level education, and total has 15.2% prevalence, and biggest gap to 11% prevalence in those actively seeking jobs -PRO: universally replicated that higher income inequality, higher percentage with mental illness (Pickett et al., 2006)

mental health services contact and mental health (Neufeld et al., 2017)

1236 x 14 yrs old groups: T1 unaffected T1 mental disorder but no mental health services T1 mental disorder and mental health contact RESULTS: -ANY contact with mental health services at 14 yrs (adolescence) with mental health disorder, reduce likelihood of depression by 17 -other groups roughly maintain mood and feelings CONCLUSION: if improve ACCESS to mental health services may result in beneficial outcome

Steel et al (2014) meta-analysis on the prevalence of mental disorders

136 studies, 26 high income countries, 37 low and middle income -on average, 1 in 5 met criteria for common mental disorder during the 12 month preceding assessment, and 29.2% across lifetime -across countries, females more likely experience mood or anxiety disorders, male more likely experience alcohol or other substance use disorders

Hunt et al (2018) cross-sectional study on social media and mental health

143, 18-22yr olds -initial test of mood and wel-being -they shared screenshots of week's worth of online battery life baseline, normative social media use -control vs limiting group (10 minutes of snapchat, FB and IG) RESULTS: -significant decrease of percieved loneliness and depressive symptoms (BDI) in experimental group (limited online time), especially for those more depressed to start with LIIMITS: -poeple use social media differently e.g. maybe depressed more passive scrolling and more negative information, hence the correlations

selective mutism characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

Consistent (at least 1 month) failure to speak in some situations (but speak in others) -i.e. selective (so not language issue) speaking, and not speak in situations where they are expected to e.g. in school

Risk Factors for Conduct Disorder across levels (Nature Reviews) - phone photo!!

Genetic and environmental: perinatal factors, genetic factors, trauma/ violence/ neglect Neural markers: (genetic factors feed into all) -decreased amygdala responsiveness -decreased striated and vmPFC responsiveness (also impacted by perinatal factors) -increased amygdala responsiveness (also impacted by trauma etc) -interaction with decreased amygdala responsiveness and decreased striatal&vmPFC responsiveness cognitive factors: -reduced emotional empathy (from decreased amygdala responsiveness) -impaired decision making (from decreased striatal and vmPFC responsiveness) -increased threat sensitivity (from increased amygdala responsiveness) feed into BEHAVIOURAL (CD different types) TYPE 1 (without trauma): -impacted by reduced emotional empathy: callous-unemotional traits, antisocial behaviour and instrumental aggression -impacted by impaired decision making: antisocial behaviour and instrumental aggression; frustration based reactive aggression TYPE 2: -impacted by impaired decision making and increased threat sensitivity: under-regulated responses to social provocation TYPE 3: -impacted by increased threat sensitivity: threat based reactive aggression, anxiety

gender differences in Gf? and potential cohort effects (Lynn & Irwing, 2004)

Gf seen as 'closest to g' and mainly tested on Raven's MAtrices found general male advantage (4 IQ points), but difference at 40yr tice as large as at 18 years EVALUATION: -potential cohort effects? e..g historical teaching? other tests of Gf no male advnatfe, and clear historical trends (At least in UK and US), that male advantage 50-60 years ago, ow no difference of slight female advantage (e.g. in verbal and numerical)

Schneider et al (1996) on seven social factors

-seven social factors independent of tradition measures of intelligence

stigma reduction explanation and negative impact: 'illness like any other' (Kvaale et al., 2013)

'brain disease'/ biogenetic explanation of psychological disorders can lead to less blame BUT ALSO HIGHER: -perceptions of dangerousness -perceptions of unpredictability -fear -pessimism about recovery -desire for social distance -harsh/ punitive behaviour in mental health professionals, biogenetic/ brain disease explanation also associated with: -lower empathy -lower endorsement of patient involvement in planning of mental health services

implicit mentalizing debate

'implicit mentalizing' effects reflect domain specific social processing mental states vs domain general processes 'submentalizing' -effects reflect domain-general non-social processing (e.g. attentional cueing/ perceptual novelty)

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: CAUTIONS

'just-so' stories/ ad hoc fallacy (unverifiable/ untestable story/ predictions for cultural practise, biological traits/ behaviour) can result in reductionism and determinism (simplified and inevitable) can shed light on distal causes, BUT may not give explanation for the cause of an individual's disorder

Reconciling p-factor and network model of psychological disorders

(AGAIN< ADD TO MINDMAPS!!) latent vairable models and network models are mathematically equivalent -they can be combined, which particularly useful for accounting to measurement error (which latent variables account for) -a common cause not mean the symptoms can't directly interact -latent variables also not necessarily cause symptoms, it's just a common property of items or indicators of interest

heritability across psychological disorder (Bienvenu, Davdow and Kendler, 2011)

(P)= psychiatric conditions, (others are behavioural disorders) decrease in heritability: -bipolar disorder (most heritable) (P) -SCZ (P) -Alzheimer's (P) -cocaine use disorder -AN -Alcohol dependence -sedative use disorder -cannabis use disorder -panic disorder (P) -stimulant use disorder -Major depressive disorder (P) - variance more environmentally driven -GAD (P)- variance more environmentally driven

Conceptual approaches to personality

(a) situational: e.g. (Walter Mischal, 1968) personality as inconsistent behavioural states. behaviours -situation drive thought/ behaviours more than anything internal - less sommon nowadays (b) ideographic- describes each person with different terms ( each have individual personalities, no point compare and contrast)- but stable personalities (c) nomoethetic (MORE COMMON)- describes different people using same types (extremes) or trais (continuum) - allow some effects of situation, BUT CAN compare each other meaningfully

male-female IQ differences across tests and potential reason why

(in SDs) although all q. small differences: -MALE advantage: WAIS, ASVAB (armed services vocational aptitude battery), AFQT (armed forces qualifying test) -FEMALE advantage: GATB (general aptitude test battery), DAT (differential aptitude test), WJ-III (Woodcock-Johnson-III) WHY THE DIFFERENCES? -not measuring same thing -or different balance of skills (subtler reason) --> sub-test differences?

Different markers for gf and Gc

(potential) capacity for knowledge Gf VS knowledge possessed- concrete Gc Gf: - fluid intelligence tests (e.g. Raven's) -reaction times -visual inspection -other biological measures e.g. brain functioning, neuronal speet, white matter integrity, cortical thickness Gc: -knowledge tests -academic performance -college entry tests Gc (vocabulary, information)

Extroversion as psychological consequence of arousal (Revelle et al., 1976)

- extraverts, ambiverts and introverts verbal intelligence test under three different conditions: 1) untimed test (low stress) 2) strict time and placebo caffeine pills (medium stress) 3) strict time and actual caffeince (high stress) -hypothesis: introverts should be negatively affected, as already high level of arousal - results: support hypoethsis- introverts better in no stress, and decrease performance with stress ; extroverts better than introverts at high stress (no real difference low and medium stress, but much low)

role of developmental and family factors in assessment of developmental psychopathology

- need for development norms for assessment e.g. visual motor task -reliance on parents and other (teachers, care givers) as sources of information LIMITL parent-child agreement typically very poor

examples of developmental risk factors for psychopathology x 4

- peers: mass survey of 15 yr olds in UK- 61% girls and 47% boys bullied/ peer victimisation - impact rates and patterns of mental health -pubertal stage: girls start period early more likely experience depression -maltreatment predicts relapse and poor response to treatment -parental mental health often linked to offspring mental health (likely nature and nurture)

if Gc really intelligence or just acquired knowledge (Cattell)? vs vocabulary tests show Gc not just Gf plus e.g. schooling (Gathercole & Badddeley, 1990)

- surely just reflects schooling, parenting SES? -just acquired knowledge? e.g. Cattell argued that Gf was the biological potential for intelligence, and Gc just result of Gf through schooling VOCABULARY TESTS: -main measure of Gc - scores on vocab tests omprove until 50/60 yrs old- unlike other IQ tests (Verhaeghan, 2003) -older people just have more time to learn, so Gc just Gf plus opportunity to learn? -might explain SES differences in vocab size, but NOT ALL DIFFERENCES e.g. Gathercole & Baddeley (1990): higher vocab scores predicted 5yr children learning new words, even when matched for Gf - learning vocab seems to require inference and reasoning when encountering unfamiliar words (most word meanings not explicityl instructed) -so Gc NOT JUST Gf plus learning opportunity

spontaneous imagery (maintenance mechanisms) -Hackmann, Surawry, Clark, 1998

- typically observer perspective, visual representation of fears, that not been updated -e.g. about first time bullied, and reoccurs in same way -77% distorted (patient think reality more negative than is

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: SCZ

-'side effect' of evolution of cerebral asymmetry and language -'side effect' of evolution of social intelligence -adaptation to facilitate group splitting

Brief summary of history of intelligence research

-1575, Juan Huarte de San Juan earliest scientific writing on intelligence -Galton (1822-1911)- genius is hereditary (but v problematic) -Binet (1857-1911) first intelligence test with THeodore SImon (1872-1961) commissionsed by France Ministry of Education, aiming to -William Stern (1912) IQ= mental age/ chronological age x 100 -Wechsler (1975) Deviance IQ fro adults still relative to age -latent concept of intelligence (e.g. that predicts performance in school. -fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell, 1963) -Gathercole and Baddeley (1990) crystallised intelligence not just opportunity to learn with fluid intelligence, but also requires inference and reasoning

The 'Beckian' Model of CBT HISTORY

-1960s-1970s (Beck started as clinician) -built on others (e.g. Albert Ellis) -dominant model for 30 years -focus on cognition, beliefs, interpretations (psychoanalytic concepts) and surprised to find consistent instances of stream of negative thoughts that emanate spontaneously in depression -fuelled by research trials indivatin Cognitive THerapy s effect to treat depression (e..g Rush et al,=., 1977) -Book on cognitive therapy for depression (Beck et al., 1979 -Behaviour and COg. therapy grew together and influenced each other, leading to CBT

different groups of student's role in bullying (Salmivalli et al., 1996)

-24% outsiders (majority present but not involved) -20% reinforcers of bully -17% defend victim -12% victim 8% bully 7% assistants of bully

EI models x 4 (list)

-Ability EI model: what skills, or set of skills, fundamental to EI -Integrative EI model: Ge - different relevant competencies combined to general EI -Mixed EI model (Goleman, 1995) e.g. mixed with creativity, stress intolerance -Trait EI model (e.g. Petrides et al., 2000 onwards) dispositional tendency, usually self-report

list of treatments for OCD

-Behavioural therapy approach (ERP)- focused on compulsion and behaviours that lower anxiety) -cognitve therapy -CBT -pharmacological approach -combo of the above

WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

-CFA of WAIS-IV support g (.8 correlation) three level structure: 1) g 2) WM, perceptual reasoning, Verbal comprehension, Processing speed 3) WM: into core tests (digit span and math), supplementary sub-tests (letter number sequencing) -perceptual reasoning: core subsets (block deisgn, matrix reasoning, visual puzzles), supplementary sub-tests (picture completion, figure weights) -verbal comprehension: core sub tests (similarities, vocab), and supplementary sub-tests (comprehension) -processing speed: core test (symbol search and coding); supplementary sub-test (cancellation)

DA (bio) hypothesis for SCZ? (Howes & Kapur, 2009)

-DA elevation (dysregulation) more about psychosis symptom in general (not just SCZ) -striatal development elevation in pscyhosis -abnormal release of DA leads to aberrant assignment of salience to innocuous stimuli - the DA system interacts with other factors (stress, genes, frontal temporal dysfunction, drugs) -devreasing/ blocking levels leads to resolution in most patients

2 x model of PTSD

-Dual representation theory (Brewin et al., 1996) -Cognitive theory of PTSD (Ehlers and Clark, 2000)

Risk factors for Eating Disorder

-GENDER: female: males 10: 1 (AN) and 3:" (BED); boys risk no treatment -SUBCULTUERS: more common in professions emphasizing weight and lean appearance -AGES: higher in adolescents than adulthood (86% ED sufferers onset before 20) -HIGH SES more common (contested) -ETHNICITY: Western cultures (?), although becoming increasingly common across ethnicities, cultures and countries

HC structure in depressed patients (Davidson et al., 2002)

-HC structural impairment potentially has a role in memory (functional) impairment -bilateral reduced volume in depressed patients (meta-analysis; McKinnon et al., 2009)

Central premises of social intellignece

-IQ is not everything- not provide a full account of an individual -interpersonal skills are independent of IQ e.g. ability to deal with others -interpersonal skills are (potentially) more important in real life than academic abilities -interpersonal skills should be conceptualised as a form of ability or intelligence -later extended to intrapersonal or emotional intelligence overall, lots of agreement that there are IDs in social ability, and that social ability contributes to later life success

6 x uses of anti-depressants

-moderate to severe depression (NOT mild) -severe anxiety and panic attacks -eating disorders -chronic pain -PTSD

types of OCD (Kuehne et al., 2020)

-OCD is heterogenous: acute, chronic, episodic -chronic is when constantly symptomatic over time -episodic when have recovery, then relapse, and recovery, and then recurrent relapse

Intelligence Test examples

-Raven's Test (Gf gold standard), less on speed, bout finding the missing piece of the matrices -visual inspection e.g. select words with letter 'a', of 5 columns, under timed conditions (just reading speed?) -map planning test: artificial map of city, with road blocks, and find fastest route from A to B (give one number to pass), timed- about accuracy and speed -verbal reasoning: no timing but about vocabulary NOte how different each are, yet all supposed to measure intelligence

Eating Disorders

-abnormal eating pattern that compromises physical health and emotional well-being -EDs include a spectrum of disorders eating, from food restriction to overeating

Emotional Reasoning Maintenance mechanisms (Mansell & Clark, 1999)

-about how feel. bodily sensations, how think come across to others (not 'hard' evidence -e.g. if THINK come across bas, this increase anxiety

Course of EDs: Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

-more fvourable course and outcome than AN -~70% achieve recovery, 20% symptomatic but demonstrate some improvement, 10% remain chronically ill -some develop OSFED rather than meet full BN criteria

content sampling as source of error variance

-administer tests that are equivalent (same kinds of items of equal difficulty) but not same items -compute correlation between scores -shows error variance due to using different sample of items (hardly ever happens) -what happens when covary? may need to check all unsystematic erros

Cognitive remediation therapy for EDs

-aim to support thinking style -(unlike CBT which focus on content) focus on process of thinking, the 'how' -behavioural experiments reflect current cognitive strategies, and try to think of alternative strategies to offer greatr options in terms of 'how' or thinking and behaviours -patient led and directed example: stroop task follow up Qs: how approach task? wht strategies used? what remind you of in real life? homework suggestions: inhibit unhelpful info when accessing e.g. social media

prevalence of PTSD in populations with high trauma exposure (post-conflict areas)

-algeria (37%) -Cambodia (28%) -Ethiopia (16%) -12.4% men, 22.3 % women in post-conflict related with Northern Ireland (Buntin and Ferry et al., 2013)

negative symptoms of schizophrenia x 5

-anhedonia- inability to experience pleasure -avolition - apathy or lack of motivation -alogia - poverty of speech and/ or thought -flat effect -reduced expression of emotion -social isolation and withdrawal (e.g. not care about hygiene)

DSM-V recognised eating disorders

-anorexia nervosa (AN) -bulimia nervosa (BN) -binge eating disorder (BED) -other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) -Unspecified feeding or eating disorder (UFED)

Serotonin hypothesis for depression, evidence from antidepressants

-antidepressants also typically work by acting on 5-HT (among other systems) LIMIT: -not work straight away, nor on everyone -work on variety of disorders (non-specific) -just because e.g. aspirin cures headaches, not mean due to low levels of aspirin in brain -inconsitent findings, but may work via emotion processing changes

anxiety disorders: DSM-5 common features (level, physiology, behaviour

-anxiety/ excessive high level -physiology: sweat, feel sick, heart beat faster, arousal, light-headed -behaviour: extreme avoidance of objects/ situations

List of examples of cognitive distortions/ unhelpful thinking habits in depression x 5

-arbitrary inferences -minimization/ maximisation -all or nothing thinking -overgeneralisation personalisationg

social capital and social comparison: a natural experiment (WHite et al., 2017)

-area level of lower SES and mental health -2001, Welsh Government (UK_ funded Communities First: program of neighbourhood socioeconomic regeneration to 100 most deprived of the 881 electoral wards in Wales -35 intervention areas, 75 controls: data from assessments in 2001 (before regeneration) and 2008 (after regeneration RESULTS: -regeneration associated with improvement in mental health of residents in intervention compared to control neighbourhood CONCLUSIONS: -suggest reduction in socioeconomic inequalities in mental health -show some evidence of causal relation between social capital and mental health LIMIT: -not randomised controls

Familial effects on IQ (Bouchar & McGue, 1981)

-as family environments get more similar, so o the correlation in IQ -from cousins, to siblings (apart) to siblings (together) to DZ reared together, to midparent-offspring together, to MZ reared apart, to MZ reared together

bullying and internalizing behaviour problems (Arsenault et al., 2006)

-assessed standardized internalizing behvaiour problems comparing victimized vs non-victimized twins among 115 MZ twins t 10yrs old (discordant for bullying victimisation) -MZ account for shared environment and genes RESULTS: -victimized twins higher internalizing problems than cohort norm, and non-victimized twin -nonvictimized twin less internalizing than cohort norm

amygdala and depression (Drevets et al., 1992; Ho et al., 1996; Drevets, 2001,2003)

-at rest: depressed Ps have hyperactivation -correlates with symptom severity i.e. more severe symptoms, higher levels of hyperactivity -tends to return to normal after successful antidepressant treatment (only after beneficial effects)

Focus of attention maintenance mechanism (e.g. Ehlers et al., 1999)

-attentional bias to threat e.g. if phobia of spiders, high alert to spiders, or SAD attention aWAY from faces

safety seeking behaviour as maintenance mechanisms

-behaviours that try to prevent/ minimise worse outcome to come true - in turn, prevents people change how they think e.g. think survived panic attack because sat down, rather than about resolve what panic about -can stop direct testing of fears, become 'self-fulfilling prophecies' i.e. if fear then not come true, mistakenly think safety behaviours worked -they increase self-focused attention e.g. -staying quiet in social situations to prevent saying something stupid and feeling humiliated -wearing headphones in public so not spoken to and not think idiot if not know what to say -alcohol and drugs to prevent anxiety overwhelm and to help interaction with others

environmental causal factors of SCZ: pre-natal

-birth complications e.g. stress -malnutrition -viral infection

other psychotic disorders in DSM x 5

-brief psychotic disorder -delusional disorder -schizoaffective disorder -puerperal psychosis -schizophreniform

Kessler et al (2009) anxiety disorders universally

-certain anxiety more prevalent than others e.g. specific phobias~ 18%, but SAD ~ 13% and agrophobia (where no history) ~3%, in US population -have typical sociodemographic correlates e.g. more in women/ girls than men/ boys -highly co-morbid with one another and with other disorders e.g. 90% GAD meet criteria for another, and within 1 year, ~70% co-morbid depressive disorder, @50% co-morbid anxiety

Dunedin Study on temperament (predicting 18 year old and 21 year old personality)

-children born 1972/1973 in Dunedin, NEw Zealand -first assessed age 3 (N=1037) -re-assessed age 5,7,8,11,13,15,18,21 until about 60! Temperament: - age 3: 90 minute test session involving cogntiie and motor tasks (e.g. picture vocabulary tests, fine and gross motor co-ordination) -tested by examiners blind to behavioural histories of children -rated on 22 different behavioural characteristics 22 behaviours: emotionally labile (over reactivity, extreme instability), shy, upset by strangers (e.g. clinging to mother), fearful, limited communication, passivity (sluggish, slow), impulsive, willful, task withdrawal, requires attention, fleeting attention, lacks persistence, negativism, self-critical (e.g. lack confidence on new tasks), easy separation, quickly adjusted, friendly, self-confidence, self-reliance, flat affect (little change in emotional state/ task responses), limited communication, malleable (passivity) ANLAYSIS: - Principle Components Analysis (like FA finding clumps of co-variation) RESULTS: -three temperaments emerged: lack of control, approach (inhibition), sluggishness EVALUATED: - mapped well onto 3 of Chess and Thomas cluster analysis for types of temperament: 1) well-adjusted 'easy': capable of self-control when needed, adequately self-confident, not upset by new people/ situations 2) undercontrolled 'difficult': impulsive, restless, labile, distractible 3)inhibited type 'slow to warm up': socially reticent, fearful and easily upset by strangers ON SELF-REPORTED PERSONALITY AGE 18: -reported on: traditionalism (e.g. high moral standards endorsed), harm avoidance, control aggression (e.g. hurts others for own advantage), alienation, stress reaction, social potency (fond of influencing others), well-being, social closeness -particular patterns arose from temperaments RESULTS AT 18: -undercontrolled more aggression, alientation, but less self-control, harm avoidance -inhibited most on harm avoidance, least on agression and social potency - well-adjusted close to neutral on all AGE 21 (other-reported personality) - adjectives emailed to participant-nominated informant (someone Ps knew well) -FA revealed FIVE dimensions: Communiality (warmth, agreeableness), Agency (confidence, extraversion), Vitality (active, popular), Culture (openness) 3 YR TEMPERAMENT PREDICT 21 YR OLD PATTERNS: - undercontrolled: lowest in culture, then conscientiousness -inhibited: v low in all, but slightly positive in conscientiousness -well-adjusted: very neutral, slightly positive on all PRO - lots of data - only <3% drop-out) CONCLUSIONS: -IDs in early temparment have long-term pervasive influences on IDs in later peronsliaty? or just same thing? - SELF EVALUATION - not huge range of behaviour descriptions? - chosen infromant, like said in tute, will have different biases

importance of developmental processes in developmental psychopathology

-children constant developing process (motor, cogitive/ language, behaviour) and continually in process of being challenged and mastering developmental tasks - can't make assumptions on developmental psychopathology without understanding normative development/ developmental tasks e.g. age where not talk/ wet the bed

Cause of SCZ (van Os et al., 2010)

-clear genetic susceptibility -but only inherit altered brain development, shared partly with development disorders (e.g. autism) and affective disorders (e.g. bipolar disorder) behavioural expression of this vulnerability usually restrcited to subtle cog. alterations, suspiciousness, affective dysregulation (only subtle functional effect) in this inherited vulnerable minority, perhaps when combined with environmental insults, a abnormal DA release may result, elading to aberrant assignment of salience (causing psychotic symptoms) leading to need of medical attention

DSM 5 definition of psychological / mental disorders

-clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour that indicate a dysfunction in mental functioning that is usually associated with significant distress or disability in work, relationships or other areas of functioning -hence expectable reactions to common stressors are NOT mental disorders

schizoaffective disorder (DSM)

-combined symptoms of schizophrenia nd major depression, manic or mixed episode -psychotic symptoms present without mood disturbance for two weeks

Difficulty of judging accuracy in EI

-consensus? what about cultural effects? how well do they know an individual? then more about stereotypes? e.g. facial expressions not universal (Jack et al., 2012)

Common presentations of OCD (meta-analysis., Mataix-Cols et al., 2005)

-contamination thoughts (most intrusive thought) -rumination (relate to thoughts without compulsions) -checking -symmetry and ordering

Example of behaviours fitting DSM V definition for mental disorders

-continually missing work: mental functioning, affecting work -from hangovers (struggles with emotional regulations?) -all night binge drinking, excessive opening up about life, slams drinks down, being rude (behaviour) - others ask to calm down (indicate excessive)

Summary of evidence for whether social intelligence as a concept, makes sense?

-correlates with Iq, but more correaltes with each other (a should) but maybe not as much as would like -seems distinct though fromverbal and abstract intelligence (e.g. Marlowe, 1986; FA)

g and reaction time (Deary, Der and Ford, 2001)

-correlation of -.49 between IQ and RT, and of -.26 between IQ and variability of RT

Marlowe (1986) social intelligence as a concept

-dd FA of large battery of social tests, 5 factors of social intelligence (social interest i.e. the motivation and desire to engage socially, social skills, empathy, emotionality and social anxiety -they were distinct from verbal and 'abstract' intelligence

biological explanation the serotonin hypothesis on depression

-depression caused by 5-HT imbalance or deficiency in the brain -evidence from abnormalities of 5-HT regulation are implicated in the aetiology of (or risk of) depression

Need for careful assessment of SCZ, so non-specific symptoms CAN appear similar to:

-depression or anxiety -substance abuse -reaction to abuse or trauma -ADHD -reaction to family stress -learning disability -pervasive developmental disorders QUESTION TO ASK: -broad, non threatening e.g. 'are there ever times when you don't feel safe? rayther than 'do you think people are out to get you (stigmatised)

exploratory factor analysis and USE

-describes set of intercorrelations among variables (often using correlation matrix) -i.e. aim to explain maximum variance with smallest number of factors, and minim (preferable no) cross-loadings i.e. preferably no variables in two factors USE: identify number and nature of factors required to account for the inter-correlations between items e.g. say 30 items are designed to measure aggressiveness may reveal 2 distinct categories: towards friends/ family and towards authority figures

Assessment issues of PTSD

-details of trauma -meaning of trauma -ongoing threat -psychology resources -social support -losses associated with trauma -co-morbidity -range of emotional responses (anger, guilt) -context of trauma -dissociation vs capacity to engage with emotions -avoidance vs commitment to treatment

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: anxiety

-detect threats especially when individual is vulnerable or (believes) threats are common

Dot perspective task development (Santiesteban et al., 2014)

-developed from Samson dot perspective task (who found RT faster for consistent trials, and concluded that show indicates implicit mentalizing trial types: consistent vs inconsistent (avatar see same vs different number dots to Ps) new trial type: arrow (non-social control ) vs avatar RESULTS: -same findings, RT consistent trials faster than RT inconsistent trials (both arrow and avatar) CONCLUSIONS: - Samson just from direction cueing and not implicit mentalizing? --> Conway et al "017) telescope method

environmental causal factors of SCZ: social

-developmental: e.g. interactions mediated by neglect and abuse -trauma -adverse social and economic conditions

Visser et al (2006) testing multiple intelligences

-devised several measures of each of Gsrnder (1983) multiple intelligences -tested on 200 students (Quite low) -FA indicated one general factor which all loaded upon apart from bodily kinaesthetic and musical -all correlated with scores on general IQ over .4 (except body-kinaesthetic and musical(

Course of Schizophrenia

-diagnosis after first episode, and then a pro-longed at-risk stage -onset often early adulthood (rarely childhood, adolescence or later in life) -average delay between first onset and treatment = 18.5 months (Kane et al., 2015) whic difficult as untreated psychosis predictor of long term outcome 'early' psychosis: first 5 years after symptom onset: - critical period where treatment has biggest impact, often focus on maintaining existing functioning rather than recovering lost functioning early functioning best predictor of later functioning -recovery is possible

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) dimensional measure of severity (on BMI)

-dimensional measure of BMI: BMI=/>17kg/m = mild, 16-16.99 = moderate, 15-15.99= severe

Evidence based service provision: IAPT (Improving Access to Psychological Therapies), Lavard & Clark: why think access would pay for itself? (x 2) and government response

-economists and clinical researchers though psych. therapies would pay for tiself: 1) reducing other anxiety-depression-related costs (e.g. welfare benefits and medical costs 2) increase revenues (e.g. taxes from return to work Government (UK) in 2005, agreed to increase availability to evidence-based treatments -2 pilot projects showed effectiveness (55% and 56% patients 'recovered') -lead to national roll-out of IAPT, with publicly available annual report

future steps following evidence of treatment/ intervention gone wrong for psychological disorders

-emphasis health promotion, improvement of early detection and intervention in clinical settings, schools, community -essential support from society and policy makers

Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

-excessive worry about a number of different events activities e.g. across range of health, grades etc -at least 6 months

CBT competencies: Specific behavioural and cog. therapy techniques x 3

-exposure techniques -applied relaxation and applied tension -activity monitoring and scheduling

Hirschtritt et al (2017) list of common obsessions x 7 in OCD

-fear of contamination -persistent doubting -violent or sexual intrusive thoughts -fears of causing harm -symmetry -religious scrupulosity -superstitions

Separation anxiety disorder

-fear of separation from caregivers or other people they are attached to e.g. thinking something will happen to parents or themselves -excessive, -common in children (can lead to school difficulties) - persistent: 4 weeks for children, 6 months in adults

Agoraphobia characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

-fear/ avoidance of situations due to fear not able to escape -fear of 2/5 of : queues, out of house alone, enclosed situations, public transport, open spaces -may avoid, or need someone with them, or endure but with significant distress -persists for at least 6 months - associated with sig. distress and impairment

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: anorexia

-female control over reproduction or puberty in poor environmental conditions -elicit help from conspecifics -adapted to flee from famine (conserve resources)

Bulimia nervosa (BN) (diagnosis,)

-fewer studies (than AN) on epidemiology and course of syndrome -diagnosed when regularly (at least once a week on average for 3 month period) engages in binge eating (objectively large amount of food within any 2-hour period whilst perceiving lack of self control) and inappropriate compensatory behaviours (excessive exercise, purging, fasting etc) -only diagnosed if not meet AN riteria -individual's self evaluation unduly influenced by weight and shape

seven factors on intelligence- Thurstone

-finds 7 unrelated mental abilities, when using different FA methods (notice NOT Gc/ Gf) 7 faculties: -verbal comprehension -word fluency -number facility -spatial visualisation -associative memory -perceptual speed -reasoning what g come from? product of type of tests-required different abilities BUT 7 factors lack empirical evidence

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: depression example

-focus resources on solving complex (social) problems -'shut down' from pursuit of unattainable goals -elicit help from conspecifics

COVID applicability of moral injury research/ clinicians in general

-frontline keyworker staff e.g. about which patients to ventilate based on resource availability -safeguarding (being non-judgemental with disclosures) -burn out, yet opportunity to improve patient's outcome)

Impact of OCD (Torres et al., 2006)

-more likely to be unemployed -low income and low SES -less likely to be married -social and occupational functioning impairments -suicidal thoughts (36%) and attempts (10-26%)

prevalence of anxiety disorders in children and adolescence in the UK (Sadler et al., 2018)

-most adults retrospect that start in childhood/ adolescence -increase with age, and increase over time e.g. prevalence of 5-10 year olds in 2004, now increase in 2017 -2017 17-19 year olds, 13% prevalence, and2020 study suggest this now increased further

construct validity

-general measure using evidence from all the validity tests (content validity, criterion-related validity, concurrent validity etc) - not assessed by one successful prediction, but consists of the slow, costly, laborious process of gathering evidence from many experiments and observations on how the test is functioning STEPS: 1) experts rate face validity 2) check internal consistency of test 3) lab and field studies of scores from groups thought to differ on construct (e..g aggression in prison vs monastry) 4)check correlations with other tests of construct and those thought to be related. Factor anlayse the intercorrelations e.g. if testing aggression vs honesty, expect to see two options 5) ask participants how they did the test, and what they think it measured 6) check test doesn't correlate with other constructs (discriminant validity) e.g. making sure testing what think are e.g. of aggressiveness in school children: -construct is aggressiveness, linked to behaviours e.g. assaults other students, pushes to head of lines -identify other constructs (e.g. need for power) and how these potentially link to aggressiveness, or honesty (may be completely unrelated to aggressiveness) -identify the behaviours related to these other constructs -produce theoretical model with behaviours and expect relationship with aggression (direct or indirect or noe) and strength (e.g. strong positive, weak negative) -test actual correlations, adn those more in line with expected correlations show high level of construct validity - difficulty with if expect no correlation but get one: potentially wrong intiatial constructs and previous definitions? wrong theorised relations?

OVERVIEW of causes of SCZ symptoms (biological)

-genetics -brain abnormalities -biochemistry

Si Franci Galton (1822-1911) on intelligence

-genius as hereidtary and normally distributed in population -intellignece affects selection and competition for survival LIMITS: - based on looking at Cambridge math honour students, and difference in intellectual capacity reflected in the men (v. small circle of sample) HISTORIOMETRIC APPROACH (looking at individuals who were influential in past and why they were so): -in the Anthropometric Laboratory in London's Science Museum measuring basics IDs in cognitive processing, hearing, RT and physical features EXTREME TESTING and selective breeding: -'gentlemen based on talent character and bodily vigour' -young ladies of 'grace, beauty, health, good temper...'

Genetic (biological) cause of EDs

-heritable -7- to 12-fold increase in prevalence of AN or BN in relatives -multiple interacting genetic x envrionmental factors -genome wide association analysis (Watson et al., 2019) identified 8 significant loci and correlated with metabolism-related phenotypes in AN LIMIT: genetics not destiny: multiple factors along the developmental path can modify the effects and potency

environmental causal factors of SCZ:

-high stress, poor communication

Genetic (biological) cause of SCZ

-highly heritable (80%) -risk increases with relationship (10% for first degree relative or fraternal twin, 50% for identical twin) -genome wide association analysis identified (Ripke et al., 2013): 8300+ independent, mostly common SNPs contributing to risk of SCZ -many of gene variant identified involved in brain development ONSET triggered by bio x environment interaction

Environmental effects on IQ x 4

-historical trends e.g. historical hunters more spatial ability -video games (Bavellier)- improve e.g. hand-eye coordination, spatial and memory abilities -culture effects e.g. mathematical ability, (although spatial ability immune to cultural variance) -education: good evidence that linked to Gc/Gf (Raven's)

potential brain structure abnormalities in depression

-hyperactivation of amygdala? -reduced HC volume -abnormal activation of PFC (mixed evidence though for dlPFC, whether increased or reduced) -reduced volume subgenual ACC (sgACC)

PTSD risk factors- post-events

-immediate (peri-traumatic) and short term responses including dissociation, coping behaviours -secondary stressors -post-trauma response from others -support following the event (informational, emotional, practical) -help seeking -health or other on-going issues

Standardisation and issues

-implies uniformity of a procedure in administering and scoring a test -to compare score obtained by different people, testing conditions must be the same (uniform); standardization fo exact mateirals, time limits, oral preparation, preliminary demonstrations, handling queries, ALL details -crucial for valid, reliable and specific tests of ID BUT objectively uniform measures may still be subjective e.g. -response to reward -stress -sensory symptoms (e.g. autistic people can detect more subtle light flickering) -nerves -social anxiety -motivation -exptancy of results e.g. if prosopagnosics know will be rubbish at face recognition, so not take as much time on tasks as neurotypical perhaps METHOD for standardizing a test -administer a large, representative sample for type of people test designed for -norms then indicate means and SD -can then evaluate degrees of strengths and weakness e.g. of introversion, abilities etc BUT what is large enough? is used everyone wouldn't need stats? how know what way it needs to be representative?

response of peer bystanders to bullying matters: classroom level

-in classrooms where students reinforce the bully, rather than support the bullied classmates - bullying more frequent (Salmivalli & Poskiparta, 2011) -vulnerable children (e.g. socially anxious one) more likely end up as targets of bullying (Karna et al., 2010)

problem with using behavioural criteria to classify/ quantify psychological disorders (qualitative criteria) x 7

-increase in diagnosis over time probably not solely due to prevalence increase -may also be due to previous under-recognition -current overdiagnosis? -changes in conceptualization of the disorder -changes in social norms -inappropriate application of the diagnoses to youth with other illnesses -pharmaceutical company influence

impact of Eds

-increased mortality rate: (An and BN) increased risk of premature death and suicide, 1/5 with AN commit suicide, suicide attempts not differ between AN/BN/BED -associated with lower rates of employment and earnings (lower QOL)

IQ and longevity- Scottish Mental Survey and Aberdeen mortality (Whalley & Deary, 2001)

-inequalities with health and mortality exist among different SES groups (education, income, occupation), and IQ is associated with SES, so also with health and mortality? SCOTTISH MENTAL SURVEY (1931) - Scottish Council for Research in Education (SCRE) test Scottish population IQ -tested 87,000+ children born in 1921 and attending school in Scotland 1st June 1932 -used the Moray House Test: variety of different questions e.g. fill in addition, underlie correct end of sentence etc -continued follow up since 1997 Whalley & Deary (2001): 2792 children from Aberdeen, measured; - Childhood IQ at age 11 -survival up to 1st January 197, and if survived to age 76 RESULTS: -small difference but IQ at age 11 seem to determine whether alive at age 76 -difficulty as men death rate affected by WW2 -for women cn see difference between lowest ad highest IQ quarter and %alive at each age

WAIS test revision for sex differences (Lynn, 1994)

-intialy revisions of WAIS; males advantages of: 2.2 IQ points in adults, 1.7 IQ points children -reviewed large-scale studies and found reliable male advantage of 3 IQ (in adults, small in children) LIMITS: -one IQ test

General therapeutic competencies x 9

-knowledge and understanding of mental health problems -knowledge to operate within professional ethical guidelines -knowledge of model of therapy and operate within this -ability to engage client (build rapport) -ability to foster and maintain good therapeutic alliance, and grasp client's perspective/ world view -ability to manage emotional content of session -ability to manage endings -ability to undertake genral assessement (history and suitable intervention) -ability to make use of supervision

Happe, Cook, Bird (2017) on limits of empirical work on social intelligence x 3

-lack of non-social control -lack ecological validity -explicit vs implicit social cognition

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) - diagnosis, dimensional measure of severity (on BMI)

-less common than other EDs -when individual not consume enough caloric energy to maintain minimal healthy body weight -exhibits intense fear about weight gain and/or fatness despite being underweight -distorted perceptions related to weight and shape -two types: binge eating/ purging, and restricting type

Risk factors to PTSD- pre-disposing factors (Galea et al., 2005, Ozer et al., 2003)

-life event/ childhood trauma -psychiatric -social economic disadvantage -lower education -genetics -ethnicity -persoanlity

how can stigma be reduced for young people with psychological disorder (from young people themselves)

-like a physical illness -see the person not the illness -it's common (1/4) -people with mental illness can and do recover to lead rewarding and fulfilling lives -not dangerous or threatening -treat with respect (not need to behave differently) -'don't isolate us'

developmental psychopathology key concepts: probabilistic

-likelihood of poor adjustment may increase but NOT predetermined -other factors may intervene

course of EDs: Binge Eating Disorder (Fairburn et al., 2000; Fichter& Quadflieg, 2007)

-limited data -82% substatially improved or recovered, 4% continued to meet full BED crtieria (Fairburn et al., 2000) -cross over: 8.3 % met criteria for BN at follow up and 5% med EDNOS (Fichter & Quadflieg, 2007)

Age interaction and prevalence of types of anxiety disorders (Waite & Creswell, 2014)

-looked at 100+ referrals of children with anxiety disorder vs adolescence to clinics specialising in treating anxiety -SAD (Social) much more prevalent in adolescence than children (makes sense as much more self-conscious age); also for specific phobiea -GAD and Separation more in children than adolescence -Panic Disorder seem more adults and adolescents (no children) - maybe due to children get the sensations but reflect on the as potentially harmful

Spearman's g and latent factor approach to intelligence (1904)

-looked at IDs in basic information processing (olfactory, visual-sensory) -used academic performance to establish criterion validity (using schools boys sample) -found a general intelligence (g)underlie performance across different tests, from factor analysis -conceived as 'mental energy; EVIDENCE: -undoubtedly a g factor, explains ~50% variance in any comprehensive, diverse battery of tests (explains a lot) LIMITS: -statistical artefact? as FA depends on what put in -two factors (Gf and Gc)? -seven factors? *Thurstone) -hierarchical factors? -still a lot of unexplained variance ** maybe number of factors depends on complexity of explanation

Stages of factor analysis and main issue

-measure variables e.g. personality questions -calculate correlation matrix to see level of intercorrelation (lumps of covariation) between variables -decide on factor extraction method (normally principle components- identifying factors) to account for as most variance possible with each factor -decide on rotation method (usually varimax) to help interpret what factors are e.g. when very varied factor loadings -decide on number of factors to explain patter (trade off with complexity and explanation of variance) -interpret factors (look at factor loadings) -give factor names e.g. extroversion, introversion ISSUE: -huge level of subjectivity at each stage

EI and life outcomes (sumary)

-mixed evidence whether predict academic success - consistent but poor literature that seem predict success at work --consistentt association with mental health (+.3) and some with physical health (.22), but ,ay be mediated by neuroticism -higher EI=greater social ability (childhood relationships)? -potential positive correlation with relationships quality -EI seems to predict aggression

Criteria for EI test (x 4) -MSCEIT

-must be ability not personality test -must improve with age (Binet's original criterion) -EI tests must correlate with each other, but not because they correlate with g/ general intelligence -also made them tonnes of money

complex PTSD response to Trauma

-not in DSM-5 but in ICD-II -co-occurrence with borderline of antisocial personality disorder; show behavioural, emotional and cognitive difficulties

factor loadings

-numerical contribution each factor makes to each variables in the inter-correlation matrix -can be thought of as correlations between the variables and factors -shows the representativeness of an item

observer effects as error variance

-objective tests should be given same score for given test paper -however, non-objective tests are often fairly subjective, so wise to have two independent scorers -correlation between scorers givens index of agreement (INter-scorer or INter-rater Reliability) - helps see e.g. which rankings are better/ more consistent

problematic psychometrics of social intelligence x 4 (and two summary points)

-objectively testable? what is right/ wrong? -predict UNIQUE variance e..g predict life success more than IQ? -different from personality? -different from cognitive ability/ IQ? 1930 show close link between! overall -HOW MEASURE IT? -What's the structure (including of intelligence in general)?

cognitive behaviour account of OCD

-obsessional thinking originate from normal intrusive thoughts -difference in occurrence or (un)controllability of intrusions due to INTERPRETATION of intrusions -appraisal is focused on HARM or DANGER -occurrence of thoughts interpreted as personally meaningful and threatening -lead to inflated responsibility: obsessional individual believes may be RESPONSIBLE for harm if they don't act to prevent it

DSM-5 criteria for OCD (intensity and duration)

-obsessions AND/OR compulsions caused marked distress, are time-consuming (>1hr/ day) -obsessions AND/OR compulsions significantly interfere with the person's normal routine, occupational functions or usual social activities or relationships (NB avoidance)

Normal stress response to trauma

-often about 4-6 weeks after trauma -bad memories, emotional numbing, feelings of unreality, being cut off from relationships, distress

Cross cultural mental health treatment (following trauma)

-often embodied physically -polarised treatment -common health problems (depression, anxiety) often local healers -severe mental health problems may lead to expulsion from community, enforced confinement, severe treatment (WHO- they're vulnerable, stigma) -higher rates of mortality (self-neglect or violence

social capital and social comparison: living alongside affluent neighbours (Odgers et al., 2015)

-participants from E-RISK study (1600+ children) -high resolution geospatial mapping to code SES disadvantage -also gained information on antisocial behaviour of children age 5 to 12 (teacher and parent) RESULTS: - living alongside more affluent neighbours predict greater involvement in antisocial behaviour among low-income boys (not girls) i..e economically mixed/ wide-range SES types communities suggest detriment -held across childhood (multiple level assessments) and when controlled for key neighbourhood factors (e.g. family level factors) CONCLUSION: -complexity in SES inequalities and development

serotonin hypothesis of depression: starting with phenotype (Major Depressive Disorder/ Bipolar Disorder or healthy) (Collier et al., 1996)

-patients had higher frequency of s-allelle

inter- and intra-individual differences in intelligence

-people differ between one another in scores on intelligence tests -people also differ within themselves in performance on different intelligence tests e.g. most have one aspect they see as weak (maths, spatial, vocab ability) - within people people differences much smaller than between people differences -although, scores on different tests seem to positively correlate which each other

Panic Disorder characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

-persistent (repeated) unexpected panic attacks -abrupt surge/ peak within minute of 4+ symptoms: physical (sweat, shake), fear lose control/ die -must lead to change in behaviour e.g. to prevent future attacks/ consequences of them, to avoid them -4 months

Treatments of SCZ

-pharmacological approach (antipsychotic drugs) - less effective especially on cognitive symptoms psychological and vocational interventions: CBT (cost effective especially if drug resistant), supported education/ employment, skills training, peer/family support -with a combination, remission ~80% especially if initiated early

Difference in reocvery of PTSD- by traumatic exposure (Kessler, 2017)

-physical violence and intimate partner or sexual assault normall take the longers -war related often remain high for first five years, then drop lower than above two -unexpected death/ other traumas of loved ones quicker recovery

OVERVIEW environmental causes of SCZ

-prenatal -social -family -drug use (especially cannabis seem to exaggerate symptoms, and impair cognition)

Appetitive regulation (biological) cause of EDs

-primary disturbance of appetite regulation within taste- and reward- processing regions of brain -ANTERIOR INSULA plays a critical role: e.g. inapproprate activation to hunger in this region could contribute to ability of AN to restrict food intake e.g. dysregulation of appetitive signals in this region may result in the extremes of restriction and eating of BN altered/ abnormal activation of ORSAL AND VENTRAL STRIATUM, ACC, OFC contribute to disturbances of feeding behaviours and appetite regulation DA AND 5HT RECEPTORS binding altered in ED

developmental psychopathology key concepts: x 4

-probabilistic -typical-atypical continuum -risk factors -protective factors

role of dieting on EDs (contradictory)

-prospective studies: increase risk for onset of bulimic pathology -randomized experiment: weigh loss and weight maintenance diets reduce ED symptoms

benefits for universal prevention approach to mental health

-provide opportunities to reach all individuals with limited access to treatment -people not miss out because of inadequate screening tools -low dropout rates and might be way to avoid stigma with participating in selected or targeted intevention

developmental psychopathology key concepts: typical-atypical continuum

-psychopathology can be normal development (Trajectory) gone awry -not a disease process, but DEVIATION from healthy development

puerperal psychosis (DSM)

-psychotic symptoms within 2 weeks of childbirth -more closely linked to manic-depressive disorder than SCZ -symptoms of mania and confusion

OVERVIEW psychological causes of SCZ

-reasoning/ attributional biases -ToM deficit

Family therapy for EDs

-recommended when adolescent has ED -family part of recovery process 3 phases: 1) weight restoration (parents given control) 2) healthy weight phase: adolescent control of eating 3) overview of developmental issues and discussion of alternative coping mechanisms 2 PRO: success with AN LIMIT: not enough evidence fro BN

DSM-5 definition of obsession (part of OCD)

-recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges and images that experienced as intrusive or inappropriate, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety and distress -person attempts to ignore or suppress thoughts and/urges/ images or to neutralise them with some other action or thought

HC volume in depressed patients and potential mechanism

-reduced volume only if depressed for >2yrs (McKinnon et al., 2009)- although this is debated, as others find in high risk and first episode of depression MECHANISMS? - neuronal loss through chronic hypercortisolaemia i.e. high resting states/ level of cortisol (hormone important in stress response system), also supported by high number glucocorticoid receptors in HC -impaired neurogenesis MAY be restored with successful anti-depressant medication (although debated)

role of developmental and family factors in treatment of developmental psychopathology

-referral for treatment -continuation of therapy -nature of therapy -role of family interactions

reliability

-relative freedom from unsystematic errors of measurement -reliable if it produces consistent measures under varying conditions that can produce measurement errors *there is difficulty in distinguishing variability of measurement vs variability o what is measured (effects of mood, concentration, aggressiveness etc) how to improve: 1) design better instruments/ select better items 2) select items of moderate difficult (p around.5, corrected for guessing) 3) increase length of test (but weigh against boredom/ fatigue, which may vary per group) 4) test in more homogenous group (BUT watch not look like fix group results to be reliable) TYPES of tests: split half/Cronbach's Alpha: one form required and on testing session alternate form: two forms of test required in one testing session test-retest: one form of test but in two testing sessions alternate form(delayed): two forms of test on two different occassions parallel form inter-rater

DSM-5 criteria for compulsions (part of OCD)

-repetitive behaviours (e.g. washing hands) or mental (unobservable) acts (e.g. praying) that the person feels drive to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly- neutralising the thoughts

Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED)

-replaced DSM-IV EDNOS (Eating disorder not otherwise specified) -most common ED -two specified forms: (PD) purging disorder, (NES) night eating syndrome -reserved for individuals deemed to have clinically sig. (i.e. distressing or impairing) eating or feeding disorder but not meet full criteria of AN, BN, BED, or any of the feeding disorders

6 x psychosocial factors causing EDs

-role of emotions -role of mood -personality traits (impulsivity, perfectionism) -body image disturbance/ disatisfaction -role of dieting -cultural factors (on normative and pathological body image and eating behvaiours)

Memory Process as maintenance mechanism (Mansell and Clark, 1999)

-selective memory towards that which confirm fears e.g. of negative memories of when last judged -impair ability to overcome.

7 types of anxiety disorders (DSM-5)

-separation anxiety disorders -selective mutism -social anxiety disorder -panic disorder -agoraphobia -generalised anxiety disorder (GAP)

Different levels of explanations of psychological disorders

-social psychological e.g. role of family -cognitive psychology e.g. CBT -development psychology -genetics (latent vulnerability) -evolutionary biology- e.g. why experience difficulties -neurobiology. neurochemistry e.g. pattern of firing and comparing individuals

Categories of depressive symptoms x 3

-somatic e.g. head aches, appetite change -behavioural: e.g. irritability, aggression, loss of interest -developmental/functioning: e.g. concentration ability

Cattell (1943) Personality FA

-sorted 160 clusters based on semantic relatedness (synonyms and antonyms), based on personal judgement. -added a few words form psychology literature, to reach 171 -got a group of 100 to rate someone they knew based on attributes, to test correlations, and ended with 60 clusters -decided 25 clusters not supported by literature, so ended up with 35 -FA then concluded with 12 factors initially, and then later studies found 16 (used today) LIMIT: - very subjective -later couldn't replicate the 16 -16 too many for a useful theory (subjective statement?) SELF NOTE: - why literature not support those subjectively chosen? -

communality of a variable (h^2)

-sum of the squares of the factor loadings for that variable, so anywhere in range from 0 -1 if h^2= 0, then this indicates the varuable has nothing in common with the factors that have been extracted -it is the amount of variance in that variable accounted for by the number of factors extracted VS -the sum of square loadings for each of the FACTORS shows us the variance of the the intercorrelation matrix, accounted for by the extracted factors

dimensional approach to classifying psychological disorders

-symptoms vary on a CONTINUUM of severity -differences are QUANTITIVE e.g. low mood (depression), mood swings (bipolar), neuroticism (anxiety), impulsivity (ADHD), dieting (AN), social awkwardness (ASD), checking (OCD), hallucinations (SCZ) IMPLICATIONS: -control vs diagnostic group in psych. experiments OWN EVALUATION: can we have some as dimensional some as categorical?

confirmatory factor analysis and USE

-test goodness of fit of a data set -using pre-specified model of factors, use new population and see if their data also best explained by one/ factors -success being a non-significant goodness of fit for new population, with null hypothesis being that there is no differences USE: test applicability e.g. of theory of intelligence/ personality to new population/ group (culture, age, gender, political grouping) and also test reliability (and historical trends)

Pickett & WIlkinson (2018) universal link of income inequality to percentage with any mental illness

-the higher the income inequality, associated with increased rates of mental illness -higher income inequality (marker of SES disadvantage, low education, unemployment, deprivation, low levels social capital

Maintenance Mechanisms: what they are and list of them (Clark, 1999)

-they help us understand the lack of self-correction, why they persist in people EXAMPLES: - focus of attention -nature of threat representations -emotional responses -spontaneous imagery -memory processes -safety seeking behaviours

When does obsession become OCD

-thought hat continuously intrude/ occupy mine i.e. more than 1 hour a day and cause functional impairments -impairments may be in different domains e.g. school, social relationships

limits to intelligence tests

-traiditional notion of intelligence not sufficiently comprehenive -too mathematical or verbal based -intelligence more than just IQ e.g. multiple intelligences

IAPT (Improving Access to Psychological Therapies)

-trained over 10,500 new psychologists therapists -treats 560,000 patients per year -obtain clinical output data on 98.5% patients (regular supervision, and outcome based) -~50% treated in IAPT services recover -based on shared patient/ therapist goals and transparency of data -provide evidence based psychological therapies

sgACC and response to MDD treatment (and other disorders) (Ressler & Mayberg, 2007)

-transient sadness in healthy controls increases sgACC activation -fluoxetine treatment for Parkinson's related MDD decreases sgACC activation -MDD patients with lower sgACC activation more likely to respond to CBT treatment -fluoxetine treatment for MDD decreases sgACC activation BUT placebo treatment for MDD also decrease sgACC activation -social phobia patients who respond to CBT? SSRI show reduced sgACC activity compared to non-respondersw depression severity correlates positively with sgACC activity (Osuch et al., 2000)

how test genetic contribution to intelligence

-twin studies -family studies -adoption studies -genome wide association studies (GWAS)

Conduct Disorder (CD) character

-typically childhood and adolescent disorder (prior to adulthood) -characterised by behaviour that VIOLATES either the rights of others of major societal norms -symptoms must cause significant impairment in social, academic or occupational functioning

techniques used in CBT x 8 (depression)

-understanding links between thoughts, feelings and behaviours -thought records: to identify NATs -challenging negative automatic thoughts (NATs) e.g. evidence to support accuracy o f thoughts -find alternative thoughts for unhelpful thinking habits -activity monitoring behaviours and mood: track emotions and activities -schedule activities give a sense of closeness to others, achievement, joy -problem solving -breathing and relaxation techniques (especially with co-morbiditiy)

Different ideas of PTSD difference across cultuess

-universal (Van der Kolk, 1994; Fernandez, 2010) -Western cultures only (Bracken, Giller, Summerfield, 1995): as Western concept, so not include indigenous knowledge/ capacities/ priorities, and objectifies sffering so deal with Western talk therapies Culturally determined expression of depression (somatic not psychological) - Summerfield (2001)

Meta-analysis of MAOA x early life adversities on aggressive and antisocial behaviour (Byrd & Manuck, 2014)

-unlike 5-HTTLPR more evidence that Gene x environment interaction effects replicate -lower activity MAOA mainly associated with more likely aggressive/ antisocial behaviour than just environment alone

explanations for sex differences in IQ

-unlikely one explanation for males high variability (more males than females at both extremes) AND for mlaes better at spatial reasoning and females better on verbal and processing speeds -unlikely test bias: females HUGELY outperform males on school exams (everywhere but Oxford) but differences due to personality e.g. self-discipline (Duckworth and Sligmann, 2006) -biological? -environmental e.g. spatial range due to historically being hunters (historical trends) -hormonal e.g. testosterone improves spatial ability?

(Duckworth and Sligmann, 2006) sex differences in IQ

-unlikely test bias: females HUGELY outperform males on school exams (everywhere but Oxford) but differences due to personality e.g. self-discipline (

Course of EDs: Anorexia Nervosa (AN) - Steinhausen (2002), Ficter & Quadflieg (2007)

-variable course and outcome -~50% patients achieve full recovery, 30% symptomatic with improvement, 20% remain chronically ill (Steinhausen, 2002) 0some 'improved' individuals develop BN or cross over to a diagnosis of EDNOS (Fichter & Quadflieg, 2007) -worst prognosis: individuals with older age diagnosis and longer delay between onset and treatment (Steinhausen, 2002)

why variance across social intelligence studies? x 2

-variance in aptitude tested e.g. face recognition, emotion recognition, Theory of Mind, social motivation etc -variance in method: self-report vs objective tests

Weschler (!975) on intelligence tests

-what measure with intelligence tests is not what they measure, they are a means to end -what aim to measure, is the capacity of an individual to understand the world about them and thei resourcefulness to cope with tis challenges

Binge Eating Disorder Diagnosis

-when an individual epxeriences binge eating minimum once per week for 3 months, on average -episodes must be associated with at least three of the following: 1) eating abnormally fast 2) to point of uncomfortably full 3) eating large amounts when not experiencing physical hunger 4) embarrassed by amount consumed and subsequently feeling need to eat alone, and feeling guilty, disgused with oneself, or depressed after -behaviour causes sig. distress -must NOT regularly use inappropriate compensatory behaviours

High risk groups of PTSD

-women -younger people -older people -socially isolated -ethnic minorities -refugee and asylum seekers -urban populations appear higher risk

Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

-worry about social situations due to concerns about possible scrutiny of others e.g. eating in front of others, public speaking -worry of rejection or offending others (about negative evaluation) -either avoid, or endure but with high levels of distress that interfere with functioning -up to 6 months

prevalence of OCD (Torres et al., 2006; Weismann et al., 1994)

0.5-3.5% lifetime prevalence 1.44:1 women: men although age dependent (early onset more common in males) consistent prevalence across cultures, although predominant content may vary

cognitive model of positive symptoms of psychosis (Garety et al., 2001)

1) (early) bio-psycho-social vulnerability 2) triggers 3) triggers leads to (a) emotional change, and (b) basic cognitive dysfunction/ Anomalous experience (some interaction between (a) and (b) also ) 4) cyclic reaction for both of (3) to impact appraisal of experience as external -appraisal influenced by : reasoning and attributional biases, dysfunctional schemas of self and world, isolation and adverse environments 5) appraisals lead to positive symptoms of psychosis 6) retained by maintaining factors: -reasoning and attributions -dysfunctional schemas -emotional processes -appraisal of psychosis PHONE

what accuracy we want from structured interviews for mental disorder diagnosis (reliability x 3; validity x 2)

1) DIAGNOSTIC RELIABILITY is agreement: a) inter-rater reliability: across interviewers within time b) test-retest reliability: across time within respondents c) internal consistency: across items within interviews (e.g. alpha-coefficients) 2) DIAGNOSTIC VALIDITY: accuracy in characterise entity measuring - construct validity: correlate with related theoretical constructs -criterion validity: correlate with measures of same construct

history of Schizophrenia

1) psychotic disorder 'dementia praecox' ('premature dimentia' as occurred in young and had poor outcome) - 1886 2) Kraepelin: assumed degenerative condition due to gross defect in cognitive processes (attention memory) caused by underlying neuropathology 3)Beuler (1911) coined 'schizophrenia' - split-mind

approaches to sequencing DNA

1) shotgun phase: hierarchical shotgun sequencing used to produce draft sequence of 90% genome 2) finishing phase: fill in gaps and resolve ambiguities, fragments must be sequence~10x to reach accuracy of > 99% (real triumph for technology: 1981: sequencing 12,000 bp took ~1 year, in 2001 took <1min)

Bream, Challacombe, Palmer & Salkovski (2017) diagram of Cognitive Behaviour Theory of OCD

1) EARLY EXPERIENCE: predisposing/ vulnerability factors e.g. had o look after grandma, too much responsibility and little confidence 2) ASSUMPTIONS: beliefs about self/other/world responsibility/harm e.g. the world is dangerous, but I can prevent harm (when leaving house) -fed into be CRITICAL (PRECIPITATING) INCIDENT/S e.g. moved house for first time 3)INTRUSIONS: thoughts, images, impulses, doubts (from cycle) e.g. gas on -->ATTENTION AND INFORMATION BIASES: looking for trouble e.g. I've had thoughts about it so it could happen --> SAFETY SEEKING BEHAVIOURS: neutralising, checking, rituals, reassurance, thouhgt, suppressions, impossible criteria, avoidance, (COMPULSION) e.g. repeat check until feel safe, take pictures ---> MOOD CHANGE distress, anxiety, depression e.g. upset, panicked ---> INTRUSIONS STRATEGIES (increase doubt, lower confidence thought): leave house early, not be last out of house) 4)MEANING OF INTRUSION (form cycle with each of (3)) -e.g. serious risk of harm, inflated sense of responsibility for preventing harm (probability x awfulness) / (coping + rescue) e.g. gas will be left on and I will cause explosion which would kill lots- the guilt would be unbearable ** model an be generalised across disorders

development of attempts to measure social intelligence (list)

1) GWIST (Hunt, 1928) - multiple tests 2) Guildford & Hoepner (1971) - matching/ selecting faces e.g. with emotions 3) Rosenthal (1979) PONS- identify emotion form clips 4) Sternberg & Smith (1985)- supervisor vs supervisee, friends vs strangers STILL nowhhere near include all processes involved in social intelligence

Type of change (personality)

1) MEAN LEVEL CHANGE: mean level changes of a group of individuals (group decrease or increase), although relative position in group may stay same 2) RANK-ORDER STABILITY -relative placement of individuals within group could change (but could maintain same mean) - INTERPERSONAL CHANGE: intelligence could change between people, i.e. rank

ASSESSMENT instruments of BIG FIVE

1) NEO-Pi-R: 240 items, 8 facets 2) NEO-FFI: 60 items, 12 BIG FIVE factors, no facets 3) self-report likert-type NEO most common (popular), and well0used

Levels of cognitive explanations for psych. disorders x 3 (type, explanation and example)

1) Negative Automatic thoughts (NATs): automatic thoughts about specific events/ situations e.g. 'I am a stupid idiot' 2) dysfunctional assumptions: rules for living to overcome core beliefs (if... then) e.g. 'I must be perfect or people will reject me' 3) core beliefs: fundamental beliefs about self, others, world e.g. 'I am weak'

Clark & Salkovskis (2009) example of behaviour experiment report sheet: panic disorder

1) SITUATION: shopping 2) PREDICTIONS (what think would happen and how know): most think that if start to panic, and faint/ collapse (95% sure) 3)EXPERIMENT (what did you do to test the prediction- drop safety behaviours!): remind self that dizziness due to blood pressure up, don't do anything e.g. don't hold onto trolley but move away from it 5) OUTCOME (what happened? was your prediction correct?): got anxious, but didn't try to escape, and not collapse 6) WHAT LEARNED (how likely repeat in future? how further test original prediction?): maybe therapy right, that dizziness not mean collapse, original prediction only 20% sure, could further test by return to supermarket

positive symptoms of schizophrenia x 3

1) delusions (FB held with great conviction e.g. paranoia) 2) hallucinations - sensory anomalies i.e. perceiving things not there, misperceiving what is there- often auditory (voices) but can affect any sensory modality 3) thoughts disorder: 'persistent underlying disturbance of conscious thought' e.g. flight of ideas, block, withdrawal, broadcast, thought insertion

5 x factors for explaining depression

1) demographic: low SES, female, unemployment, single/ divorced 2) social: childhood adversity, daily stressors, stressful life events, social relationships 3) psychological: information processing biases, distorted cognitions, personality/ temperament (?) 4) biological: Monoamine transporters (5HT), HPA axism 'emotional' neural circuitry 5) genetic factors: family historic, specific genes

Steps in the general sceintific process and issues of intelligence

1) form question 2) define terms 3) operationalise variables (e.g. what they are, how to test) 4) formulate hypothesis 5) Collect Data 6) Test hypothesis 7) make inferences/ answer questions intellignece stuck at (2)

lifeline of potential relevance of polygenic risk scores (PRS) through disease trajectory (Lewis & Vassos, 2017)

1) from birth: risk prediction 2) early sympotms, prodromal phase 3) to support diagnosis 4) treatment decision-making 5) prognosis: prediction of disease course and outcome (e.g. longevity, outcomes, recurrences

Impact of Schizophrenia

1) high rates of diability: 20% of US Social Security benefits used to care for individuals with SCZ 2) low employment rates (Bouwmans et al., 2015) -12.9% un UK (71% of general population rate) -11.5% in France (62.2 general) -30.2 % in Germany (65.4% of general) 3)25-50% will attempt suicide (at least 10% succeed) - most common in early phases

BASIC CBT competences x 5

1) knowledge of basic principles of CBT and rationale for treatment 2) knowledge of common cognitive biases relevant to CBT 3)knowledge of the role of safety seeking behaviours 4) ability to explain and demonstrate rationale for CBT to client 5) ability to agree goals for the intervention

MSCEIT defence x 4 (and rebuttals) (Mayer et al., 2008)

1) measures 4 branch model (but NOT others-how know which correct?) 2) ability test is necessary as self-report, BUT MSCEIT only correlate .19, even when self-report designed to test 4-branch (validity) 3)there's a number of intelligences, not just g (arguable) 4) predictive validity (because of g? personality? self-esteem?) LIMIT: -what considered accurate? and if think self-other same? -correlate with Big 5 openness to experience

Reactions to trauma x 5

1) normal stress response 2) acute stress disorder 3)uncomplicated PTSD 4) comorbid PSTD 5) Complex PTSD

Rachman (1971) theory of OCD (huge implications on treat,emt

1) obsessional thoughts have, through conditioning, become associated with anxiety that failed to extinguish 2) escape and avoidance behaviours (e.g. obsessional checking and washing) develop to reduce anxiety but do not distinguish it LIMIT: not all experience painful events prior

problem specific CBT competencies examples

1) specific phobias 2) social phobia: Heimberg model and Clark model 3) panic disorder: Clark model and Barlow model

Key characteristics of CBT

1) therapist engage with person before the problem: treatment always begins with psychoeducation and collaborative development of the model (formulation) 2) agree on main target problem/s 3) specific assessment learning to: - formulate and shared understanding (e.g. map out how the CBT will work) -use formulation as alternative, less threatening account of person's problems (and test out- - discuss techniques intended to help person understand how alternative explanation works - BEHAVIOUR (exposure) EXPERIMENTS (heavily based on behvaioural experiments) intend to gather new information, and help patient choose change

three broad approaches to prevent mental health

1) universal prevention 2) selective prevention 3) indicated prevention

Possible ways to determine psychological disorders vs everyday experiences

1) violating social norms? 2) violating statistical norms? 3) personal distress? 4) Impairing patterns of behaviour? they all capture some aspect of psychological disorders but are insufficient alone

Dot perspective task (Samson et al., 2010)

1)1250ms to target + 2)1250ms 'YOU' = answer the question from your (the Ps) perspective 3) 750 ms '1'- number cue (0-3) 4) Ps see avatar in room, with certain number of dots on wall TRIAL TYPES: - consistent: both avatar and Ps see same number dots - inconsistent: e.g. Ps see 2 dots, but avatar only see 1 dot RESULTS: -consistency effects: consistency trail significantly faster reaction time than RT inconsistent trials CONLCUSION: -implicit mentalising system: automatic representation of avatar's mental state LIMIT: - no non-social control

Research on Social intelligence timeline

1920: social intelligence and THORNDIKE: act wisely in interpersonal relations 1983: multiple intelligences and GARDNER: e.g. social, bodily, spiritual, musical skills 1985: Triarchic Theory intelligences and STERNBERG: doing well in every day life, being streetwise 1990: emotional intelligence and SALOVEY & MAYER GOLEMAN- identify and manage emotions in self and others

CBT competences framework for depression and anxiety disorders in adults

2 main sections: --generic therapeutic competencies - ability to implement CBT using a collaborative apporach (all the below) photo on phone/ one drive: -mainly focused on basic CBT competences and problem specific competencies other sections: ability to structure sessions -guided discovery and Socratic questioning -metacompencies

DSM-V on Schizophrenia

2 or more for most of 1 month: -hallucinations -delusions -disorganised speech -grossly abnormal psychomotor behaviour including catatonia (lack of movement/ communication) -negative symptoms ALSO -significant social/ occupational dysfunction -continuous disturbance for 6 months -not due to other disorders e.g. schizoaffective, mood, substance abuse, medical condition -if developmental disorder also present, only SCZ if delusions + hallucinations present for at least 1 month

common challenge of psychological disorders: risk factors not disorder-specific - proposed structure for genetic risk factors (Kendler et al., 2003)

2 x common factors proposed to underlie comorbidity: internalising vs externalising INTERNALISING: -strong relationship with anxious/ misery, and Fear -anxious/ misery strongly relate to MDD, GAD, and weaker relation with panic disorder -Fear strongly related to situational and animal phobia, and weaker relation to panic disorder EXTERNALISING - strong relationship with alcohol dependence, other drug abuse/ dependence, adult antisocial behaviour, CD -alcohol and other drug dependence as disorder specific factors

prevalence of depression (WHO)

2017: 350 million globally are suffering from depression 2014: single most burdensome disease in the world -women 2 x likely to be diagnosed than men -RELAPSE AND RECURRENCE: 50-60% those with major depression will go on to have further episodes

amygdala, depression and emotion processing (Suslow et al., 2010)

30 acutely depressed and 26 healthy controls -emotional and neutral faces presented for 33ms (not consciously aware) and masked by neutral faces of same individual RESULTS: -detection performance at chance, indicating neurobiological reactions in absence of conscious awareness -robust emotion by group interaction in RIGHT amygdala -healthy patients stronger responses to happy faces, depressed showed opposite -amygdala response to happy facial expressions also negatively correlated with current depression severity CONCLUSION: -strong evidence amygdala responds to different faces

prevalence of PTSD in populations with high trauma exposure (political prisoners; De Jong, Komproe et al., 2001)

30% among political prisoners in Gaza

Anti-depressants x 5 main types

30+ different antidepressants falling into 5 main types -MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors) -tricyclics -SSRIs (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) -SNRIs (serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors) -NASSAs (noradrenaline and specific serotonergic antidepressants) ALL influence brain in some way, and work quite well

Meta-analysis: do SSRIs work? (Kirsch et al., 2008)

35 trials: -SSRIs have a statistically (e.g. significant reduction in symptoms), and clinically (meaningfully different and detectable) significant difference

Ability EI - 4 branch model (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)

4 branches: 1) perceiving emotions: detect and decipher emotions from videos, faces, pictures, voices, cultural artefacts, including OWN emotions 2) using emotions: harness them to facilitate various cognitive tasks e.g. problem solving, and capitalizes on changing moods to best fit environment 3) understanding emotions: comprehend emotional language and appreciate complicated relationships among emotions e.g. reocgnize how emotions evolve over time e.g. lose potency or likely emotion transitions, mixed emotions e.g. if both happy and sad, 4) managing emotions: regulate emotions in self and other' harness and manage emotions to achieve goals e.g. pick self up when upset EVALUATION: -blurs distinction with social intelligence- always seems to be overlap, just depend on definition?

Hofmann & Smith, 2008) Meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials on CBT

41 studies on anxiety and related disorders (PTSD, SAD, Panic disorder, OCD, Acute stress disorder, GAD) - limited studies for GAD (2 studies) randomized placebo-control (gold standard designe for comparing methods): -most studies compared CBT to psychological placebo (most common =supportive counselling) -most used both formal therapist-guided exposure and cognitive techniques (n=24), but some consisted of primarily exposure techniques (n=10) or primarily cognitive strategies (n=7) -34 examined individual CBT -7 studies group CBT -mean treatment was 11 sessions RESULTS: - CBT moderately efficacious for anxiety disorder compared to placebo -moderate effect on target disorder symptoms -small to moderate effect on other anxiety symptoms -small to moderate effect size on: PTSD, SAD and stress disorder -large effect sizes: OCD, GAD, acute stress disorders IMPLICATIONS: - huge variability, room for improvement

prevalence of PTSD in populations with high trauma exposure: UToya, Norway

47% PTSD

Most prevalent events leading to PTSD (Kessler et al., 1995)

5.877 aged 15-54 -Stressor (criterion A of traumatic event)- men 60.7% vs women 51.2% most prevalent event for men: - witness someone injured or killed (36%) -life threatening accident (25%) -threatened weapon (19%) most prevalent for women: - in natural disaster / fire (15% -witness someone being injured/ killed (14%) -accident (14%) lifetime prevalence (7.8%) - 5% in men, 10.5% in women

Range of onset for common psychiatric disorders (impulse-control disorders, substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, SCZ) - National Comorbidity Replication Study

50,000+ and nationally representative phobias and separation anxiety early ~ 75-7 yrs old -substance use and mood disorders, a bit later, rarely before early teens, around puberty (especially GAD and PTSD) -most begin in childhood/ adolescence though -SCZ typically later in adolescence early 20s (men often earlier)

indicated prevention approach to mental health: OVK 2.0 example (de Jonge-Heesen, KWJ et al., 2020)

5222 adolescents screened for elevated depressive symptoms in second grade of secondary school 130 high-risk adolescents (based on their scores) between 12 and 16 yr olds randomly assigned to experimental (OVK 2.0) and control condition (psycho-education) self- and parent- reported depressive symptoms assessed at pre- and post-intervention and 6- and 12-month follow up -clinical assessment of depression assessed at pretest and 6-month follw up OVK 2.0: 'full force' of 8 x weekly, 1 hr lessons in groups of 3-8 adolescents -CBT techniques aiming to teach identification of thoughts and emotions, and how activating events, thoughts, emotions and behaviours are related RESULTS: -experimental groups had significant reduction of depressive symptoms over time -38% of experiment (vs 12% control) improved from baseline to 12 month follow up =2.1% (vs 8.3% control) go WORSE -60% unchanged (vs 80% control) CONCLUSION: -seem effective, but still majority not benefit

Extroversion as psychological consequence of arousal (Bates and Rock, 2004)

56 students of extraverts, introverts, and ambiverts - intelligence test performance (Raven's- fluid intelligence test) - 5 conditions of auditory distraction: 1) silence (low arousal) 2) white noise (medium arousal) 3) domestic conversation (medium) 4( excerpts from action movies (high arousal) 5) excerpts from horror movies (high) Results: -introverts best in silence, and much worse than extraverts and ambiverts in high arousal -extravert improve with increasing auditory stimulation -ambiverts most stable across conditions

behavioural depressive symptoms throughout different stages in life

6-12 YEARS: irritability, boredom, apathy, fatigue, decreased enjoymet (observed or self-reported, although less obvious in infants ADOLESCENTS: -irritability, apathy, boredom, social isolation, increased sexual activity, aggression, self-injurious behaviours ADULTS: social isolations, decreased motivation, apathy, self-neglect, self-injurious behaviours, loss of interest in hobbies/ activities, suicide

Somatic depressive symptoms throughout different stages in life

6-12 YEARS: headaches, tummy aches, sleep and appetite change ADOLESCENTS: same ADULTS: bodily aches and pains, leep and appetite changes

developmental/ functioning depressive symptoms throughout different stages in life

6-12 years: -decreased ability to concentrate at school ADOLESCENTS: decreased ability to concentrate at school decreased academic performance, reduced pleasurable activities ADULTS: 1) occupational functioning: e.g. performance, discrimination and unemployment 2) social functioning: e.g. stigmatisation, poor social skills, poor interpersonal relationships 3) physical health: fatigue, cardiovascular problems, suicide 4) finance: burden on society

deep brain stimulation of sgACC for treatment resistant depression (Mayberg et al., 2005)

6Ps with severe treatment resistant depression, electrode placed in sgACC RESULT: -1month: 2/6 responded (50% drop in depression score) -2 months: 5/6 responded -3months: 4/6 responded of whom were in (near) remission): depression score <8) -BEFORE DBS: increased sgACC compared to controls -AFTER DBS: decreases in sgACC in treatment responders -ALSO CHANGES in DL-and VL PFC (anticipate the interaction regions for depression also affected) -maintained 6 month later CONCLUSION: -almost immediate improvement! -all report acute effects e.g. suddent calmness, disappearance of voice, sense of heightened awareness, increase interest and connectedness, sudden brightness of room, increased motor speed, and spontaneous speech, and effective rating scores coincide with these spontaneous statements EVALUATION: -bias as pre- and post-treatment comparison (not with controls)

Roberts and colleagues (2006) meta-anlaysis, personality MEAN LEVEL change

92 longitudinal, using the Big Five -tested from adolescence (10-18 yrs) into old age (70+) RESULTS: -mean level do change well-beyond 30 yrs, into old age -mean-level changes most extreme in young adulthood (20 - 4o yrs), more than in adolescence -most notable changes in Extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism SPECIFIC PATTERNS: - extraversion: social vitality not change much, vs social dominance DOES have greater d-value with age -emotional stability d -value increae over time, openness increase then drop (d value) CONCLUSION: - personality if dynamic (develops with age) and plastic (predicts across time) , not just plastic-like COMMENT (self) - interesting especially with last lecture on adolescence

Cognitive Principles: A-B-C conceptualisation

A--> B--> C A= activating situation or event (internal or external) B= Belief: thoughts (automatic), beliefs (deeper), interpretations (about self, world, others) C= consequences: Affect/ emotion, Behaviour (action/ urge -variation in meaning explains why people react differently to similar events -different cognitions give rise to different emotions (e.g. disorted beliefs around certain topic. event leads to disorder specific impairing beliefs) -persistence of these fears can then often be irrational e.g. panic disorders: heart beat misinterpreted as heart attack

Criticisms of categorical approach to classifying abnormality x 5

AGAINST RPESENCE/ ABSENCE OF SYMPTOM PATTERN: too reliant on clinical judgement and arbitrary cut-offs AGAINST QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES BTWEEN NORMAL AND ABNORMAL: - disorders and symptoms within 'normal' range often associated with same risk factors -disorders normally preceded by subclinical symptoms -SYMPTOMS may be associated with psychosocial impairment (still need help) -'not otherwise specificed' diagnosis unclear and not very helpful for individuals

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: neuropsychopharmacology (Browning et al., 2011)

AIM: combine SSRI and cognitive intervention on measure of affective processing and resilience to external challenges pre-treatment assessement: 1. state and trait questionnaires 2. bias measure: attention to faces 7-day intervention: -citalopram vs place -and positive (computerised cognitive bias) vs control training post-treatment assessment: 1. state and trait questionnaires 2. bias measure: (a) attention to faces (b) emotional categorisation (c) emotional memory 3. response to external emotional challenge RESULTS: -NEGATIVE inaction: when co-administer, SSRI and cognitive training reduce effectiveness of either treatment alone (at anxiety and depression related emotional processing) OWN EVALUATION: -not test same biase pre-treatment, so could be IDs in base level differ for each task?

First intelligence ability tests (Binet and Simon) and devlopments

AIM: commisions by state of France Ministry of Education, to try identify children with learning problems, as they begun to change into compulsory mass education -found teacher assessments often biased against children with discipline problems and wanted IQ distinguished from this GUIDED BY TWO PRINCIPLES (Matarazzo, 1992) 1) intelligence increase thorugh childhood, so a valid measure of ability should be easier for the older children than the younger 2) rise in intelligence in development independent of sensory acuity or precision and independent of special education/ training (measure potential!) LASTING CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTELLIGENCE TESTS: -avoided what require experience/ what resembled schoolwork (no reading, writing, rote learning based tests) -focused on abstract reasoning which, despite not taught at school, improved with age HIS TEST: - 30 items in increasing difficulty, with every 6 items corresponding to one age e.g. level 3 (corresponding to 3 year olds) has movement of a match, point to nose e.g. level 7 has describing pictures and completing sentences -initially variety of tests for the variety of intelligences SCORING e.g. if answer correctly on all questions in level 7 + 3 (out of 6) in level 8), MENTAL AGE (ability)=7.5 -mental age means age norming- standard age that ability can be described as -lead to belief in UNITARY INTELLIGENCE ( e.g. 5 years can all do the different tests 5 year olds can do) DEVELOPMENTS: -Stern (1912) that IQ= mental age/ chronological age x 100 -Wechsler (1975) deviance IQ for adults still relative to age - scores normed to have a mean of 100, SD of 15 (modern view, that normally generally about age, but ag considered in calculation) EVALUATION (self): - principle (1) slightly wrong, as this is cross-sectional, whereas more matter longitudinal

link with SES and mental health, and genetic risk (Belsky et al., 2019)

AIM: disadvantaged neighbourhoods exhibit worse physical and mental health. Observe whether selection/ concentration of genetics risk impact poor educational outcomes in high-risk neighbourhoods 7000+ from E-Risk and Add Health studies, so young people from UK, EU, US -explored neighbourhood gradients in obesity, mental health problems, teen pregnancy, poor educational qualifications, NEED status and the genetic risk for these phenotypes KEY RESULTS: - positive association with obesity and mental health problems as neighbourhood became more hard pressed i.e. disadvantaged neighbourhood predict more obese -genetic risk predict obesityand mental health -however, little evidence that genetic selection explain neighbourhood levels of obseity and mental health (genetic risk not consistently related to neighbourhood) -no evidence for concentration of high polygenic risk of obesity/ SCZ assoicated with neighbourhood disdvantage

Genetic studies on environmental effects of mental health: access to green space (Cohen-Cline et al., 2015)

AIM: neighbourhood factors driven by SES possibly increase risk of depression HYPOTHESIS: -neighbourhood green space helps create/ facilitate social ties, and reduce mental fatigue, so improve mental health -physical activity (?) and individual/ area characteristics underlie both green space access and mental health DESIGN: MZ discordant - one with less access one with more access to green space as adults, determined by satellite sensor geocode density of surrounding vegetation - yet twins genetically identical and exposed to similar family background upbringing RESULTS: -twins with greater access reported fewer symptoms of depression, even when control for genetics, childhood environment, income, moderate to physical activity -no relation with stress of anxiety (interesting as these often related to green space)

treatment gone wrong: young people's development programme (YPDP)

AIM: reduce teenage pregnancies, drug use and school exclusions across England young people age 13-15 assesse as at risk of these outcomes (from social workers and other professionals) referred to local programme Programme: youth workers provide additional education, arts and sports, mentoring, and other components EVALUATION (not wholly randomized): quasi-experimental, prospectively compare 27 sites with 27 controls matched by evaluators on region, deprivation and teenage pregnancy rates control group recruited: similar to YDPD recruitment and followed up 9- and 18-months to examine self-reported outcomes RESULTS: -even after adjusting pre-hypothesised confounders, girls in intervention nearly 4 x number of pregnancies than controls, almost 3 x likely to engage in sex (15), and over 2 x as many truanting from school -very negative outcomes!

Factor Analysis (aim, definition, trade off, types, three main uses)

AIM: within domains, helps identify/characterise, by trying to simplify number of interrelated measures with minimum loss of information, and identify underlying latent dimensions -help answer empirical questions, with practical consequences (e.g. efficiency of hiring questionnaire) -describe variance in correlated variables DEFINITION: -family of statistical techniques which examines the relationship between a set of variables to identify the group of variables that are highly correlated -group of correlating variables are the FACTORS TRADE-OFF: -explanatory power (explain more variance) for complexity (more factors) TYPES: -exploratory -confirmatory USES: -theory development (Exploratory) e.g. what factors make up/ can characterise personality/ intelligence -theory evaluation (confirmatory) -data simplification

EDs as Westernized

AN: found in non-western but lower prevalence -BN found in absence of exposure to Western influence -BED: across cultures, however evidence suggest influenced by Western exposure

Onset of EDs (AN, BN, BED)

AN: typically early to late adolescence BN: typically LATE adolescence to young adulthood BED: early adulthood (21-25yrs)

Eating Disorder (EDs) prevalence (AN, BN, BED)

Anorexia Nervosa: 12 months prevalence 0.4% among women Bulimia Nervosa: 12 month prevalence 1-1.5% among women Binge Eating Disorder: lifetime prevalence 3.5% among women, 2% among men

genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

Treatment approaches to EDs (list x 5)

CBT interpersonal therapy family therapy --cognitive remediation -pharmacotherapy

Trauma

APA: emotional response someone has t an extremely negative event e.g. natural/human-made disasters, single instances, war, conflict, accidents, assault, life threatening illness, domestic violence, childbirth -approx. 2/3 of general population will be exposed to a traumatic event in their lifetime (Neria, Nandi & Galea, 2008) fear, horror, often feel unsafe, helpless - treated physical and psychological integrity

DSM-5 major depression-symptoms (duration and severity) i.e. clinical diagnosis

AT LEAST ONE OF: -depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day (in children and adolescents can be irritable mood) -markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all or nearly all activities, most of the day, nearly everyday OTHER POSSIBLE PHYSIOLOGICAL/ FUNCTIONING SYMPTOMS: -significant weight loss/ gains or decrease/ increase in appetite -insomnia or hypersomnia -fatigue/ loss of energy nearly every day -psychomotor agitation ( very fidgety) or retardation nearly every day -feeling of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt -diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisive -recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan or a suicide attempt or specific plan DURATIONS/ INTENSITY: -5+ of any above symptoms within same 2-week period and present change form previous function (at least one of first two AND -symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of function -symptoms not due to direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g. drugs/ medication) not a general medical conditions (e.g. hypothyroidism)

acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) on healthy volunteers (Ruhe et al., 2008)

ATD used in healthy volunteers to test serotonin hypothesis RESULTS: no robust mood effects, only limited to those already vulnerable to depression (e.g. family history) CONCLUDE: can't CAUSE temporary depression symptoms in anyone

measuring EI ability vs self-report measures (Brackett & Meyer, 2003l BAstian et al., 2005)

Ability measures: MAyer-Slovey-Caruso-Emotional-Inteligence Test (MSCEIT) self-report measures: Bar-On ('97), Schutte et al., ('98), Petrides' TEIQue poor correlations (.04-.21)

What causes OCD (x 5 list)

BIOLOGICAL ACCOUNTS: -genetics -neuropharmacological account (SSIR and SRI) -brain abnormality PSCYHOLOGICAL ACCOUNTS: -memory and neuropsychological deficit -behaviour account: learned avoidance

OVERVIEW causes of eating disorders (EDs)

BIOLOGICAL: genetic, brain function abnormalities PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS: mood/emotions, dieting, socio-cultural

who suggested concept of mental age

Binet

Universal programme for prevention mental disorders: FRIENDS programme for childhood anxiety (Stallard et al., 2014)

CBT-based early intervention and prevention program for childhood anxiety and depression - children taught strategies to cope with anxiety and challenging situations F= feeling worried? R= relax and feel good I=Inner feelings E= explore plans N= nice work, reward yourself D= don't forget to practice S= stay calm strategies include recognizing somatic symptoms of anxiety (e.g. sickness, tummy pains), identifying and challenging anxious thoughts, using coping skills (e.g. relaxation, problem solving), self-reward for trying hard and achieving goals Participants: -45 schools, randomised either school-led (teacher to school staff), health-led FRIENDS (two trained health facilitators), usual school provision METHOD: -all children in school age 9-10 yrs (universal) as part of school curricululm -quite intense: 60 min weekly sessions -measures outcomes with self-completed questionnaires administered by researchers mased to allocation (primarily on anxiety and low mood at 12 months) MIXED RESULTS: - no difference in parent or teacher ratings with anxiety and depression methods -trained teachers not as affective as health professionals CONSEQUENCE: added costs and therefore limited scale-ability of health trained professionals

acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) decreases 'depression congruent' cognition

CONTEXT: AGAINST idea that increased 5-HT levels/ SSRIs treats depression indirectly e.g. by changing emotion processing, which change mood over time - ATD temporarily reduces 5-HT ATD can lead to: -increased positive motivational biases in l/l 5-HT transporter phenotype (low risk genotype) - Roisier et al. (2006) -reduced recognition of fear in healthy volunteers (Harmer et al., 2003)

Burt and Moore (1912) sex differences in IQ

CONTEXT: Burt & Terman were unconvinced by sex differences in intelligence argument, went to empirical evidence -variety of 'lower' (motor, perceptual) and 'higher (reasoning) tests of schoolchildren of both sexes - also teacher ratings on general intelligence RESULTS: -random patter of tiny differences -negative prediction/correlation between teachers ratings and tests on size of sex differences- higher the correlation between the tests, the smaller the sex difference, and reduced relationship with g

Reading Emotions from movement (Edey, Yon, Cook, Dumontheil, Press, 2017)

CONTEXT: EI Kinematics: angry movements tend to be faster, and sad movements tend to be slower, but is this moderated e.g. by whether Ps walk fast themselves, even in neutral frame of mind RESULTS: -interaction with habitual movement and how interpret others -own mean walking velocity predict degree of attributed anger (greater walking velocity rated high velocity emotions e.g. anger, as less intense, relative to low-velocity emotions e.g. sadness)

Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (Lane et al., 1990)

CONTEXT: EI ability test beyond MSCEIT 20 situations, described in 2-4 sentences -how would you/they feel? -score based on type of words: 0-thoguht not feeling 1-physiological state e.g. tired 2-undifferentiated feelings e.g. bad 3-differentiated single feelings e.g. happy 4- 2 or more level 3 words 5- where self and other can be differentiated

NT reading Autistic facial expressions (Brewer et al., 2016)

CONTEXT: EI and common finding that individual with ASD failure to recognize emotions and mental states of NT interaction partner, but is is the opposite too? AIM: explore NT and ASD Ps ablity to recognise emotional expressions produced by both NT and ASD posers POSING CONDITIONS to explore what mechanism underlies ASD difficulty with attribute emotions to NT: -atypical cognitive representations of emotions (told to do standard poses) -impaired understanding of the communicative value of emotions (told explicit that facial expressions show emotions for others to guess) -poor proprioceptive feedback (live video feedback whilst posing) RESULTS: -ASD were recognized less well than NT, likely due to deficit in representation of typical emotion expressions in this population -ASD expressions equally poorly recognized by NT and ASD, implicating idiosyncratic (much more heterogenous), rather than common, atypical representations of emotional expressions in ASD CONCLUSION: -EI measures/ EI about social interaction rather than objective EI?

reading mental states and emotions from movements (Abell, Happe & Frith, 2000)

CONTEXT: EI measures TESTING: propensity to attribute mental states (NT and ASD group) 1. use triangles to represent word: coaxing, mocking, seducing, surprising RESULTS - controls are better at interpreting animations by other NT controls compared to those generated by autistic PS -autistic Ps not show benefit from watching videos made by other autistics Ps vs controls (no own group advantage) EVALAUTION: -issues with e.g. MSCEIT objective tests, as always from one perspective)

Sex differences in IQ score variability (mixed evidence) including Weschler, Raven's, Scottish Mental Survey,and others e.g. Terman, Reynolds, Deary

CONTEXT: big differences in achievement (e.g. Nobel prizes) but obviously huge societal reasons; small difference in mean IQ could explain this, but litter evidence hypothesis on variability: if more variability in males, would mean more males than females at (Both) extremes of distribution EVIDENCE: AGAINST DIFFERENCES: - Terman (1916) no difference in SD -not for all tests e.g. Raven's Matrices, BUT FOR DIFF. -revisions of Weschler suggest male SD 5% greater than female (Reynolds et al., 1987) -other test batteries show small, but sig. difference in sex socre SDs e.g. (Deary et al., 2007) twice as many males as females in top 2% of scores; Scottish mental surveys (30s and 40s) 1.4: 4 ratio IQ> 130 and <60; (Strand et al., '06) found similar in 300,000 British 11-12 year olds, and (Arden & Plomin, 2006) from age 3 -reliable / most consistent differences in maths and numerical reasoning (*% greater male SD - Lunski & Humphreys, '90)- although this trend decreasing

SCZ polygenic risk factors (nivard et al.., 2017)

CONTEXT: common challenge of psychological disorders: genetic risk factors not disorder-specific from AVON (UK) and twin register (Netherlands) -SCZ associated with childhood and adolescent psychopathology, with strongest association with childhood and adolescent depression and weaker association with OCD/ CD age 7 CONCLUSION: -seem genetic etiology with SCZ and development psychopathology (underlying genetic factor?)

Cultural Diversity in Expectations of Facial Expressions of Emotions (Jack, Caldara, Schyns, 2012)

CONTEXT: difficulty of interpreting 'acurracy' with EI measures DESIGN: presented with noise overlapping a neutral faces, and forced to categorise into Ekman's 6 emotions -different interpretaitons appeared for Western Caucasian vs East Asian Ps: differed with morphology of facial expression focused on (shape, structure etc) CONCLUSIONS: -how determine which is the better? -alternative method (Bird): Ps recount emotional time and report emotions felt during recount, and show videos of facial expressions to others SELF_ EVALUATION: add to social psych mindmap!

acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) increases 'depression congruent' cognition

CONTEXT: increased 5-HT levels/ SSRIs treats depression indirectly e.g. by changing emotion processing, which change mood over time - ATD temporarily reduces 5-HT EVIDENCE from results from ATD: -impaired recognition of happy faces (Hayward et al., 2005) -reduced reward sensitivity (Rogers et al., 2003) -enhanced punishment prediction (Cools et al., 2007)

Summary of Deep Brain Stimulation for treatment-resistant depression (Berlim et al., 2014)

CONTEXT: perhaps understanding of depressed brain help in cases of treatment resistant depression 2014 meta-analysis: -after approx. 13 sessions, 29.3% and 18.6 % of subjects receiving HF-rTMS classified as responders and remitters respectively (compared to 10.4% and 5% for those receiving sham rTMS) LIMITS: -quite small sample, but good compared to tryptophan depletion studies

acute tryptophan depletion (ATD)

CONTEXT: test the serotonin hypothesis for depression tryptophan (TRP): amino acids that synthesis 5-HT in the brain, via 5-HTP ATD: PS given drink of all amino acids but TRP --> amino acids compete for entry across the blood brain barriers--> central TRP and hence 5-HT reduced temporarily RESULTS: -blood samples: ATD reduces plasma TRP by 45-90% within 5-7 hours (peripheral tissues) - Van der Does et al (2001) -animal studies: ATD reduces TRP and 5-HT in brain, so infer reduces 5-HT synthesis in human brains (Lieben et al., 2004)

peer deviancy training (Dishion et al., 1995; 1997; Dishion, Spracklen et al., 1996)

CONTEXT: try to explain the negative outcomes of seemingly well carried out intervention programmes definition: aggregating peers, under some circumstances, can produce short- and long-term effects on problem behaviour Dishion possible mechanisms: - youth actively reinforced (social reward) through laughter, social attention, and interest for deviant behaviour are likely to increase such behaviour -high-risk adolescents derive meaning and values from deviancy training process that provides cognitive basis for motivation to commit delinquent acts in the future OWN EVALUATION: -brings all together to make high-risk come into fruition?

Relation between PON and Sternberg & Smith (1985)

CONTEXT: whether concept of social intelligence is plausible Sternberg and Smith (1985) found no relationship between their test and PONS

Terman (1916) sex differences in IQ and anlaysing Stanford Binet Test items

CONTEXTL some argue lack of IQ differences is due tests being designed to not show sex differences used results from 100 (age 4--16) schoolchildren RESULTS -no sex difference in g -tiny advantage for females up to 14, then levelled out (or miniscule advantage for boys) -no evidence of inclusion that items in Stanford Binet test included in design to mask sex differences BUT this is refuted by later research !! e.g. Stanford Binet (male advantage), Weschler-Bellevue test (female advantage), WAIS (male advantage etc)

testosterone on adult spatial ability (Cherrier, '01 on older men; Slabbekoorn, '99 on 'transsexuals'; Aleman, '04 on women)

Cherrier: administering testosterone to older men improved their spatial ability Slabbekoorn: F--> M 'transsexuals' administered T improved spatial ability Aleman ('04): single adminstration of T improved spatial ability of women

prevalence of PTSD in populations with high trauma exposure (earthquakes)

China following Sichuan earthquake (Wang et al., 2009) - probability PTSD 37.8% and 13% in two diffferent communities - Wenchuan earthquake: initially 9.7% to 1.6% (at 18 months); 14.1% in students 1 year later

Effectiveness of Cognitive Therapy and Panic Disorder (Clark et al., 1999)

Compared: Cognitive therapy, Applied Relaxation, Imipramine (medication after 3 months (12 sessions) - cog. therapy much more effective (about 90% patient panic-free) after 6 months (12 booster sessions): -imipramine and cog. therapy about 70% panic free), and applied relaxation (40%) 15 months (imipramine withdrawn after 12 months) -cognitive therapy about 85% -relaxation: 45% -imipramine 60% panic free patients OVERALL: -all seem effective but cognitivie therapy most at 3 months, and continue to be superior after 15 months follow up

methods for universal prevention approach for mental health

DIRECT: psychoeducation, organizational changes with intent to prevent mental health IDR: consultation (discuss different ways to improve mental health), media promote mental health

dorsolateral PFC and depression (Harvey et al., 2005)

DORSOLATERAL PFC, involved with: - maintaining or manipulating information in WM -emotion regulation (IC over amygdala activity via other PFC regions) IN DEPRESSION: -as rest: REDUCED activation (reduced grey matter volume?) -(non-emotional) WM tasks INCREASED activation when performance matched to controls EVALUTION: - about inefficiency? as more activation needed for same performance -counter evidence (Fales et al., 2009) that reduced activation during emotional processing

DSM-4 difference to DSM-5 on anxiety disorders

DSM-4: included OCD (now own category) and PTSD (now in a separate category) - although both still considered related DSM-5: added Separation Anxiety Disorder and Selective Mutism

Ibrahim et al (2013) depression in university students

average prevalence rates of depression among uni students is 30.6% across range of settings

Psychiatric Comorbidity is ubiquitous (Caspi & Moffitt, 2018)

DUNEDIN longitudinal study, and inferred from repeated diagnostic interviews at 13yrs, adolescent and adult - diagnostic groups: anxiety, depression, ADHD< substance dependence, conduct disorder, SCZ, bipolar disorder if met one criteria, 68% meet criteria for second diagnosis -53% met crtieria for 3rd, and 41% met for 4th (huge!)

Intelligence (Deary, 2001) and consensus definition (Gottfredson, 1994)

Deary (2001): - not need to be halted by need for exact definition, when there's sufficient body of research findings to be - everyone knows what intelligence is BUT - often people disagree e.g. if reporting own ability, surely this alos includes self-esteem etc CONSENSUS DEFINITION (52 expert researchers in field of ID; Goettfredson, 1994): - very general mental capacity, that, amongst other things, involves: ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience... reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings BUT AGAIN: - very vague definition e.g. what 'broader and deeper' mean?

lifecourse trajectory of conduct disorder (Odgers et al., 2007)

Dunedin (New Zealand) study for incidences of conduct problems between age 7 to 26 -10.5% life-course persistent (often go into personality disorder) -19.6% adolescent onset (and then continue to plateau) -24.3% childhood-limited -45.6% low (i.e. not experience more than 1 symptom)

G x E (MAOA x maltreatment) for Conduct Disorder (Caspi et al., 2002)

Dunedin study used to test MAOA genotype interaction with exposure to maltreatment to predict increased levels of conduct problems RESULTS: -child maltreatment associated the higher antisocial behaviour, even at probable levels of maltreatment -genetic risk (low MAOA) has highest impact on antisocial behaviour when with sever maltreatment -clear dose response effect with low MAOA and severe maltreatment at highest probability of CD -percentage convicted for violent offense increase with more severe childhood maltreatment, and bigger difference between none vs probable/severe maltreatment when low MAOA (compared to high MAOA) -same pattern for percentage disposition toward violence, and antisocial personality disorder symptoms CONCLUDE: -CD increase with maltreatment, and even more if genetic vulnerability regarding low MAOA activity

role of mood (psychosocial) in causing EDs

EDs as disturbances of mood regulation in which regulatory strategies related eating and the body are used to diminish negative effects -restrained eating strategy (AN cognitive control of eating) =emotional eating strategy (tendency to overeat due to negative affect -disinhibited eating strategy

EI and EQ and debate with definition

EG as emotional parallel of IQ- the achieved/ attained skill ability vs propensity (parallel with objective - subjective measurement) distinct from g or personality?

Mixed EI model (Goleman)

EI assessed usin self- and observer- report, and includes competencies that are personality types (conscientiousness) 4 components (increasing complexity and sophistication) 1) self-awareness: ability to read one's emotions and recognize their impact (energy level, risk aversion, behaviour) while using gut feelings to guide decisions 2) self-management: involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances 3) social awareness: ability to sense, understand and react to others' emotions while comprehending social networks 4) relationship management: ability to inspire, influence, develop others while managing conflict

Peters et al. (1999) psychosis continuum: delusional ideation in religious and psychotic populations

Explored incidence of delusional ideation in -new religious movements (NRMs) -control group (non-religious/ Christian -psychotic in-patients Compared on delusions measures: e.g. 'do you ever feel as if people are reading your mind?' do you ever feel as if you are being persecuted in some way?@ RESULTS: 1/4 non-clinical sample endorsed a delusional item (support the psychosis continuum) -NRM scored higher than controls on all delusional measures -BUT NRM sig. less distress and pre-occupied by the experiences

Norman (1963) BIG FIVE definitions (lower order traits)

Extraversion/ surgency: -talkative-silent -frank/open-secretive -adventurous-cautious -sociable-reclusive Agreeableness: -good natured- irritable -non-jealous- jealous -mild/gentle- headstrong -cooperative-negativistic Conscientiousness: -fussy/ tidy- careless -responsible- undependendable -scrupulous- unscrupulous -persevering-quitting/ fickle Emotional Stability: -poised- nervous/ tense -calm- anxious -composed- excitable -non-hypochondrial - hypochondrial Culture: -artistically sensitive- artistically insensitive -polished/ refined-crude/ boorish -intellectual- unreflective/ narrow -imaginative- simple/ direct

contributing factors over cause of SCZ (Millan, ANdrieux, Bartzokis

FIRST WAVE: -genetic load little effect along - at birth, environmental interaction (sub-threshold): hypoxia, winter, infection and/ or trauma, malnutrition SECOND WAVE: -childhood to adolescence (on threshold) urban rearing, migration- begins to have functional impairment -adolescence: social isolation , drug abuse, stress (diagnostic) DIAGNOSIS: normal early adulthood (20-25yrs) and first episode BOOSTER HITS (in adulthood) first episodes, then crises, then relapse/ remission (all diagnostic intensity) - adverse environment affect can trigger crises, or psych factors -disorganization of speech, though, behaviour -positive and negative sympotm -impaired neurocognition/ social cognition -pschcomotor and mood disruption-

PFC and depression

FUNCTION: -maintains representations of GOALS and means to achieve them -range of EFs (impaired in depressed patients) including emotional processing: top-down regulation/ control of emotional responses e.g. inhibit prepotent responses and generate alternative ones top-down: response to cognitive evaluations DEPRESSION: -frequent reports of abnormal activation in depression

acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) on recovered depression (Smith et al., 1997)

Factors more likely to experience depressive symptoms after ATD: - female -SSRI treated -recurrent previous episodes -previously suicidal regardless, need existing vulnerability, which indicate impaired 5-HT pathways is insufficient for depressive symptoms

specific phobia characteristics (DSM-5, 2013)

Fear of specific object or situation e.g. injections, spiders -out proportion of danger -persist for 6 month at least -real avoidance and distress

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) - origin

First introduced by Sir William Gull (1874) to 4 adolescent female patients with significant weight loss unrelated to medical condition

Studying genetics of psychological disorders: molecular genetics

GWAS studies (genome wide association) candidate gene studies linkage disequilibrium (whole region of genomes) PRO (over twin studies) - tell us WHICH genes responsible

refugee vulnerability to SCZ and non-affective psychotic disorders (Anna-Clara Hollander et al., 2016) and meta-analysis follow up (JAMA psychiatry, 2019)

HYPOTHESIS: refugees may be especially vulnerable to develop psychotic disorders due to multi-factorial combination of pre-, post- and peri- migratory adversity (e.g. traumatic life events, human right violations, social exclusion, poverty, restricted access to medical services) - potential mechanisms relating to social defeat MEASURE: hazard ratios for SCZ and non-affective psychotic disorders, adjusting for refugee status e.g. disposable income, population density and sex (and interaction) POPULATION: -Swedish born (reference group) -non-refugee migrant -refugee migrant -refugee v non-refugee migrant (formal test for difference) RESULTS: -refugee migrant at sig. greater risk (Relative to other non-refugee migrant) -Swedish born lowest ratio overall FOLLOWUP META_ANALYSIS: again, increased risk of psychosis among refugees -potentially due to adverse experiences mentioned above

Heritability - definition, equation explained, what it's not

H^2 statistics: the total variation in a given characteristics/trait in a GIVEN POPULATION (and at a GIVE TIME tested with a PARTICULAR TEST) that can be attributed to GENETIC differences between members of that population (variance not attributable to genetic differences is caused by differences in the environment experienced by member of the population) -about a statistical propensity to have a certain characteristic e.g. if vast range of environmental influences on population, genetic influence small (but not nothing) relatively; if homogenous environment (E.g. shared language, teachers, repeated testing etc), genetic influence would approach 100%- no co0variation with environmental influences and ctraits equation based on behavioural genetics H^2= 2 x (r(MZ) - r(DZ)), where r(mz)= correlation between scores in population of mz scores (i.e. correlation 1 would mean all pairs of MZ twins identical in scores) where r(dz)=correlation between scores in population of dz twin anlaysing scores: -variation completely due to GENETICS: MZ correlation = 1.00, DZ share half genes so correlation =.5, so H^2 =1.00, 100% heritability -if completely due to SHARED ENVIRONMENT (e.g. family) r(MZ)=1.00, AND r(DZ)=1.00, so 0% heritability -if trait variation due to UNIQUE ENVIRONMENT of one of the twins, expect 0 correlation for both MZ and DZ pairs, so 0% heritability WHAT IT'S NOT: -NOT about genetic contribution to INDIVIDUAL's personality -genetic determinism: any heritability below 100% has room for environmental influences e.g. height (most heritable charactersitic) could be influenced by nutrition

Early community studies of PTSD

Helzer et al (1987) from mental health survey: 5/1000 men and 13/1000 in lifetime; 4% veteran, 20% wounded in Vietnam Breslau et al (1991) 1007 21-30 year olds :39.1% exposed to traumatic event, and 23.6% go on to have PTSD Norris (1992) 1000 adults: 69% exposed to traumatic stressor (sexual assault, tragic death 30%), and 5.1% PTSD

Happe, Cook, BIrd (2017) structure of social intelligence

Hierarchichal: 1) s 2) subfactors: -representation of another's cognitive state -representation of another's emotion 3) further subfactors of the above two: -both: self-other distinction -cognitive state: ToM, imitation, biomotion perception, metacognition, social learning, social attention -emotion: social reward, empathy, emotional recognition, affective touch

temperament (and is personality stable?)

IDs in behaviour that appear early in life, and stable across adulthoods- generally predict adult personality - conceptually and empirically very similar to eprsoanlity, just measurement issues (e.g. self-report of toddlers)

Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence definitions (popularized by Cattell, 1963; later, Horn, 1998)

Intelligence as involving two factors, the capacity for knowledge and the knowledge possessed (intelligence vs wisdom/knowledge?; Hemnon, 1921) FLUID INTELLIGENCE: capacity to learn new things (biological and pure, not affected by experience/ culture/ schooling etc) CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE is your learned knowledge, information, content (affected by experience, previous culture) e.g. vocabulary, general knowledge

prefrontal assymmetry activation in depression (Nusslock et al., 2017)

L: R asymmetry in prefrontal activity in alpha (8-12 Hz) EEG frequency band LEFT: activated with approach/ appetitive stimuli RIGHT PFC: involved with inhibition/ withdrawal - depressed displayed reduced resting-state EEG in left PFC compared to healthy controls (who showed more approach related activity) LIMIT: -spatial resolution of EEG

plastic or plasticity personality (James, 1890) and Costa & McCrae (1994; 1997) findings

James (1890) hypotheses of personality change: - plasticity hypothesis: personality is changeable, like plastic -plaster hypothesis: personality is enduring, like plaster Costa and McCrae (!994; 1997) - first large, longituindal study -found no meaningful changes after age of 30 -plaster hypothesis widely accepted BUT types of change? - maybe both! Meta-analysis (Roberts et al., 2006)

psychological factors for causing SCZ: reasoning (Dudley et al., 2016)

Jumping to conclusions reasoning bias: - linked to greater probability of delusion occurrence in psychosis -need less information to reach conclusions than controls/ non-psychotic mental health problems (e.g. if mainly black/ orange jar) -can lead to acceptance of incorrect hypothesis

Brain correlates of g

LIMITS: -poor scientific quality, and focus on brain volume (male >female) on brain volume: meta-analysis of 37 studies, wih correlation .33 intelligence and brain volume (McDaniel, 2005) - positive corelation for all age and sex groups -somewhat higher fro famels than males, and for adults than children Areas? (Grazioplene et al., 2015) -CAUDATE NUCLEUS (subcortical brain structure involved in learning) foudn to be related to IDs in intelligence

Risk factor for conduct disorder: MAOA mice study (Cases et al., 1995)

MAOA knockout mouse model = increased aggressions (as well as increased levels of NE, 5HT and DA in the brain) -aggression diminshed in MAOA deficient mice in dose-respondent manner via injections of drugs that restore MAOA - seem strong evidence for MAAO role in aggression

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: biological enhancement of behavioural treatment - D-cycloserine on exposure therapy (Ressler et al., 2004)

METHOD: -pre-treatment measure for fear -virtual reality exposure to fear of heights (same somatic fear response aiming to extinguish) D-cycloserine partial NMDA glutamatergic receptor agonist -2 sessions of exposure therapy either with or without D-cycloserine RESULTS: -no direct anxiolytic effects -Exposure therapy somewhat successful -D-cycloserine ENHANCED effectiveness of exposure therapy larger reduction of symptoms of fear of heights, but not whn D-cycloserine alone)

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): academic achievement

MIXED LITERATURE: -Barchard (03) not a good predictor -Reid ('08) "(above) " but is independent from IQ and Big 5 -Mayer et al (2008) not normally predictor after IQ and personality controlled -Libbrecht et al ('14) predicts medical practical scores relating to patient satisfaction, not academic scores -Petrides ('11) related to pro- and anti-social behaviour (rule following, truancy, aggression) which make up for low IQ on attainment - compensate!

EI measures correlations with IQ and personality

MSCEIT ability test: -seem general EI factor, with specific sub-factors reflecting '4-branch' model -correlate with standard intelligence tests .25 and .35/.45 -correlate with two of Big 5 (O,A) about .2, but nothing with others EI self-report: -opposite: correlate with Big 5, but not so much with standard IQ OWN EVALUATION: -something about how report also reflect some sort of intelligence?

MSCEIT: factor anlaysis

MSCEIT: Mayer-Slovey-Caruso-EI-Test Mayer et al (2002) moderate correlations between tests, can extract single factor vs Fa et al (2010) meta-analysis of 19 studies: 3 factors three factors (identify and generate emotions; understand emotions; stay open to emotions and blend without thinking), plus a general factor

MSCEIT evaluation: subtest intercorrelation (Attridge, 2006)

MSCEIT: Mayer-Slovey-Caruso_EI-Test intercorrelations reflect g not general EI? -intercorrelations between subtest not change much when control for verbal intelligence

MSCEIT (ability, Test sections, Question Types)

MSCEIT; Mayer-Slovey-Caruso-EI-Test INCREASING COMPLEXITY: ABILITY 1. accurately identify emotions in people and objects ABILITY 2. generate an emotion and solve problems with that emotion ABILITY 3. understand cause of emotion ABILITY 4. sty open to emotions and blend with thinking CORRESPONDING TEST SECTIONS AND QUESTION TYPES 1a. faces: identify subtle emotions in faces 1b. pictures: identify emotions in complex landscapes and designs 2a. facilitation (what emotions apt in a situation): knowledge of how moods affect thinking 2b. sensations: relating various feeling sensations to emotions 3a. changes: MCQs about how emotions change over time e.g. potency, transitions 3b. blends: multiple choice emotion vocabulary definitions 4a. emotional management: indicate effectiveness of various solutions to internal problems 4b. emotional relations: effectiveness of various solutions to solving others' problems SCORING: -originally census (still sometimes for corporate settings) -not expert psychologists specialising in emotion (is this right group?) LIMIT: -non-emotional control? e.g. Gc

Genetic studies on environmental effects of mental health: PERCEPTIONS of social status from twin study (Rivenbark et al., 2020)

MZ twin discordance. difference design: - tests for association between differences in non-shared experiences and differences in behavioural outcomes (i.e. if correlate with different outcomes) CONTROL: - same shared environment (parents, home) -same genotype RESULTS: -adolescent perceptions of family social status correlate with health and life changes: twin who PERCEIVED standing as higher had fewer difficulties to negotiate into adulthood e.g. less likely convicted of crime, not be in education, experience mental health -pattern only LATER adolescence (not before age12) -irrespective of objective financial standing of family/ SES

CBT for OCD (meta-anlaysis of RCTs: Ost, Havnen, Hansen & Kvale, 2015)

Main difference to behvaiour therapy: goal orientated, and help practically understand and interpret compulsions RESULTS: -CBT yielded very large effect size compared to wait list and placebo -CBT sig. better than antidepressants -addition of antidepressant NOT potentiate effect of CBT -ERP (Exposure and Response PRevention) also yield large effect sizes though

p-factor early development

Miller et al (2019) general 'dysregulation profile' factor as young as 36 months (rather then the common internalizing/ externalising/ attention problem dimenison) Caspi et al (2014): adult p factor negatively correlated with general measure of brain integrity at 3 yrs SELF_EVALAUTION: add to mindmap, against third idea about general intellignece

Criticisms of dimensional approach to abnormality

NEED CATEORICAL FOR: -diagnoses facilitate treatment, intervention, access to resources -diagnoses may provide relief to the family and to the individual -diagnoses may help to raise awareness and reduce stigma associated with psychiatiric conditions OWN EVALUATION: - if know category just kind of 'best fit' label of symptoms all face, better remove stigma? or make people undermine issue?

NHS on current mental health in childrena nd young people

NHS Digital: 1/8 5-19 yr olds in England have clinically impairing mental health condition -equates to 3 pupils in an average UK class of about 26 -prevalence increase to adulthood

polygenic risk scores (PRS), what do they tell us

NOTE: gene x environment (age, lifestyle, diseases) interplay for whether actually have disorder they tell us: 1) case vs controls on a population or group level (cases should have significantly higher PRS than control) -LIMIT: PRS low association with particular disorder 2) inform research on polygenic endophenotypes or biomarkers (true biomarker of genetic risk will be more likely present in high PRS individuals than low PRS) 3) provide information on phenotypic correlations: expect correlated PRS if phenotype correlated with diagnosis due to overlapping genetic causes, but low correlation with PRS with phenotype correlated with diagnosis because of environmental exposures or consequences of treatment

Cognitive Theory of Depression (Beck) / three levels of thinkings

Negative schemas: core beliefs/ attitude about self, other the world (dysfunctional beliefs/ attitudes) e.g. 'I am unloveable' -these are caused by negative (Early) experience which lead to forming -triggered by critical incident leads to BIASE INFO PROCESSING (schema congruent) -systematic negative biases -dysfunctional assumptions/ faulty processing biases e.g. 'if people get to know me, will find out how useless I am and reject me' THESE TRIGGER Automatic negative thoughts/ triggered by critical incident, and schema activated -prone to logical errors in thought processing and selectively focused on negative e.g. 'I am being boring, I don't know what to say' -these become persistent, habitual leads to depressive symptoms

Network meta-analysis of antidepressants on their efficacy and acceptability (Cipriani et al., 2016)

Network meta-analysis: compare all results even if not formally tested against each other efficacy: strength of improvement of depressive symptoms acceptability: look at drop outs, which suggest important side effects Overall for acceptability, only two significantly favour the active drug- fluoxetine, agomelatine efficacy: all significant favour active drug, but, although fluoxetine one of the least efficacy, used as one of the most acceptable, followed by agomelatine

Costa & McCrae (1992): 6 facets of each of the BIG FIVE

Neuroticism: anxiety, angry hostility (angry at how others treat them), depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity (e.g. rarely overindulge), vulnerability Extraversion: warmth, gregariousness (shy away from crowds), activity, seeking excitement, positive emotion, assertiveness Openness: fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, emotions, ideas. values (e.g. if set in ways) Agreeableness: trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, temper-mindedness conscientiousness: competence, dutifulness, achievement-striving, order

Personality concepts (traits vs types)

PERSONALITY TRAITS: (all on a place on continuum of different aspects of personality -GENERAL descriptions of individuals (everyone fit spectrum), across contexts _INTERNAL characteristics of individuals -predicts systematic DIFFERENCES as well as SIMILARITIES between individuals (allow for lots of VARIABILITY) -IMPLICIT explanations of their behvaiour (latent factors) - causal determinants of repetitive behvaiours (? or just personality as label for this?) - Carver & Scheier (2000): dynamic organisation, inside the person, of psychological systems that create a person's characteristics patterns of behaviour, thoughts, feelings TYPE (everyone is a type, this describes personality) - a categorical distinction or psychological classification of different types of individuals (Scheier & Carver, 2000) -LIMIT: end up with so many different types

comorbid PTSD response to trauma

PTSD and diagnosis of something else e.g. depressino, alcohol/substance abuse, panic diosrder and/ or other anxiety disorders

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: fears of causing harm

OBSESSIONS: fear of causing harm EXAMPLES: drop baby holidng, driving over a pedestrian CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: repeated behaviour, checking COMPULSION EXAMPLE: repeatedly drive past crosswalks to check for injured pedestrian

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: fear of contamination

OBSESSIONS: fear of contamination EXAMPLES: preoccupations or disgust with bodily waste; repetitive concern of spreading illness CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: cleaning or washing COMPULSION EXAMPLE: excessive hand washing or cleaning of household items (long after they are reasonably clean e.g. until scorched)

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: persistent doubting

OBSESSIONS: persistent doubting EXAMPLES: anxiety that house door is locked/ oven turned on despite just locking it/ just tunring it off CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: constant checking (Repeatedly) COMPULSION EXAMPLE: of locked door, driving back down road to ensure noone injured, excessively checking witing to ensure correct

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: religious scrupulosity

OBSESSIONS: religious scrupulosity EXAMPLES: excessive concern with 'right vs wrong' CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: religious compulsions COMPULSION EXAMPLE: excessive prayer or apologies; need to tell or confess

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: superstitions

OBSESSIONS: superstitions EXAMPLES: 'lucky' or 'unlucky' numbers CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: superstitious behaviour COMPULSION EXAMPLE: avoiding unlucky numbers, repeated activity a certain 'lucky' number of times

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: symmetry

OBSESSIONS: symmetry EXAMPLES: excessive worry and distress if books aren't ordered symmetrically on a bookshelf CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: ordering or rearranging COMPULSION EXAMPLE: repeatedly alligning or arranging books on bookshelf

Hirschtritt et al (2017) common obsession and corresponding compulsions in OCD: violent or sexual intrusive thoughts

OBSESSIONS: violent or sexual intrusive thoughts EXAMPLES: intrusive, unwanted violent or horrific images; unwanted sexual images of strangers, friends family CORRESPONDING COMPULSION: repetitive 'undoing' thoughts COMPULSION EXAMPLE: repeated 'neutralizing' thoughts (e.g. 'I am not a violent person, repeated asking whether committed a violent or unwanted sexual act)

Cognitive theory of PTSD- Ehlers and Clark (2000)

PTSD due to the way the trauma is encoded and laid down in memory and ongoing sense of threat: -trauma memory poorly elaborated (incomplete context of time/place) and poorly integrated into autobiographical memory (poor cognitive processing during the trauma and dominance of sensory processing)- hence the diffictuly in intentional recall, re-experiencing symptoms, triggering -stimuli prior or during the event can become linked to danger, even if unaware of triggering cues (classical conditioning) -although cues linked to trauma and that trigger trauma more likely to be noticed (priming) also maladaptive behavioural strategies and cognitive processing styles used to cope (maintenance mechanism)

Criterion F (duration) for PTSD -DSM-5

Persistence of symptoms for more than one months, in criteria: -B (intrusion symptoms) -C (avoidance) -D (negative alterations in cognitions and mood) -E (alterations in arousal and reactivity)

Personality and academic performance

Personality (especially conscientiousness, and partly openness) seems to predict academic achievement,

neuropharmacological account of OCD (Skapinakis et al., 2016)

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRI) and Selective SRI (SSRI) medication treatment more severe for OCD (although inconclusive

RDoC in studies: EDs (Schaefer & Steinglass, 2021)

RDoC: Research Domain Criteria- dimensional approach to psychological disorders (disorder general) EDs (Schaefer & Steinglass, 2021) as deficit in reinforcement learning/ reward prediction, that gets more pronounced as EDs become more severe- maintenance of eating pathologies then about e.g. continuous thinness restriction expectancies OWN EVALAUTION: still may be beneficial to use disorder specific treatment as well e.g. to help with specific maintenance difficulties, but this may not be disorder specific, but individual specific- hence CBT transdiagnostic, but flexible to suit individual difficultes/ diagnosis

RDoC and mood-related symptoms e.g. depression, anxiety (Nusslock & Alloy, 2017)

RDoC: Research Domain Criteria- dimensional approach to psychological disorders (disorder general) hyposensitivity to reward processing relate to motivational anhedonia vs hypersensitivity to reward processing related to approach/ hypermanic symptoms

personality and relationships (Ahmetoglu et al, 2010) and assortative mating (Bleske-Rechek et al, 2009)

RELATIONSHIPS IN GENERAL aspects of relationship: length, stability, satisfaction possibly determinants: -passion, intimacy, commitment? 37% variance in relationship length accounted for by Big Five; conscientiousness important, and extraversion to some degree -agreeableness bit predictor of passion, intimacy and commitment ASSORTATIVE MATING: Method: 51 couples, heterosexual, time 1, mean relationship length 18 months, real vs randomly selected couples -conscientiousness seems big predictor -seem to go for similar attractiveness, political attitudes, religion, sexual unrestrictedness similarities too

Environmental moderation of genetic effects of 5-HTTLPR on depression meta-analysis (Risch et al., 2009)

RISCH: -number of stressful life events significantly associated with depression -no association between 5-HTTLPR genotype and depression in any of the indiviual studies, nor in weighted average -no interaction effect between genotype and stressful life events on depression

Environmental moderation of genetic effects of 5-HTTLPR on depression meta-analysis: (Risch et al., 2009; Karg et al., 2011

RISCH: no relation, nor interaction with 5-HTTLPR and stressful life events vs KARG: strong evidence of 5-HTTLPR as moderator between stress and depression differences in which studies included and meta-analysis techniques change results!

Explicit memory bias in depression (Matt, Vasquez & Campbell, 1992) meta-anlaysis

ROBUST findings that negative/ absence of positive bias in explicit recall, in clinically, subclinically and induced depressed -normal nondepressed ted to have bias to positive information

Cognitive distortion in depression: personalization

Relating negative events to self-attributes 'My friend is feeling low, it must be my fault for not being a good friend

testosterone effects on spatial ability of rats (Roof & Havents, '92; Williams and Mack, '91)

Roof & Havens: administering testosterone to female rats improved their spaital ability when adults castration of neonatal male rats had opposite effect Williams and mack: -changed how they navigated

Bulimia nervosa (BN) (origin)

Russell (1979) introduced after describing a series of 30 patients who were binge eating and purging at normal weight

List of which DSM-5 anxiety disorders have cognitive models

SAD, panic disorders, GAD

why siblings in same family are SIMILAR and DIFFERENT (equations)

SAME: a) Heritability (h^2) = 2( r(mz) - r(dz) -multiplied by 2 as DZ only share 50% genees b) shared environment (c^2) = r(mz) - h^2 i.e. correlation in MZ not due to genes DIFFERENT: -a) non-shared environment = 1- h^2 + c^2

Schizophreniform (DSM)

SCZ symptoms but only up to 6 months

personality and temperament similarities and differences

SIMILARITIES: - basically same thing -both behavioural tendencies, normally distributed, with two opposing poles - biological basis, but with environmental influences too - no definite consensus on number of trait/ temperament dimensions DIFFERENCES: -temperament more raw indicator of behaviour tendency -temperament less sophisticated, pre-developed version of personality - level of abstraction broader for temperament

similarities and differences between our intelligence tests

SIMILARITIES: - validated in large representative samples (concurrent and criterion validity) - items fulfill certain psychometric and statistical criteria -interpreted in terms of bell curve (nromal distirbution) -aim to assess IDs in ability DIFFERENCES: -scope, format and length -types of tests and items included -kind of intelligence -group or individually administered -precision of measure and underlying structure -costs -norms, standards and bias OVERALL ISSUE: how measure intelligence without a definition?

EXAMPLE: CBT modified dysfunctional thoughts record for positive belief in Eating Disorders

SITUATION: younger sister borrowed make-up without asking and said hurtful things. she'll hate me now and think I'm a bad person FEELINGS: -angry, upset, guilty (high percent) BELEIF: -eating will take my worries away (95%) -If I don't binge I'll go out of my mind with worry and guilt (90%) -Eating is a solution (100%) COUNTER_EVIDENCE -eating relieves short term worry but long term feel worse CONCLUSION: -need another coping mechanism, as worrying/ bingeing/ vomiting not get awywhere -need to talk to sister and apologise

treatment gone wrong: peer deviancy training: the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study Evaluation (Healy & Bronner, 1936; Powers & Witmer, 1951)

STRONG set up: -randomly assigned control vs treatment -matched-pair design: allow pairwise comparisons for effects of treatment differences, age and family structure -ensured randomization successful/ not unequal distribution of character relevant to delinquency: compared treatment vs controls, both immediately after beginning of training, and 3 years after random assignment -include both normal and difficult boys, although all lived in congested, rundown neighbourhood (avoid potential stigmatizing) - high participation -comprehensive help to boys and families -began when boys too young to be labelled delinquent -treatment lasted several years (family therapy, social skills training, psychoeducation and education help, summer camp) RESULTS: -signifciant HARM: bad outcome as a function of attending group summer camp -'bad outcome': deid prior age 35, convicted for serious crim, diagnose as alcoholig/ psychiatrically impaired e.g. SCZ, MDD 'not having undesirable outcome' anyone else CONCLUSION: -pervasive, 30-yr negative effects associated with repeated experiences in summer camps in early adolescents EVALUATION: -peer aspect?

Terman and Merrill (1937) Stanford-Binet sex differences

Stanford-Binet: even when eliminating subtests producing large sex effects in pilot versions, found tiny male advantage

stress and social defeat mechanism for mental health: conditioned defeat and the 'loser effect and Syrian hamster paradigm (Jasnow & Huhman, 2001)

Syrian hamsters: normally very aggressive e.g. when similar size hamster placed in-front of plexiglass -when repeatedly exposed to social defeat stress (dominant/ larger hamster) display CONDITIONED DEFEAT/ the LOSER EFFECT the loser effect: -when paired with smaller, non-aggressive hamster, normal Syrian hamster no longer territorial, but defensive and submissive (e.g. flee, tail lift, teeth chatter) -smaller effect in other species IMPACT: -seem linked to social dominance impacting future interactions, e.g. bullying, which may cause later poor outcomes e.g. poor mental health

Bullying on stress response (Oullet-Morin et al., 2011)

TASK: mild pscyhosocial stressor (PST) e.g. maths challenge that was very complex and got faster e.g. talk about worse experience at school (little feedback) -checked happy when left! RESULTS: - non-bullied cortisol response as expected (increase after PST) -bullied dysregulated response (flattening effect) - pattern after experience of maltreatment FOLLOW up whether this dysregulation is beneficial: -NO: worsened stress response due to maltreatment/ bullying worsens social, emotional and behaviour problems, and worse on the borderline personality scale

Interpretation biases in depression x 4 tests and biases

TEST: write down the word you hear: die/dye, week/weak, moan/ mown (ambiguous) as fast as you can, re-arrange ALL BUT ONE of the following words into a sentence: future dismal the very bright looks 'the future looks very dismal' often more bias towards vs very bright' vignette task for more complex situation interpretation bias: what matches reaction to a story? e.g. Fred like a girl, and one day thwey talked for a while, next time she came in and wave then walk away, and he sat alone -would you: be more assertive and pursue, unhappy that she likes to eat alone, thinks she dislikes you, she's playing games VISUAL: what emotional expression is this? depressed patients show deficit in detecting happiness and/ or exaggerated detection of sadness (i.e. interpret ambiguous faces as sad)

Implicit memory bias in depression (Bradley, Mogg, Williams, 1995)

Test encoding: 'rate how often you use these words (1-5)': misery, discouraged, bliss, pessimistic, grief, green etc TEST 'complete the word stem' GR_ _ _: depressed more likely-GRIEF (stronger priming effect) OR 'is this a real word?' (RT) green, domestic, enpine, traib, grief, death RESULTS: -depressed much stronger priming effect on depressed related words -not due to general priming effect, as on neutral words, control much better than anxious and depressed

Risk factor for conduct disorder: MAOA (Brunner et al., 1993)

The MAOA gene produces monoamine oxidase A (an enzyme that metabolises the neurotransmitters DA, nonadrenaline and 5-HT, rendering them inactive) -it has particular variations, some of which can produce human MAOA 'knockouts' with a low level of the enzyme -the MAOA gene is X-chromosome linked, so women can be either heterozygous or homozygous for MAOA (as only have two XX), whereas men can only carry on copy (hemizygous) as they have one X and one Y chromosome hypothesis: MAOA MAY make you more aggressive STUDY: of Dutch family where affect males showed characteristic abnormal behaviour, in particular aggressive and sometimes violent behaviour RESULTS: - 24 hr urine analysis in 3 affected males indicated marked disturbance of monoamine metabolism -genetic sequencing showed a point mutation in MAOA gene -compatible with primary defect in structural gene for MAOA CONCLUSION: -seem MAOA has very important role in CD (although many other factors that influence likelihood of aggression an arguable size effects of environment a lot bigger)

Criterion B (intrusion symptoms) for PTSD -DSM-5

The traumatic events is persistently re-experienced in (1 or more) of the following ways: -recurrent, involuntary and intrusive memories (6+ year old children may express in repetitive play) -traumatic nightmares (children may have frightening dreams without content related to the trauma/s) -dissociative reactions (e.g. flashbacks) which make occur on a continuum from brief episodes to complete loss of consciousness (children may re-enact in play) - intense or prolonged distress after exposure to traumatic reminders - marked physiological reactivity after exposure to trauma-related stimuli

Core beliefs (Beck)

The world: e.g. everything is against me because I'm worthless, noone values me Future: I'll never be good at anything, things can only get worse self: i'm worthless and inadequate, I wish I was differences e.g. depressive themes: loss, separation, failure, worthlessness, rejection

course of OCD (eisen et al., 2010)

Transitions (increased stress and responsibility) often associated with onset -e.g. being female and have a later age of onset are associated with higher likelihood of remissions from OCD -full remission (respite, dimunition) from OCD in adults (without treatment) is rare

Criterion E (alterations in arousal and reactivity) for PTSD -DSM-5

Trauma-related alterations in arousal and reactivity that began after the traumatic event (at least two required) -irritable or aggressive behaviour -self-destructive or reckless behaviour -hypervigilance -exaggerated startle response -problems in concentration -sleep distrubance

Types of trauma:

Type 1 trauma: acute-results from single accident Type II Trauma: (a) chronic trauma- repeated and prolonged e.g. IPV (intimate partner violence, childhood abuse/ neglect (v) complex trauma: varied and multiple traumatic events e.g. torture, refugee experience

Mechanisms of Deep Brain Stimulation for treatment-resistant depression (Bewernick et al., 2010)

UNCLEAR: -'silence' stimulated neurons? -modulate network activity/ neurotransmission at distal sites? -induces long-term synaptic changes (plasticity?) -'sensitize' brain to effects of other treatments (anti-depressants)?

IQ and health outcomes (Der et al., 2009)

US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979) -HUGE sample (12,868 aged 14 to 21 yrs in Dec 1978) -IQ test: Armed Services COational Aptitude BAttery/ Armed Forces Qualification Test -Follow up: between 1998 and 2004- aged 40 for self-reported physician diagnosed conditions and self-reported health problems RESULTS: -seem health issues generally mean lower IQ (apart from cold, chronic tumours etc) -e.g. most significant: eye trouble, ulcers, severe tooth ache, epilepsy, polio less signficantly lower odds ration per SD of IQ

Changes of classification of PTSD

Vietnam War catalysed change: -recognised range of common features -peace and feminist movement move from Anxiety Disorder (BArlow, 1988), to Stress Disorder (Davidson and Foa, 1991) to Trauma and stress-related disorder (DSM-5, 2013) -Dsm-5 wanted to distinguish disorder precipitated by traumatic stressors

is g independent from social intelligence? (Woodrow, '39) on GWIST

Woodrow: FA of GWIST and other IQ tests failed to show distinct social element

Screening for OCD: 3 x measures

Y-BOCS: Yales-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: semi-structured clinically administered , interview assessing presence of 64 obsessions and compulsions as well as associated symptom severity (good internal validity and reliable BUT very long and need trained raters) OCI-SV: Obsessive compulsive Inventory- Short versions (about 5 mins, 18 items rate 0-4, good conversions with Y-BOC) Florida Obsessive COmpulsive Inventory: again short, based on Y-BOC, ~20 items, adnd rate 0-5 severity

psychometric test

a way to test a standard sample of behaviour in a standardised environment, assessing the behaviour objectively ISSUES: -small sample -ignore influences of environment -takes Ps out of their usual environment -ignore influences of person ON environment e.g. if they interact better with usual environment -at a particular time point Typically lots of these IDs is ignored, as it makes it harder to get significant results - so often not good for individual differences, but can make good diagnostic tests (homogenous populations looked for) i.e. dedicated psychometric tests, designed to be susceptible to at least ONE ID (i.e. the diagnosis): -self-report questionnaires e.g. for personality, clinical symptoms, life quality -ability tests e.g. on IQ, numeracy, social skill -open-ended questionnaires: qualitative research where Ps set research agenda, themes and content -structured interview (used heavily in clinical research) e.g. the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule or stuctured clinical interview for DSM-V (diagnosis and statistical manual for mental disorders)

Summary DSM-5 PTSD criteria

a) Traumatic event b) 1+ re-experiencing symptoms c) 1+ avoidance symptoms d) 2+ negative alterations in cognition and mood e) 2+ arousal f) duration longer than 1 month g) functional impairment h) exclusion -also dissociative symptoms -delayed expression (not until at least 6 months after the trauma)

Defining psychological disorders (vs everyday): impairing patterns of behaviour x 3

a) to individual's life: e.g. struggle to leave house, socialise with agoraphobia b) to family and friends e.g. depressed individual may isolate c) to society e.g. aggressive tendencies may become violent to others BUT capture all of what mean by psychological disorder?

panic disorder example safety behaviours

breathing slowly --> rescue remedy --> control thoughts ---> water --> sit down

Vernon (1933) definitions of social intelligence

ability to get on well with others in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters (e.g. sympatise, empathise), susceptibility to stimuli from other members of a groups (e.g. get others to like you), as well as an insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits in strangers LIMITS/ QUESTIONS -is it unitary? -coherent

Mentalizing

ability to represent the mental states of the self and others other terms: theory of mind, mentalizing, cognitive empathy, mind reading an important social skill!! e.g. for predicting behaviour of others,

reliability coefficient

about how much shared variance/ how much one test can predict another, with two versions, at different times, with different observers -range from 0 (no reliability) to 1 (perfect reliability) e.g. 0.85 means 85% of variance in test scores depend on true variance in traits measured (not what claimed to be measured) and 15% depends on error variance -can then break down into e=different components if experiment yield multiple types of reliability coefficient (e.g. stable, content sampling, time sampling, interscorer difference)

personality and life outcomes (inc Caspi, 2000)

adding in reason for interest in personality relationship with outcomes e.g. - academic performance -job performance -romantic relationships -health/ mortality -happiness? Capsi (200) also strong effects personality-related life-outcomes (Seems stable behavioural patterns of IDs can affect lifespan development) -mental health -alcohol dependence -social networks - marital status -suicide attempts -criminal behaviour LIMITS? -potentially just parenting

how well do anti-depressants work?

after 3 month of treatment, proportion with depression who will be improved: -50-65% (vs 25-30% with inactive placebo) -works quite well QUESTIONS: -why take ~3-4 weeks for significant effect, yet 5-HT work immediately? -why 30%+ not respond/ treatment resistant? e.g.. (Trivedi et al., 2006) show good shift that most had no/ mild symptoms after citalopram, but still some with strong depressive symptoms

Cognitive therapy comparison on relapse (Clark et al., 1994)

after 6-15 months (% relapsed and required further treatment: -very small cognitive therapy relapse (about 5%) -slightly more for applied relaxation:25% -much higher for imipramine (40%)

Imagery modification (Eating disorders)

aim to modify core beliefs in early life from negative and adverse events -core beliefs are rational or emotional -after identifying the key beliefs maintaining the problem Ps use imagery e.g. of early example where core beliefs were activated -work with image (with careful checking with patient) to help modify the scene in their imagination and discover how that feels and how it leaves them thinking can be very powerful in changing rational beliefs, which hard to modify with verbal methods

selective prevention approach to prevent mental health

aimed at high-risk individuals who have not yet developed metal disorder (e.g. predisposition, or experienced adversity)

indicated prevention approach to prevent mental health

aimed at those who have some symptoms of mental disorder but not yet meet diagnostics criteria EVALUATION: within categorical approach, like secondary support?

Human Genome Project (1990) race to draft sequence

aimed to construct high resolution genetic map of human genome by 2003 (50th anniversary of double helix, Watson & Cricl) -aim for draft sequence finished in July, 2000 -'complete' sequence to be published in 2001 race between a) International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium ('public project') vs b) Celera Genomics ('private project')

Keating (1978) on whether concept of social intelligence makes sense?

average correlation between social ability tests .28 average correlation between social tests and IQ tests .33

personality and job performance (Wang & Mount, 2010, meta-analysis)

all of Big 5 relatively similar degree of association with job performance (minor variations) , but conscientiousness as the highest/ core dimension

social self-report and personality (Schneider 1996)

all social measures correlated with Extroversion, Openness, and Agreeableness of Big 5 model

nature vs nurture: intelligence

always BOTH (especially or something so complex), but useful to see how much attributable to gene -greater number of genes influencing a characteristic, the more finely graded the variations in that characteristic -genes can wholly determine 'either-or' characteristics but only PROBABILISTICALLY assosciated with the more 'trait like' ones INTELLIGENCE: -influenced by huge amount of genes (each with small effect) and likely influenced by G x G and G x E interactions

principle behind amygdala and depression

amygdala: limbic region, MTL involved in: -threat detection -directing attention to emotionally salient/ ambiguous stimuli to engage further processing (especially is novel, surprising, unpredictable, ambiguous- as assumed worse in depression) -emotional learning (and conditioning e.g. of fear expression)

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: cognitive effects of biological treatment - quote of work antidepressants (Harmer et al., 2009)

antidepressants may not directly modulate mood and anxiety but rather allow a different perspective for ongoing evaluation of our self, the world and the future (i.e. cognitive mediation of treatment response) i.e. mechanism mediated but subtle cognitive differences, hence delay for any subjective change in depressios

developmental psychopathology key concepts: risk factors

any condition or circumstance that increase likelihood that psychopathology will develop (e.g. biological factors, genetic, psychosocial factors)

Conduct disorder (CD) diagnostic criteria

at least 3 symptoms present in past 12 months with one in last 6 months: -aggressive behaviour towards other or animals -frequent physical altercations with others -use weapon to harm other -deliberately physically cruel to other people -or to animals -involvement in confrontational economic order crime e.g. mugging -has perpetrated a forcible sex act on another -property destruction by arson -or by other means - has engaged in non-confrontational economic order crime e.g. breaking and entering -or in non-confrontational retail theft e.g. shoplifting -disregarded parent's curfew before age 13 -run away from home at least twice -been truant before age 13

coercive family behaviour theory of conduct disorder (Patterson, 1982)

behavioural problems thought to evolve from cyclic patterns of coercive parent-child interactions characterized by: -escalating parent and child demands -escalating negative consequences -the person who dispenses most negative consequence 'wins' -problems with 'winning the battle' while 'losing the war'

Male greater spatial ability explanation (Jones et al., '03)

best predictor is range size e.g. range travelled in a day in monogamous species there's no sex differences, promiscuous species males travel over greater spatial ranges, hence the sex differences -evidence that early human males had greater spatial range than females (hunters vs gatherers)

interpersonal pscyhotherapy of EDs

brief- time-limited therapy focus on improve interpersonal functioning e.g. problem area: interpersonal deficits =-description: long standing history of self-isolation, low-self-esteem, loneliness, inability to form or maintain intimate relationships - IPT stragy: reduce their self isolation, encourage form new relationships

polygenic risk scores (PRS)

calculated from many small genetic variance e.g. GWAS in SNP form, combine genetic variants for a psychological disorder -many genes identified can be shared across different psychological disorders -tells us how a person's risk compares to others

Cognitive Model of panic disorder (Clark, 1986)

catastrophic misinterpretation of bodily sensations Start with trigger (internal or external --> (mis)perceived as threat --> apprehension this then a vicious cycle : apprehension --> bodily sensations --> catastrophic interpretation ---> apprehension

International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium

collaboration would be open to centres from any nation - 20 centres x 6 countries -US, UK, China, France, Germany, Japan rapid and unrestricted data release - assembled sequences >2kb were deposited within 24 hours of assembly. uncovering of sequence

The human Genome Project (1990)

collaborative effort to: - construct high resolution genetic map of the human genome -produce physical maps of all the chromosomes aim: -determine genome sequence of human (and other model organisms) by 2003 -develop capabilities (technologies) for collecting, storing, distributing and analysing data

Explicit memory bias in depression (Bradley, Mogg & Williams, 1995)

compared control, anxious an depressed participants' explicit memory for depression related, anxiety-related, positive and neutral words RESULTS: --only difference was with depressed patients recalling more depression-related words (recall about 4) -all Ps equal equal recall for other categories (about 4 for neutral, 2 for anxious, positive and depression)

Gardner (Frame of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences; 1983)

completely distinct interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences: 1) visual-spatial 2)linguistic-verbal 3) logical-mathematical 4)bodily-kineasthetic 5)Musical 6)Naturalistic 7) INTERPERSONAL: (more emotional intelligence) self-awareness, personal cognizance, personal objectivity, capability to understand oneself, and ones relationship to others and the world, and one's own need for, and reaction to, change 8) INTRAPERSONAL: (more social intelligence) perception of others' feelings, ability to relate to others, interpretation of behaviour and communications, understand the relationships between people and their situations (including to other people)

prevalence of PTSD in populations with specific trauma

concentration camp survivors: 50% -rape crisis (46%) -terrorist (30%) -combat veterans (30%) -fire fighters (14%) -natural disaster (3%)

Need for research into moral injury in UK, and current research so far

considering lack of research, and high psychological impact -current research found common occurrence: when unclear rules of conduct, trasitions of normal life (rules, contexts), adverse events as a child, lack of social support

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): health

consistent association with mental health (.3) and some relationship with physical health (.22; Schutte et al., 2007) -e.g. high EI = lower rates of personality disorder and self harming (Mikolajczak, Petrides & Hurry, '09) -e.g. Mokolajczak & Bellegem ('17) for every 1% in EI, 1% decrease in healthcare spending (greater for less education) BUT only trait EI, not Ability EI (Martins, Romalho & Morin, 2010) -trait EI overlap with (low) Neuroticism, that has strong established connections with psychological and physical symptoms

sex differences in IQ sub-tests

consistent findings: females outscore males: verbal ability, memory, perceptual speed males outscore females: spatial ability, mechanical reasoning, maths dofferences can be large (3-13 IQ points)

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): success at work

consistent, but poor-quality literature -Van Rooy & Viswesvaran ('04) meta-analysis: EI and job performance positively correlated (.23), EI related to lower levels of job stress, higher levels job satisfaction and stronger job commitment (but not controlled for Big 5 or IQ) -Cote & Miners (2006) MSCEIT EI predict supervisor-assessed performance and (some aspects of) citizenship in sample of 175 uni employees, and more strongly for people with lower cognitive ability -Joseph et al ('15) meta-analysis: some EI measures associated with workplace success largely (but not entirely, as overlapped with othr IDs that predict this success. Some incremental validity over these, but not much)

Trait EI , or trait emotional self-efficacy (Petrides, Pita & Kokkinaki, 2007)

constellation of emotion self-perceptions located at lower levels of personality hierarchies, hence personality-like test instruments

treatment gone wrong: PTSD debriefing (Mayou, Ehlers & Hubbs, 2000)

context: psychiatric problems common after traffic accidents (PTSD) -immediate intervention after trauma and psych. debriefing recommended to help with intiial distress and prevent later post-traumatic symptoms -these services established for those at high-risk following disasters in other post-traumatic situations REASON: simple before and after studies show decrease in PTSD symptoms BUT: -evaluating randomized control trials, intervention interfere with natural recovery -PTSD symptoms reduced from intervention, but much less than normal recovery

dlPFC and depression (Fales et al., 2009)

converse to Hervey et al (2005) that reduced activation at rest, and increased activation in non-emotional WM tasks when match performance TASK: attend or ignore emotional faces: - executive control during emotional processing REDUCED activation in depressed patients (right dlPFC) -linked with increased AMYGDALA activity -resolved after successful treatment (SSRI) - difference in activity disappears

Ford and Tisak (1983) social-social vs social-IQ correlations

correlation within social tests .36 average between social and IQ, correlation .26 not huge difference, but in right direction (social abilities better correlated with each other than with IQ)

Happe and Frith (2014) of processes in social intelligence, as criticism of current tests of social intelligence (main subfactors and examples if further sub factors within these)- photo on phone!

current tests of social intelligence don't even begin to cover the processes involved in social intelligence they put together a basic mindmap of the minor fractions involved in social cognition, which could even have more sub-factors than they outline main subfactors: -agent identification (biological motion discrimination) -individuals information store e.g. face processing, stereotyping -affiliation (attachment) -mental state attribution (pretend play, reputation management) -emotional processing -in-group/out-group -social hierarchy mapping -social policing ((fairness monitoring) This are all connected indirectly via other subfactors, although some have unique subfactors (brackets above) some are directly connected e.g. Individuals information store and social hierarchy mapping PHONE FOR PHOTO

Cognitive distortion in depression: arbitrary reference

drawing negative conclusions based on little or no evidence e.g. 'My friend didn't text me back. They must hate me'

CBT for EDs

designed to produce cognitive change: -emphasise self-monitoring of eating and weight -psychoeducation about weight, shape and eating -establishing regular pattern of eating (including snacks) -involve sig. other (Family, friends, partner) -identifying barriers to change -work on maintenance mechanisms (over-evaluation of shape and weight, of control of eating, dietary restrain and restriction, being underweight and event or mood-triggered changes in eating

critical questions on classifying psychological disorders and comorbidity

different disorders- similar causes or underlying pathways? CAUSES: e.g. depression normally low mood, but also checking (OCD) and neuroticism/ worrying (Anxiety) e.g. anxiety normally worrying, but also low mood (depression), social awkwardness (ASD), checking, hallucinations (SCZ) - comorbidity is the rule (Rather than the exception) e.g. depression and anxiety or AN; Bipolar disorder and SCZ; anxiety and OCD;

social defeat mechanism for SCZ (Selten et al., 2013)

different types of social defeat (childhood trauma e.g. abuse bullying, migration) associated with SCZ - other associated factors of SCZ possible role in social defeat: urban upbringing, low IQ, psychiatric disorder, illicit drug use -social defeat then associated with SCZ)

Role of emotions (psychosocial) in causing Eds

difficulties in affective functioning - negative affect predicts EDs transdiagnostically -high comorbidity with depressive disorders and anxiety disorders

Research Domain Criteria (RDoc) (Sanislow et al., 2010)

dimensional approach alternative to DSM/ ICD (disorder groups/ symptoms clusters) -focuses on specific psychological processes/ domains of human processing (e.g. negative and positive affect, cognition, arousal/ regulatory systems, social processes) often dysregulated in psychological disorders and relates these to specific biological processes

Bulimia Nervosa (BN) dimensional measure of frequency for severity

dimensional measure of severity (frequency of inappropriate compensatory behaviours per week (1-3 =mild, 4-7= moderate, 8-13=severe, 14+ =extreme)

Network Perspective approach to diagnose psychological disorders (Borsboom & Cramer, 2013; Schittmann et al., 2013)

disorder result from causal interplay between symptoms themselves -individuals/ groups then may have different (risky) networks for certain symptoms and likelihood to certain disorders i.e. go through cluster of symptom/ diagnoses in different ways e.g. depression from: tiredness cause concentration difficulties, which cause self-content, which causes sad mood, which causes loss of pleasure in activity IMPLICATIONS: -intervention focus on symptoms somewhere within an individual's network

Behaviour experiments: role of safety behaviours

do safety behaviours prevent feared outcomes? Yes, they maintain the problem by: (a) prevent disconfirmation (ii) sometime produce more of the symptoms that get misinterpreted e.g. in behaviour experiments: bring on fainting sensation but not allow to sit down,

criterion validity

does the new test correlate with the established test (s)? - testes are validated by relating them to test performance on criterion measures -generally restrcited to contexts where test scores of a group of examinees are compared with ratings, classifications or other test scores (E.g. school marks, job evaluations, salary)

incremental validity

does the test add predictive value to existing tests -very useful in judging whether a test should be deployed (Weighed against cost of test) e.g. Conard (2005) found the Conscientiousness significantly predicted the GPA of college students over and above SATs PRO: -good practical utility

predictive validitiy

does the test predict future criterion values - measured whenever the criterion measure is not available until some time after the test is administered -when measured performance (Criterion) at a later time, and original test (rpedictor) predicts criterionscores often important e.g. in aptitiude, intellignece tests -although, the correlation is seldom over .60 - need to interpret with caution, as not more than 36% of variation in criterion scores can be predicted from scores on pre-test

Bullying and depression in UK (Bowes et al., 2015)

dose-response effect: higher percentage of depression from no, to occasional to frequent victimization -even if adjust for pre-existing factors: gender, concurrent depression, previous depression, behavioural problems, IQ, social class, maternal education, maternal depression, maltreatment RESULT: - population attributable fraction suggests 26..1% depression may be attributable to bullying -26% of stress response (cortisol measure)/ depression at 18 yrs in ALSPAC, may be due to bullying CONCLUSION: - bullying may accoutn for substantial proportion of cases of clinical depression

Cognitive distortion in depression: maximisation/ minimization

downplaying the positives and emphasizing the negatives in a situations I pass a test ' I only passed because it was easy'

Comorbidity in network perspective (Cramer, Waldorp, van der Maas & Borsboom, 2010)

each disorder is cluster of causally related symptoms comorbidity from bridge symptoms causally related to symptoms in both disorders

Environmental moderation of genetic effects of 5-HTTLPR on depression (Caspi et al., 2003)

effects of 5-HTTLPR differ in different environments: -in absence of stressful life events,so effect of 5-HTTLPR variant on probability of major depressive disorder (MDDD) -however, as number of stressful life events increase, dose-response effect -s/s --> s/l --> l/l from highest to lowest probability of MDD episode

Error variance

error variance: any condition IRRELEVANT to purpose of test e.g. difference sin mood, personality etc, and what error variance for one purpose may not be for another sources: 1) time sampling 2) content sampling 3) content heterogeneity 4) observer differences

psychiatrists

evidence based thoeries and treatments for different traits e.g. diagnosis and treatment of anxiety and depressions

Historicity of PTSD

evidence shows symptoms change over time with specific types of symptomology following trauma in different era

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): aggression

expect EI related to aggression EI does predict aggression: e.g. levels of emotion knowledge predicted levels of IDR or more subtle aggressive behaviour, even after controlling for personality traits (Pelaez-Fernandez, Extremera & Fernandez-Berrocal, 2014) systematic review: higher EI (both trait and ability) associated with lower levels of aggressive behaviours (Across age and cultures). Aggression often results from misperceiving others' behaviour as hostile, less likely in high EI (Garcia-Sancho, Salguero & Fernandez-Berrocal, 2014)

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): relationships

expect EI to be correlated with relationship quality meta-analysis: positive correlation with relationship satisfaction (r=.3) BUT what direction of relation? and some non-replication Brackett et al (2005) mixed EI couples > both high > both low (relationship quality)

Apperly & Butterfill (2009) on two mentalizing systems

explicit system of mentalizing -cognitively demanding -late developing (~age 5) -e.g. Sally Anne task, have to think about Sally FB despite own TB implicit mentalizing system: - automatic, efficient -early developing (7 months) -can represent FB even without language

Issue with psychological disorders classification, shown with ADHD diagnosis over time

exponential growth of diagnosis over time for boys, (girls linear increase) both have lower number visits is use stimulation or atomoxetine ISSUE: due to change in diagnostic threshold, and benefit for drug company etc

Criterion A (traumatic event) for PTSD- ICD-11

exposure to stressful event or situation of exceptionally threatening or horrific nature likely to cause pervasive distress in almost anyone

Cognitive distortion in depression: overgeneralisation

extrapolating from negative outcomes to a broad range of contexts e.g. I miss one deadline 'I'm useless at everything

Network approach/ perspective to DSM IV disorders (Borsboom & Cramer, 2013)

factor analysis reveal natural clusters, like disorder classification (mood disorders, anxiety, substance use etc) rather than a single latent factor -whilst also having dispersion of symptoms

developmental psychopathology key concepts: protective factors

factors that protect an at-risk child from developing pschopathology e.g. parental warmth, social support

bullying and link to other risk factors: x 2

family characteristics: -harsh and reactive parenting -family poverty characteristics of child: -early physical aggression -shyness, social withdrawal

Studying genetics of psychological disorders: family studies

family history adoption studies twin studies (limit: not tell us WHICH genes responsible)

cross culture mental health services

few countries have significant psychiatric services , often due to lack budget, legislation, psychiatric drugs, doctor training problems can increase during civil disturbance or violence (e.g. interrupt or access of treatment)

finishing phase of DNA sequencing

fill in gaps and resolve ambiguities from shotgun phase, fragments must be sequence~10x to reach accuracy of > 99%

PONS (Rosenthal, 1975)

film clips of woman in emotional state, and had to identify emotional state

Binge Eating Disorder Origin

first described by Dr Albert Stunkard, 1959 then added DSM-V (2013) as relatively new exclusive category, but limited epidemiological data

personality and health (Friedman et al., 1993)

form the Terman Life Cycle Study - started in 1922 with over 1500 gifted children with IQ of 135_ -assessed psychological, demographic and social variables evry 5 to 10 years -conscientiousness predicted mortality (both male and female)

MSCEIT predictive validity (mayer, 2008)

found: modest correlations with other-related social competence, number of friends etc LIMIT massive claims with little evidence

Hierarchical Factors (Caroll, 1993)

from extensive analyses on the structure of human mental abilities to date -used FA, from more than 1500 data sets, used 461 of satisfactory quality and diverse samples of infants, college students and older and old adults, and physically and mentally ill -used multivariate analyses concluded with Three Striatum Model of Intelligence: 1st striatum: g 2nd striatum: Gf, Gc, memory and learning, visual perception, auditory perception, retrieval ability, cognitive speediness, processing speed 3rd striatum: - for Gf: reasoning, induction, speed -for Gc: language, comprehension. reading -memory: memory span, recall, learning ability -visual perception: spatial relations, perceptual speed, imagery -auditory: hearing threshold, sound discrimination, rhythm -retrieval: fluency, originality, figural flexibility -cog. speed: rate of test taking -processing speed: RT, processing speed, comparison speed PRO: -second striatum explain a lot of unexplained vairance after g explain 50% of variance -further unexplained is explained by thrid striatum

Camberwell Depression Study (McGuffin, Katz, Aldrich, Bebbington, 1988)

from individual with diagnosis, 38.9%% lifetime prevalence (vs 10-15% in general population) in first degree relatives -potential genetic explanation for depression

Delayed expression for PTSD -DSM-5

full diagnosis not met until at least 6 months after the trauma(s) although onset of symptoms may occur immediately

ventral/ orbital PFC and depression (Drevets et al., 1992)

function of vmPFC: - representation of reward and punishment -using reward and punishment to guide behaviour -subjective hedonic processing e.g. feeling of joy/ pleasure from something (Orbitofrontal) IN DEPRESSION: - at rest: INCREASED (hyperactive) activity in LEFT VLPFC (around 5-8%) -RECOVERED not different from controls (2007) potentially INCREASED activity in OFC during tasks that involve reward/ punishment processing (although other tasks show opposite) EVALUATION: - maybe hyperactive vmPFC create too much negative emotion through connection to amygdala/ hypothalamus, OR too much self-insight/ self-reflection( rumination behaviour CONCLUSION: -vmPFC CRITICAL ROLE IN EMOTION REGULATION and therefore in DEPRESSION

Natural history of PTSD (Richards, 1997)

generally good recovery -big recovery in the first 10 weeks, then plateaux and slight recovery -generally without formal treatment

Early study on temperament (Thomas & Chess, 1970s-1990)

group infants into three temperaments: - easy -difficult - slow to warm up 141 children studied from infancy to young adulthood, suggest temperament stability over childhood, but didn't predict adult outcome ALTHOUGH LATER STUDIES (e.g. Dunedin study): temperament stable only over first 3 years, with SOME predictive power in later years

case control study for genetic association (simplified)

have case group, that express trait have control group, that not express trait -compare percentage of different nucleotides in each group, and see which seem associated with case group e.g. SNP: cytosine (C) and thymine (T) CASE GROUP: 62% (C) and 38% (T) CONTROL: 49% (C) and 51% (T) -so see C SNP associated with disorder

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: cognitive effects of biological treatment (Murphy et al., 2009)

healthy volunteers given single dose of citalopram (and compared to no drug/ before drug) -no effect on mood -behaviour: increased recognition of happy faces (post-scane) -fmri: decreased amygdala response to fearful faces

heritability of intelligence (study findings, including over age, and potential explanation)

heritability of IQ range from .5 to .8 (deary, Spinath & Bates, 2006) -g becomes increasingly heritable with age: at 9age, heritability at .41; at 12=.55; age 17=.66 and continues to increase (Bouchard, 2014; Haworth et al., 2010) -whereas environmental influence (larger role than genetics age 5) decrease rapidly as approach early teens (Bouchard, 2014) -maybe as mature, start to exercise active choice on environment and seek environments and activities based on internal, genetically-based personal preferences and abilities

Meta-analysis of twin studies on depression (Sullivan, Neale and Kendler, 2000) heritability, shared and non-shared environment

heritability ~31%-42% shared environment: close to 0% (parenting style, SES, local environment) non-shared environment ~ 58%-67% (individual-specific events) big impact!

shotgun phase of DNA sequencing

hierarchical shotgun sequencing used to produce draft sequence of 90% genome

trait EI and personality (Saklofske, Austin, Minski, 2003)

high correlations e.g with higher extraversion, lower neuroticism and lower impulsivity

Depression heterogenetiy

high degree of variation among people with depression on: -symptoms -course of illness -response to treatment also highly c-morbid (over half have an Anxiety Disorder) likely caused by number of complex and interacting causes

EI and life outcomes (predictive validity): childhood relationships (social ability)

higher EI= greater social ability (circular as social ability part of EI?) EI predict social skill age 8 (Izard et al., 2001) after control for verbal ability and (some) personality traits -emotion regulation and knowledge age 3predicts nursery social competence (Denham et al., 2003) -MSCEIT strategic scores predict number of friendship nominations after controlling for IQ and Big 5 (Mestre et al., 2006) -for men (not women) MSCEIT scores predicted perceived social competence (.5, Brackett , 2006)

potential mechanisms of IQ to longevity

higher IQ --> better informd --> avoids risks/ better impulse control -> more likely healthy lifestyle --> live longer

Nature of threat representations (as maintenance mechanism) - McManus, CLark, Ehlers et al., 1998)

how interpret e.g. depersonalization in panic attack, interpret as lose control, try and suppress/ reaction actualy prolongs

social contagion and social media and emotion word generation (Adam & Kramer et al., 2014)

huge 600,000+ users, and manipulated whether exposed to emotional content/ expression and if this reflect their posting tendencies -code posts for goodness/ badness RESULTS: - signficant results, that content viewed correlated with posts made THEIR CONCLUSIONS: - emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion, leading others to experience same emotions without direct interaction, and in complete absence of non-verbal cues BUT quite controversial

Williamson moral injury key findings:

i) UK veterans often experience moral injury ii) significantly associated with poor mental health outcomes iii) potential risk factors: vulnerable victims (e.g. children, injured, elderly) unpreparedness for psych. and emotional consequences of decisions, lack of moral support, multiple experiences of morally challenging experiences) iv) lack of treatment manual and screening measure ake treatment difficult to administer for clinicians

Defining psychological disorders (vs everyday): violating statistical norms and limit

i.e. psychological disorder if deviate from the norm, this then allows for e.g. certain people who just feel sad every so often LIMIT: - are individuals e.g. infrequent sad thoughts also disordered

Salovey & Mayer Goleman (1990) emotional intelligence

identify and manage emotions in self and others

Kendler et al (1995) risk of onset of major depression as function of genetic liability and severe stressful life event

if stressful life event absent: -very low risk of onset regardless genertic liability interaction when present sever life evet: - risk decrease with genetic liability -dose-response effect

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: cognitive effects of biological treatment SUMMARY (Harmer, 2008)

in HEALTHY volunteers no subjective mood effects but change emotional information processing e.g. ACUTE SSRI (e.g. few hours) -increase recognition of happy facial expressions -increased attention to positive socially relevant stimuli -increased fearful face recognition -in some cases, increase startled response e.g. CHRONIC SSRI (e.g. 7 days) -more likely interpret ambiguous facial expressions as happy -positive bias in personality adjective recall -reduced perception of fearful, angry and disgusted facial expressions -reduced emotion-potentiated startle

development fo research in trauma

in last 2-3 decades, increase in discussion of trauma and its effects, with particular focus on PTSD previous systematic reviews show PTSD to be the most commonly studied psychopathology in aftermath of trauma

Brain abnormality account of OCD

inconclusive evidence (at best) for abnormalities in processing related to neural networks in orbitofrontal-subcortical circuit (basal ganglia and thalamus) about problem in CONNECTIVITY

Koenen (2017) cross cultural access to mental health services

increase speciality mental health treatment as country income increases

Mechanisms for association of IQ and mortality (Batty et al., 2007)

interaction between: -parental intelligence -socio-economic environment -nutrition -somatic/ psychiatric illness all contribute to Pre-morbid IQ Pre-morbid IQ impacts -disease and injury prevention (most explored) -disease and injury management -higher Socio-economic position -psychiatric illness system integrity impact pre-morbid IQ and mortality All factors impacted by pre-morbid IQ (from disease and injury prevention to psychiatric illness), associated with mortality

Example of developmental tasks (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998)

infancy to preschool: -attachment to caregiver(s) - language -deviation of self from environment -self-control and compliance Middle childhood: - school adjustment (attendance, apt conduct) -academic achievement (learning to read, maths) -getting along with peers -rule governed conduct (e.g. rules of society for moral behaviour and prosocial conduct adolescence: -successful transition to secondary school -academic achievement: learning skills for higher education -extracurricular -close friendships and across gender -cohesive sense of self identity

g and Inspection time (T)- Grudnik & Kranzler (2001)

inspectio time: shortest duraction for which a stimulus can be presented befored being removed ('masked') and still have accurate report about what stimulus was (very simple task unlike normal measures of IQ) MEta-analysis: 92 studies, 4,000 Ps RESULTS: - correlation of -.51 with general ability (BIG correlation) PRO: -almost completely free of learning and culutral infleucne

Jaffee et al (2005) Conduct Disorder twin study on risk

interactive effect with genetic risk and maltreatment -as genetic risk increase, the bigger the difference between maltreated and nonmaltreated on child conduct problems highest risk: MZ co-twin with CD diagnosis -DZ co-twin diagnosis of CD -DZ- without CD diagnosis lowest risk: MZ co-twin without CD diagnosis

content heterogeneity as error variance

internal consistency coefficient e.g. Cronbach Alpha which can roughly be interpreted as the item inter-correlation -could measure split-half reliability e.g. consider test as consisting of two parts measuring the same thing PRO: as parallel forms often expensive and extremely difficult to create * NOT a measure of dimensionality (for this need factor analysis)

GAD Cognitive model/ processes (Dugas et al., 1995; Borkovec, 1984)l)

intolerance of uncertainty, e.g. about future, and lead to stress, impaired function - severity due to higher intolerance for uncertainty (Dugas) cognitive avoidance of worrying thoughts/ events and try replace with positive (Borovec)

Exposure and response prevention (ERP) behavioural therapy for OCD (Drummond and Edwards, 2018)

involves two elements: 1) exposure: seeking ti have the client engage in prolonged exposure to feared stimulus 2) response prevention: refrain from engaging in compulsions - these should ensure extinction NORMALLLY: -ritualization: anxiety increases when feeling 'contaminated', and then falls when ritualisation occurs -this reductions is for only a little, before thoughts return ERP: -anxiety rises higher than normal level allowed before ritual -habituation follows: eventually anxiety response reduces, lower than post-rituals anxiety reudction

Bullying as non-specific risk factor (Arsenault, Bowes and Shakoor, 2010)

it's a psycho-social stressor associated with many harmful psycho-social outcomes: -emotional problems -behaviour problems -poor academic achievement -self-harm -suicidal ideation -psychotic symptoms

Caspi et al (2013) one general psychopathy factor in structure of psychiatric disorders?

longitudinal (age 18-38) DUNEDIN data, examining mental health and which statistical model bets fit Confirmatory FA: -model A: initially thought structure could be summarised y 3 core dimensions (externalising, internalising, thought disorder) -Model B: p factor underlies the disorders within the three factors -Model B revised: p-factors underlies all disorders, but majority of factors fit into externalizing vs internalizing -Model C (best fit): propensity to develop any and all forms of common psychopathology (SCz, OCD< fears, GAD< MDD< CD, drugs/ alcohol use, Mania) can be summarised by general underlying dimension (p-factor) ASSOCIATIONS WITH P_FACTOR: -greater life impairment and familiality -worse development history -more compromised brain function in early life (age 3)

Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS)

look at the many common genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant associated with a trait -typically focus on associations between SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism) and traits e.g. psychological disorders

Frances Rice et al., (2009) Conduct Disorder smokers and related/ unrelated pregnancy

looked at likelihood of child show anti-social behaviour as whether pregnant women genetically related to offspring, and when pregnant woman smoked during pregnancy RESULTS -increased antisocial behaviour in related, but not unrelated (surrogacy pregnancy), offspring of pre-natal smokers and non-smoker CONCLUSION: - suggest importance of inherited in association of prenatal smoking and offspring anti-social behaviour

Mcintosh et al (2019) genes with genome-wide signficance in depression

lots of SNPs each with tiny effect/ association - need lots of pooled data -although still issue of missing heritability problem

cognitive impairments of schizophrenia

low performance in: memory, processing speed, WM, EF, problem-solving, social cognition (what others think, their emotions) impairments independent of treatment medication and psychotic symptoms (sometimes traced back to development) impairments manifest similarly across the world, often associated with functional outcomes

common challenge of psychological disorders: heterogeneity

many disorders have heterogeneity within themselves e.g. only need 2 or more symptoms for a certain amount of time e.g. SCZ, only need 2+ symptoms most of the time for at least 1 month -could have two people with SCZ but non overlapping symptoms

serotonin hypothesis of depression

many genetic studies have implicated 5-HT in (risk for) depression, although maybe indirectly e.g. through cognitive processes like emotion-processing (but again, mixed findings), rather than directly affecting mood LIMIT: - inconsistent findings e.g. with Acute Tryptophan Depletion that limited to some vulnerable people, indicating 5-HT depletion alone is insufficient - failures to replicate - studies underpowered

personality CHANGE and life outcomes (Hoff et al., 2020)

measured change in personality traits over 12 years (17-29 years) of approx 1800 people RESULTS: - changes in personality traits predicted life outcomes over and above personality and IQ (crystallised intelligence) strongest effects: - emotional stability (income and career satisfaction) -conscientiousness (career satisfaction) -extraversion (career and job satisfaction)

serotonin and emotion processing (Harmer et al., 2009)

measured face recognition of happiness -PLACEBOS: comparison better than depressed patients -depressed patients, with high dose of acute reboxetine antidepressant, improved recognition for 1-2 days (short, and can't feel subjective change in mood- before conscious awareness) Conclusions: -5-HT and SSRIs important role indirectly in improving depression e.g. improving cognitive processes which improve mood overtime

individual differences (general, purpose, importance, method, issue)

measuring differences between idnviduals e.g. personality, intelligence, social, emotional -want general , MAJOR differences (and similarities) between and within individuals , not just differents behaviours, for example, in which case have unuseful amounts of data -often via similar to Factor Analysis and Test Theory Purpose: -predict behavior over wide range of settings and extending over long time IMPORTANCE: - anything wanting equitable society need to understand IDs e.g. education, wealth, success, health, happiness, -understanding others e.g. for friendship, hiring -making efficient interventions and observing interactions e.g. where drugs may not work for some, nor cognitive therapy from others MEthod: -look at latent (unobservable, causal factor of behaviour)/ domains of functioning e.g. personality, intelligence, morality, patterns of thoughts, abilities, risk preference -often with psychometric tests or inventories -want principled way of deriving domains (reduce number need to measure) - COVARIANCE Historical issue: -moved to eugenics, and selective breeding

conspecifics

members of the same species

potential depression treatment alternatives to CBT

memory specific or cognitive specific training

Historical claims on sex differences in IQ

men have greater intelligence, and there are sex differences in specific aspects of intelligence and in variability of intelligence -but not generally accepted that score equally on IQ tests globally -some claim that due to tests designed to show no sex differences, but pretty much a false claim

IQ and health behaviours (smoking; Taylor et al., 2003)

mental age at age 11 (IQ) predict current smokers (lower IQ than those who gave up)

Roberts and DelVecchio (2000) rank-order changes of personality

meta- analysis over 152 studies almost 40,000 oeioke in test re-test correlations across age groups -studies included sel-report, observer, and projective measures (e.g. what see in blobs etc) RESULTS: -no affect of gender - increased rank-order trait consistency as get to older age groups -personality stability increases with age, but never reaches unity (never stops)- continues to dveelop LIMITS: -poor test re-test reliability of projective measures, so probability under-estimate real consistency OWN EVALUATION POINTS: - this just cross sectional? difficult with differents in development trajectories?

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: biological enhancement of behavioural treatment meta-analysis (Bontempo et al., 2012)

meta-analysis and range of anxiety disorders (phobias, manic disorder, SAD) -behaviour therapy/ behaviour aspects (virtual reality exposure, CBT) improved by D-cycloserine

childhood IQ and All-Cause Mortality meta-analysis (Calvin et al, 2010)

meta-anlaysis of 16 studies, with 22,453 death among 1,107,022 people from UK, US, Sweden, Australia, Denmark RESULTS: -for every 1SD increase in IQ, on average, 24% less likely to die (Hazard Ration (HR) decrease by 1)- BIG effect! -lower risk of dying, although this varies across studies due to different follow up periods and IQ measures

binge eating dimensional measures of severity (episodes per week)

mild= 1-3 moderate =4-7 severe = 8-13 extreme = 14+

Cognitive therapy for depression

moderately effective (approx. 60% recovery in adults) - recommended by NICE (collaborative and evidence based) for adolescents and adults STEPS: cognitive therapy and behavioural component 1) modifies thoughts, evaluations, attributions, beliefs, processing biases 2) identify maladaptive thinking 3) evaluate accuracy 4) generate alternatives 5) test out effectiveness (homework)

PSTD vs moral injury

moral injury more about: -lose trust -not a mental health issue -may not be a classically threatening events (but about violate deeper moral values) -only need criteria A,B,C but not D of PSTD

autobiographical memory bias in depression (Williams and Broadbent, 1986)

more likely favour negative autobiographical memories aout seif -told to give SPECIFIC event that word X makes you think of (specific, time, place, day) -given cue word RESULTS: -depressed (suicidal) Ps slower than controls (hospital and panel control group) for positive cue -hsopital control slightly slower for unpleasant cue, EXPLAANTION: -due to suicidal patients giving more INAPPROPRIATELY OVERGENERAL memories

single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP/ 'snips')

most common type of genetic variation among people -each SNP represents a difference in a single DNA building block (nucleotide) e.g. a SNP may replace the nucleotide cytosin (C) with nucleotide thymine (T) in certain stretch of DNA -more than 1.4 mill SNPS that naturally occur in adult humans - occur ~ 2000 base pairs apart, but density varies -may relate to disease susceptibility -used for GWAS

Leij tan et al (2018) meta-analysis of best components of parent intervention Incredible Years Intervention for conduct disorder

most effective: positive parenting, praise -still effective: tangible rewards, monitoring less effective: -negative parenting e.g. corporal punishment, threatening, shouting who most benefitted: -conduct problems , ADHD, emotional problems parental mental health reduced a little (depressive systoms, stress, self efficacy) but error bars overlap with zero effect

Probability of co-twin having depression

most risk: 1) MZ (identical twin) of twin with diagnosis 2) DZ (non-identical twin) of twin with diagnosis 3) DZ of twin without diagnosis e.g. if have vulnerability not captured by co-twin 4) MZ with twin without diagnoses least risk of depression

perinatal risk factor of conduct disorder: smoking (Wakschlag et al., 1997) and other explanations

mothers who smoked more than half pack of cigarettes daily during pregnancy were sig. more likely to have child with CD -statistically significant when control for SES, maternal age, parent antisocial personality, substance abuse during pregnancy, maladaptive parenting BUT inconsistent findings when adjust for other confounds POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT e.g. prenatal smokers more likely to provide rearing environments that may promote externalising symptoms(Maughan et al., 2004) e.g. GENETIC RISK FACTORS: maternal smoking during pregnancy associated with externalising problems and forming partnerships with antisocial males (Kodl & Wakschlag, 2004) also study with Frances Rice and unrelated mother: where effect disappear in surrogacy mother

With dissociative symptoms for PTSD -DSM-5

must experience either of the following in reaction to trauma-related stimuli: -depersonalization: experience of being an outside observer of or detached from oneself (e.g. feeling as if 'this is not happening to me' or one were in a dream) -derealization: experience of unreality, distance or distortion (e.g. 'thing are not real')

Cognitive Theory of Depression (Beck) and Diathesis Stress

negative schemas: ;I must get peoples' approval' ' must prove my worth through my achievements ' 'The world must be just and fair' 'I must do things perfectly or not at all' (dysfunctional attitudes/ beliefs) These are a results of the interaction between: -early experiences (e.g. bullying) -genetic factors (e.g. predisposed to have depression) -personality (e.g. more vulnerable to negative schemas) When have a belief relevant stressor. event e.g. 'worthless if not succeed at everything' then fail an exam, this leads to depression

Eysenck 'Gigantic Three' , with biological basis (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976)

neuroticism (stability): high neuroticism (anxious, shy, depressed) to low (stable, positive) psychoticism: high (unempathetic, impulsive, creative, aggressive) vs low psychoticism ( patient, friendly, organized, rational) extroversion high (energetic, sociable) to low (antisocial, introspective BIOLOGICAL BASIS: -personality traits are on dispositional continuum, with two opposing ends -rooted in biological difference e.g. Extraversion/ introversion is the psychological consequence of cortical arousal, and the inhibition or excitation of the cerebral cortex -extroverts are under aroused so seek external stimulation, reverse for introvert supported by two studies -assessed by self-report of SENTENCES e.g. Are you the life of a party? allow context, and single words insufficient for people to rate personality BUT still issues? LIMITS: - biological differences etween people are quite small and variable but personality differences are substantial -evidence fairly low quatlity (although not wholyl against the big three) -more support for Big Five, so may be about aptness in different contexts (factor analysis; Costa & McCrae, 1985) -psychoticism more like psychopathy scale

Genetic account of OCD (e.g. Lui et al., 2013)

no consistent candidate so far

Terman (1916) sex differences in IQ score variability

no difference in SD

Memory and neuropsychological deficit account of OCD (Cougle et al., 2007)

no evidence fro actual deficit, but potentially OCD about PERCEIVED memory deficit

delusional disorder (DSM)

non-bizarre delusions (could be true but aren't or are greatly exaggerated

Noradrenaline (NA) is also called

norepinephrine (NE)

Mindfulness-based cognitive based therapy for depression (Teasdale et al., 2000)

notice negative thoughts and reactions -accept and allow 'thoughts are just thoughts' without labelling -just gentle curiosity -move from 'analytical' to 'experiential' focus -meditation (train attention on the moment) RESULTS: -early supporting evidence, that after 4 sessions, significant reduction in relapse rates compared to Treatment as Usual group

Clark (1999) clinical examples of cognitive model for panic attacks

notice twinge in muscles (trigger) --> misinterpret as heart attack (perceived threat) --> anxious (apprehension) vicious cycle: anxious --> muscles tighten, dizzy, racing heart (bodily sensations) --> think will die , people will notice anxious (ccatastrophic interpretation) --> anxious on side: -safety behaviours (e.g take paracetamol, rest, deep breaths) feed into bodily sensations, and catastrophic interpretations

KiVa impact

number being bullied and who are bullying others repeatedly both reduce over years kiva also reduce student anxiey and depression, and has positive impact on perceptions of peer climate (Williford et al., 2011) also has positive effect on school liking and academic motivation (Salmivalli, Garandeau & Veenstra, 2012)

ACE (adverse childhood experience) model / cumulative risk for mental health and perceived social support (Bon Cheong et al., 2017)

observed negative outcomes: behaviour (lack of physical activity, smoking, alcoholism, drug use, missed work) and physical and mental health (severe obesity, diabetes, suicide attempts, STDs, heart disease, cancer, stroke, broken bones) -as ACEs increased TYPICAL FINDING: -as ACEs increase, likelihood of develop psychological disorder increases - dose response with ACE and negative outcomes when higher levels of ACE (whether specific type of general score) BUFFER effect: PERCEIEVED SOCIAL SUPPORT can offset riskfrom ACE

Personality

often confused with: emotion, mood, temperament, habits DIFFERENCES with above: - duration/ consistency: emotion (more fleeting, require lots of energy)--> mood (when emotions become consistence e.g. to a few hours/ day) --> personality (more stable) -increase degree of inter-ID (from emotion--> mood--> personality) - temperament =personality (but used for infants) -kind of circularity with habits: personality impact habitual ways of behaving, which in turn impacts personality (inferred from habits etc) Textbook definition: (psychology) as the IDs that (1) psychological in nature (e.g. not weight, height, IQ ) (2) fall outside the intellectual domain (3) are enduring dispositions rather than transient states (e.g. emotions and moods) (4) relatively broad or generalized ( not just behaviour)

who can experience moral injury?

often refugess , children in ganes, meta-analysis (Williamson) reported in several occupation jobs: veterinarians, police, journalists, military personnel, teachers in multiple countries - although mostly on US military personnel (limited UK research)

Future research directions on moral injury (after WIlliamson)

on the Moral Injury Scale (MORIS) to identify the exposure and impact of moral injury in UK context (e.g. often remove self from social support, increasing distress) --> KCHMR have started to try validate the scale manual for treatment related to mental health difficulties

pharmacotherapu for EDs

only 2 drugs with regularatory approvals -none approved for AN -limited studies though!

The Big FIVE emergence

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism EMERGENCE OF THE BIG FIVE: - from many FA, became consensus/ de facto -Norman (1963) define them in terms of lower order -Costa & McCrase: each of the big Five ahs 6 (teoretical) facets, developed form logic NOT stats nor biology --> BUT then just invented?? BUT some claim as statistical artefact eg. Eysenck (1993) - also just describes rather than explains personality??

Meta-analysis of CBT on depression (Santoft et al., 2019)

overall main effect in favour of CBT (Regardless is clinical, or just high level of depressive symptoms) -regardless if 1:1, group therapy, of self-guided (flexible delivery in different areas!) LIMTS: -some still resistant -crucial on-going research to better understand depression and ways to help

acute stress disorder response to trauma

panic reaction, confusion, dissociation, severe insomnia, poor daily functioning, being suspicious

psychological causal factor of SCZ : attributional biases:

people with persecutory delusions hsow externalising bias (blame others) for bad events when material is self-reference, so more inclined to blame others rather than the situation or chance -greater tendency for perceived hostility in ambiguous situations -result in threat anticipation and persecutory symptoms

Criterion C (avoidance) for PTSD -DSM-5

persistent, effortful avoidance of distressing trauma-related stimuli after the event (only one required) -trauma-related thoughts and feelings -trauma related external reminders e.g. people, places, activities, conversations, objects, situations

Defining psychological disorders (vs everyday): personal distress and limit

personal distress from condition, behaviour, thoughts etc define psychological disorder BUT: -not apply to all psychological disorders (lack specificity) e.g. antisocial personality disorder, conduct disorder -can apply to 'normal' responses at high degree (lack sensitivity( e.g. war, death of friend)

Sternberg and Smith (1985) testing social intelligence and relationship between findings

photographs of two people, and two conditions: -identify friedns vs strangers, supervisor vs supervisee NO relationship between friedn and supervisor parts of their task

genetic risk factor for Conduct disorder: Breastfeeding (Thapar et al., 2009)

possible overlap between genes associated with breastfeeding and offspring Conduct Disorder

History of PTSD (DSM-3)

prior to 1980s (DSM-3) syndromes defined as specific trauma (quite unhelpful) e.g. Among military -Traumatic Neuroses of War -Acute Grief Reaction -Massive Psychis trauma -Post Vietnam syndrome e.g. among civilians: -Rape trauma syndrome -victims of violent crime -battered women syndrome -community disaster

National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) AIMS

provides national guidance and advice too improve health and social care AIMS: -help practitioners deliver the best possible care =give people the most effective treatments based on latest evidence (scientific underpinnings) -collaborative based -produce value for money -reduce inequalities and variation in treatment

interventions to reduce stigma of mental health (Morgan et al., 2018)

pscyhoeducation seems to reduce stigmatizing attitudes -contact intervention may also reduced stigmatizing attitudes BUT, does this change behaviour beyond attitude?

evolutionary perspectives on psychological disorders: evolutionary psychiatry x 3 theories

psychological disorders as 'reactive defences' to environmental stressors? (a) psychological disorders as dysregulation: overreaction or inappropriate evocation of normal, adaptive mechanism (b) adaptation: they are (or were) adaptive in themselves e.g. anxiety: defence against threat/ risk depression: defence against loss or social risk (BUT what about EDs? ADHD? SCZ? alcohol/ substance abuse?) (c) trade-off: psychological disorders as side effects of other adaptations (e.g. SCZ and genius) (d) see mismatch in environment evolved to adapt and modern environment (hence rising incidence of psychological disorders)

Moral injury:

psychological distress from actions (comission) , or lack of them (ommission) , which violate one's moral or ethical code -often barrier to treatment, as often report high levels guilt, shame, negative self attribution -can contribute to other psychological problems e.g. PTSD, depression -currently limited manualised approach for treatment

happiness (and personality)

psychology definition : subjective well-being (Self report) - almost no association with IQ, SES, money -but ROBUST ASSOCIATIONS with personality traits (especially extraversion and neuroticisim)- accounts for about 50% of variance in happiness

when does psychosis become schizophrenia (disorder)

psychosis continuum: from within cultural norms, to attenuated/ subthreshold psychosis to full psyhotic -cultural norms may differ e.g. hearing voices vs seeing spirits

Psychosis vs. Schizophrenia

psychosis often the operational definition of SCZ -related but no identical -psychosis is the positive symptoms of SCZ

Van Os et al (2009) on dimensional approach to psychological disorders - SCZ

psychotic disorders (3%), within larger circle of psychotic symptoms (4%) within larger psychotic experiences (8%: 17.5% in Netherlands, 28% in US) - difficult to explain within categorical approach

Cognitive distortion in depression: all or nothing thinking

pulling out one negative aspect of a situation and ignoring the broader context e.g. after a disagreement with a friend 'that's it! we are no longer friends'

Factor rotation: purpose and methods

purpose: -help interpret factors when there's difficulties e.g. variables load on many factors, or many variables load equally well on one factor VARIMAX ROTATION: aim to maximise and minimize loadings on each factor so that loadings approach 0 or 1 MEthod: -the factors can be represented on orthogonal lines since the factors themselves are orthogonal or uncorrelated (i.e. each factor as a different axis, and vairables plotted based on factor loadings, negative or positive) -it is mathematically valid then to rotate these axis, whilst maintaining the right angle between the axes representing the two factors -this maintains communalities (Still same number factors) just change variance from the intercorrelation matrix, by each factor i.e. still account for same amoutn fo overall loadiing e.g. variables go from having moderate loadings (positive and negative) on two different factors, to just having moderate loadings on one factor, and no appreicable loading on the other factor ORTHOGANL ROTATION: for when factors are non-orthogonal/ correlated - e.g. when knowing scores of one factor provides information about the score of one or more of the other factors e.g. spatial and verbal ability theoretically assumed as postiviely correlated -theoretical benefit that normally result in more factors, so account for more variance BUT makes harder to interpret factors (less clean results)

how Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Korean Neuropsychiatric Association reduced stigma of SCZ

redefined to 'integration disorder' (implied recovery) or to 'attachment disorder

Serotonin hypothesis for depression, evidence from reducing 5-HT levels

reducing 5-HT levels can cause transient (temporary) recurrence of depression symptoms in SOME vulnerable individuals -in many cases, mood not lowered mechanism for IDs largely unknown

Reynolds et al (1987) sex differences in IQ score test variability

revisions of Weschler suggest male SD 5% greater than female

Behaviour account of OCD (Meyer, 19666) and what based on (Metzner, 1963)

ritualistic behaviours as form of learned avoidance based on evidence from animals models of compulsive behaviour

Overgeneral Autobiographical Memory in depression (Williams et al., 2007

robust finding in depression and trauma, that over general autobiographical memory correlates with, or predicts: -rumination -cognitive deficits -longer depressive episodes -poor problem solving although less robust (not universal), may also be present in recovered patients, in predicting risk of future episodes (potential for intervention)

serotonin hypothesis of depression: starting with genotype (5-HTTLPR: s/s, s/l, l/l) (Lesch et al., 1996)

s- carriers have higher scores on anxiety-related personality treats (e.g. neuroticism)

selected prevention approach to mental disorders: e.g. personality-targeted program for reducing alcohol use (Newton et al., 2016)

school-based personality-targeted program to reduce alcohol use and related harms cluster-randomized controlled trials (randomized schools so not share information within pupils) -7 schools 'preventure' -7 schools control students: 13-14 yrs screened to identify high-risk for one of 4 x personality profiles: anxiety sensitivity, negative thinking, impulsivity, sensation seeking all SCREENED students had 2 x 90 minutes 1 week a part -session 1: taught about personality style and how relate to problematic coping behaviour (goal setting exercise). then shown cognitive behaviour model to think through personal experience and how linked to personal physical, cognitive and behaviour responses -session 1: encouraged to identify and challenge thoughts that could lead to problematic behaviours also assessed frequency of drinking, binge-drinking and alcohol-related harms REULTS: - compared to controls, preventure displayed sig. less growth in likelihood to consume alcohol, binge drink and experience alcohol related harms over 3 months (after just 2 sessions!)

latent concept of intelligence

scientific notion of intelligence derives initially from psychometric instruments that predict school performance -intelligence directly inferred from relationship between test scores and other criteria (e.g. performance at school/ job) -helps predict the latter

MSCEIT demographics (and same for Trait EI; Van Rooy, Alonso & Viswesvaran)

scores improve with age (designed to) -females better than males

Criterion G (Functional Significance) for PTSD -DSM-5

significant symptom-related distress or functional impairment (e.g. social, occupational

Stapinski, Bowes et al., (2014) peer victimization during adolescence and risk for anxiety disorders in adulthood

secondary aim: whether also increase risk for severe anxiety presentations involving diagnostic comorbidity RESULTS: -frequently victimized adolescents 2-3 x more likely to develop anxiety disorders and nonvictimized adolescents (even after control for confounding individual and family factors) -also more likely to develop multiple internalizing diagnosis in adulthood

childhood-onset conduct disorder

seems strongly related to neuropsychological (e.g. deficits in EF) and cognitive (e.g. low IQ) deficits -also show higher rates of family instability, more family conflict, parents who use less effective parenting strategies

candidate gene studies for psychological disorders

select on or a few of 21,000 genes in human genome and compare allele frequencies in psychological disorders and controls genes selected based on prior knowledge e.g. 5HT transporter gene

SSRIs

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors -in its absence, 5-HT binds to SERT (monoamine transporter) and recycled in interior part of presynaptic neuron of the brain -SSRI down regulate activity of SERT (how much 5-HT taken up) to increase extracellular level of 5HT

Cognitive model of SAD (Clark & Wells, 1995; Rapee & Heimberg, 1997) -

self-focused attention: dostorted impression of self -vision of self often internally generated/ self reference e.g. emotions, past

Genetic factors for psychological disorders: molecular 5-HTTLPR (Canli & Lesch, 2007)

serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) gene has different variant with functional differences (short or long allele, so could have s/s, s/l, or l/l variations s-allele --> lower expression of serotonin transporter (less reuptake) -the type of variant then effects transmission of 5HT in brain circuits

2 x effective treatments of conduct disorder and x 4 improvement

several cognitive behaviour parenting interventions with positive effect on reducing CD: -Webster-Stratton incredible years basic parenting programme -Tripe-P parenting programme similar elements for the parenting pyramid (photo) AND improving parenting practises: -increasing positive child behaviour through praise and incentives -improving parent-child interaction: relationship building -setting clear-expectations: limit setting and non-aversive management strategies for non-compliance -applying consistent gentle consequences for problem behaviour

incremental validity Trait EI (Bastian, Burns & Nettelbeck, 2005)

significant correlation with EI and life skills -still correlated weakly when personality and cognitive abilities controlled for (.25)

amygdala, SSRIs and emotion processing (Murphy et al., 2009)

single dose SSRI in healthy volunteers reduces amygdala response to fearful faces -yet single dose would not expect effect in depressed/ no observable effect on healthy participants CONCLUSIONS: - amygdala involved in cognitive processing differences in depression

social and environmental risk factors for mental health x 2

social inequalities (both objective and subjective perception of deprivation) neighbourhood level risk and protective factors for antisocial behaviour and depression (different mechanisms for each)

Thorndike (1920) social intelligence

social intelligence: -act wisely in interpersonal relations -read others like a book -contrast to mechanical and abstract intelligence -manage others (manipulate, influence)

Diathesis stress model

some indiviudals may be more vulnerable to effects of stressors (e.g. maltreatment) due to variety of factors: -genes -situational factors (psychological, and biological factors) e.g. vulnerable individual will have positive outcome until negative environment/experience, which leads to negative outcome (where resilient individual unaffected)

social contagion:

spread of behaviour, emotions, and ideas

Environmental moderation of genetic effects of 5-HTTLPR on depression meta-analysis: KArg et al., 2011

strong evidence that 5-HTTLPR (serotonin transporter promotor polymorphisms) moderates relationship between stress and depression -less function s-allele associated with increased stress sensitivity -this quantitative meta-analytic result consistent with recent qualitative reviews of same data

NICE and CBT of disorders

strongly supports the use of certain psychological therapies, especially CBT, for range mental: -bulimia nervosa and binge eating (2004) Depression (2009)treat adults and adolescents -GAD and panic disorder (2011) -OCD and body dymorphic disorder (2005) -PTSD (2005) -psychosis and schizophrenia (2009; 2014) -SAD

Studying psychological disorders within the Network Approach/ Perspective (Borsboom & Cramer, 2013)

studying interactions of phenotype, neural development, environmental input, behaviour from 'studying genes that cause depression' --> 'studying genes that increase risky network structures in individuals'

Anterior cingulate cortex and depression (and BPD) (Drevets et al., 1997)

subgenual ACC (sgACC) -structure MRI studies show reduced volume in major depressive disorder MDD (and bipolar disorder BPD) -up to 48% (significant difference to controls) for MDD and 39% for BPD -seem critically involved in production of sad emotions

RDoC and suicidal risk (meta-analysis; Glenn et al., 2017)

suicide risk within one of 5 domains, and most strongly linked with negative valence

Patalay et al (2015) p factor

support Caspi et al (2013) that best sturcture is underlying p-factor of common psychological disorders self-report of symptoms from 23,000 teens (11-13 yrs) RESULTS: -bi-factor, hierarchical model best fit data i.e. that there is a general psychopathology factor, with a a second level of internalising and externalising within a hierarchy -equal across genders PRO: -predictive validity: predicts future psychopathoogy and academic attainment

Medical view of psychological disorders and comorbidity

symptoms caused by underlying factor (latent factor) COMORBIDITY: correlation between disorders

Evidence of PTSD across cultures

symptoms found around the world -althoguh diagnostic validity not identical culture influences symptoms: -understanding post-trauma experiences -vocabularies of illness/ idioms of distress - local ethnopsychology/ ethnophysiology, -attention to particular symptoms (e.g. somatic) (Zhou et al., 2011; Yeung et al., 2005) -symptom severity across Caucasian, African American, Hispanic (e.g. Pole et al., 2008) -healing practices (Zheng & Grey, 2015)

Criterion H (Exclusion) for PTSD -DSM-5

symptoms not due to medication, substance use, or other illness

school help for bullying: kiVa

systematic, evidence-based, school-based prevention and intervention -kiVa one most promising world wide for primary school children (and most thoroughly evaluated) -influences BYSTANDERS (rather than making victims 'less vulnerable' -this reduced social rewards for bully (their motivation to bully in the first place) victim; need to feel heard and helped by adults at school bully; need to feel confronted for unacceptable behaviour UNIVERSAL AND INDICATED actions: -cycle of monitoring, preventive and interventive 1) monitoring: survey feedback, monitoring implementation and long term effects 2) preventive: visible vests for supervisor, students lessons and materials (teacher manuals, short films), parent materials, presentations for students, staff meetings, parent meetings, online antibullying games 3) interventive: clear guidelines for tackling bullying

intervention gone wrong: Adolescent Transitions Program Study for CD (Dishion, Reid & Patterson, 1988)

target parent and peer influences: 1) parent skills: discipline, positive reinforcement, problem-solving, monitoring, parent involvement 2) teen focus: emphasized prosocial goals and self-regulation, using peer reinforcement to promote completion of home exercises and compliance with sessions 12 weeks of both, and delivered in group format RESULTS: (teacher report of delinquency as function of teen focus intervention) -teacher blind to which students had intervention -intervention group reliably higher tobacco use and teacher report of externalising behaviour, and worsen from 1yr to 3yr follow up -undermine short term positive gains from parent intervention EVALUATION: -peer deviancy training?

Information processing bias and 3 main domains

tendency for information processing system to consistently favour stimulus material of a particular type or content e.g. based on motivational state (e.g. hunger), based on expertise/ interest Biases due to emotion (e.g. mood state, disorder) DEPRESSION effects: -memory (implicit, explicit, autobiographical) -recall negative information and difficulty accessing specific details of personal memories -attention: attend to negative stimuli or take longer to disengage from negative stimuli -interpretation: interpret information (internal/ external) in a negative way

time sampling as source of error variance

test-retest reliability coefficient: correlation between scores of same group on same test on two separate occasions - takes into account errors produced by differences in conditions associated with two times the test was administered -interval between tests should rarely exceed 6 months e.g. Big five has reliability as test-retest reliability even 6-42 year interval - BUT if there were changes, doe sthi sreflect on test reliability or personality change?

bringing together cognitive and biological explanations of psychopathology: cognitive effects of biological treatment (Harmer et al., 2003; 2004)

testing healthy volunteers vs acute(hrs) or chronic (7 days) treatment/ dose of reboxetine TESTS: -facial expression recognition -emotional potentiated startled response -memory effect- latent word recall -baseline questionnaires: mood, hostility, anxiety -seem like high dose not effect feeling/ mood BUT does seem to affect emotional processing cognitive bias (interpretation) within 2 hours of receiving reboxetine (selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) -reboxetine more likely to report happiness at lower levels of intensity (but not other faces-angry, disgusted, afraid, sad, neutral) (2003) -memory for positive adjectives after 7 days of receiving reboxetine or citalopram (SSRI) i..e negative bias not present in surprise word recall (2004) -reduced identification of negative expression anger and fear; increase relative recall of positive (vs negative) emotion material) in both citalapram and reboxetine

GWIS (Hunt, 1928) and correlation with IQ test

tests judgement in social situations, memory for names and faces, recognition of mental states behind words .54 correlation with IQ test (very high!

Guildford & HOoepner (1971) testing social intelligences

tests that included requirement to select faces displaying same mental state, and match emotions in faces and voices

Residual correlation in Factor Analysis

the difference between the intercorrelation - factor anlaysis result e.g. take height and weight contributing to factor of 'bigness' If the intercorrelation matrix tells us they have 0.63 correlation From the factor analysis, the loading of height on 'bigness' is 0.86, and of weight is 0.68 - hence (0.86 x 0.68= 0.58) correlation between weight and height is due to factor 'bigness' the residual correlation is 0.63-0.58= 0.05 -if residual is this small, not seem necessary to extract further factors

face validitiy

the extent it looks like it measures what it claims to

content validity

the extent it measures all it should measure (versus just a subset)? -involves role of expertise in selecting items -involves stimulus materials/ situations that require a range of responses representing the entire domain of skills, understandings or behaviours that the test is supposed to measure e.g. numerical ability not just test multiplication

Validity

the extent to which the test measures what it was designed to measure - tests may have many different validities dependent on specific purposes of the test and varying with the method of assessing validity TYPES: -face validity -content validity -criterion validity -concurrent validity -predictive validity -incremental validity -construct validity Methods for studying validity: 1) analyse content 2) relate scores on the test to scores on a criterion of interest 3) investigating the particular psychological characteristics or constructs measured by the test

Criterion A (traumatic event) for PTSD - DSM-III to DSM-IV

the individual directly experiences, witnesses or was confronted with an events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury or a threat to the physical integrity of the self or others DSM-IV: AND respond with intense fear, helplessness and horror

Criterion A (stressor) for PTSD - DSM-5

the person was exposed to: death , threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury or actual or threated sexual violence by at least one of : 1)direct exposure (e.g. war combatant/ civilian, threatened physical assault, actual sexual violence, being kidnapped, terrorist attack, torture, medical event e.g. wake during surgery. anaphylactic shock) 2)witnessing, in person (threatened or actual injury, unnatural death, medical catastrophe to own child) 3)indirectly, by learning close relative or friend exposed to trauma- if event involved actual or threatened death, must have been violent or accidental 4)repeated or extreme indirect exposure to aversive details of the event(s), usually due to professional duty (e.g. first responders, collecting body parts, professionals exposed to details of child abuse; suicide, serious accident)-NOT include IDR exposure via media./ TV etc

phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Developmental psychopathology (Sroufe & Rutter, 1984; Werner & Kerig, 2000)

the study of the origins and course of individual patterns of behavioural manifestation, whatever age of onset, cause, transformations of behavioural manifestations and however complex course of developmental pattern might be Werner and Kerig: study of developmental processes that contribute to, or protect against, psychopathology seem risk factors are multi-factorial and may act cumulatively (build over time e.g. CD) -treatments need to be developmentally sensitive

Criterion D (negative alterations in cognitions and mood) for PTSD -DSM-5

these must begin after the traumatic event, and require 2 of: - inability to recall key features of the traumatic events (usually dissociative amnesia, NOT due to head injury, alcohol or drugs) -persistent (and often distorted) negative beliefs and expectations about oneself or the world e.g. 'I am bad' 'the world is completely dangerous' --persistent distorted blame of self or others for causing events or for resulting consequences -persistent negative trauma -related emotions (fear, guilt, anger, horror, shame) -marked diminished interest in (pre-traumatic) significant activities -feeling alienated from others (e.g. detachment or estrangement)- feel disconnected -constricted effect: persistent inability to experience positive emotions

Defining psychological disorders (vs everyday): violating social norms and limit

thinking or behvaiour as abnormal if violate social norms of a culture? BUT norms change by PLACE (culture) and over TIME (historical contexts): e.g. homosexuality was considered psych. disorder (WHO, 1980) e.g. facial scarring socially acceptable in some places, but similar to self-harm -pedophilia in ancient Greece -seeing/ hearing voices religious exprience?

common challenge of psychological disorders: risk factors not disorder-specific e.g. genetic risk factors

underlying genetic structure of common psych. disorder shows shared genetic risk, and less disorder specific genetic risk

Idea behind behavioural genetics

those more genetically similar should be more similar at the PHENOTYPIC (person, observable) level than those less genetically related IF those phenotypic characteristics are determined by genes hence use of DZ (fraternal) twins (share on average 50% of genes) vs (identical) MZ twins, on assumption they have EQUAL environments (questionable!) for hritability

negative, positive and permissive thoughts form Eating Disorders (Cooper et al., 2006)

thoughts about weight, shape and eating, from Eating Disorder Thoughts Questionnaire NEGATIVE: -I'll get fat -my clothes won't fit any more -I'm going to go on getting heavier and heavier POSITIVE: -If I don't eat, I'll lose contorl -If I eat it will stop the pain -Go on, eat more to punish yourself PERMISSIVE -one more bite wont hurt -It's not me doing this -I deserve something nice

Telescope method for dot perspective task (Conway et al, 2017)- using Choi and Howell (2014) cloaking device for familiarisation

to try and distinguish mentalizing vs directional cuing- aim to get positive eveidence for implicit mentalizing by manipulate dot visibility within subjects trial types: -consistency: consistent vs inconcistent (whether avatar sees same of different number dots as Ps) -stimulus: avatar vs arrow (non-social control) - telescope type: learn conditional discrimination- yellow telescope (visible dots to avatar), vs green (dots invisible to avatar) -counterbalanced colour to telescopes and telescopes placed infront of both arros and avatars METHOD: 1) Choi and Howell (2014) cloaking device- Ps could try out telescopes to learn conditional discrimination- FAMILIARISATION 2) dot perspective task- asked about number of dots, always from Ps perspective PREDICTION (forimplicit mentalizing) - consistency effect: consistency < inconsistency -mentalizing (consistency x telescope type): only consistency effect with visible telescope x avatar, but RTs equal for invisible telescope with avatar -consistency effect with arrow, regardless telescope RESULTS: - consistency effect for BOTH visible and invisible telescope and avatar (against implicit mentalizing, no effect of telescope type! -consistency effect for both telescopes and arrow (As expected) CONCLUSION: -dot perspective may not measure implicit metnalizing, as central stimulus direction sufficient to explain consistency effect! PROS: -included non-social control IMPLICATIONS: - although no evidence for implicit mentalizing, may well be implicit emotion recognition, empathy, imitation (e.g. validity for other tests)

diagnostic vs transdiagnostic

transdiagnostic: apply the same underlying treatment principles across mental disorders without tailoring to specific diagnoses (universal) PROS: less training, general p factor, comorbidity? attend to factors outside diagnostic rubric? e.g. CBT works with seemingly universal cognitive factors? Diagnostic/ modular: -evidence based, self-contained functional unit, disorder specific -PROS: flexibility use for patient and therapist, and many are endorsed by NICE (UK) LIMIT: miss those falling outside diagnostic rubric, comorbid generally glossed over, or minimally treated, need lots more treatments EVALUATION: -growing evidence that transdiagnostic at least as good as disorder specific

(Deary et al., 2007) sex differences in IQ score variability

twice as many males as females in top 2% of scores;

THe missing heritability problem

twin studies suggest large degree of heritability across psychological disorders -yet SNPs identified only explain tiny proportion of variance e.g. heritability of Major Depression captured by Genome wide studies (Howard et al., 2018) is8.9% --but at candidate gene level, genes identified don't add up to anything like this level -need MASSIVE samples to detect genes with small effects

Dual representation theory (DRT) of PTSD (Brewin et al., 1996)

two different types of memory encoded at type of event: -s-reps (sensory-representations): INVOLUNTARY sensory details and affective/ emotional -c-reps (contextual representation): VOLUNTARY spatial and personal context of the person experiencing the event normally, they are tightly retrieved together -in DRT, disconnection between S-reps and C-reps due to stress of dissociation form trauma - action and re-experiencing of s-reps occur when s-rep is strongly encoded due to the traumatic vent, but c-rep with encoded weakly or not linked to the s-rep

OCD onset

two peaks when commonly start: around puberty and in early adulthood about 50-70% of cases say first experience was preadolescence -often develops gradually, but can develop acutely (e.g. traumatic life event)

types of errors

unsystematic errors: affect test scores in random, unpredictable manner from situation to situations; hence lower test reliability (e.g. motivation & attention, anxiety in fMRI) systematic errors: may inflate or deflate test scores, but in a fixed way (not affect reliabiltiy of test, only accuracy)

Trait based approaches to personality and factor analysis

use factor analysis: -find common variance between ratings of traits/ adjectives and identify how many factors (units of common variance) are needed to explain overall variance in ratings -FUNADMENTAL LEXICAL HYPTOHESIS: idea that natural language encompasses all the relevant personality dimensions to include ORIGIN: -Allport & Odbert (1936) trawled 500k word dictionary for words describing how individuals differ (found 18k words) -4500 (25%) related to personality, rather than physical, social ettributes etc HISTORY: -Cattell 16 PF - the Big Five (most agree this as best) -Eysenck's Big 3 PRO: personality types very rare, and traits more valid (review of 100s of studies; Haslam, Holland & Kuppens, 2012)

Parenting Pyramid

used in the two most effective interventions for conduct disorder bottom layer: use liberally - parent skills: empathy, attention and involvement, play, problem solving, listening, talking -benefits for child: problem solving, cooperation, self esteem, attachment second layer: -parent skill; coaching praise and encouragement, rewards celebrations -child benefits: social and thinking skills, motivation third layer: -parenting: clear limits, house rules, consistent follow-through -child benefits: responsibility, predictability, obedience fourth layer: (negative) -parenting: ignore, distract, redirect -children response: annoying behaviours top layer (use selectively) -parenting: consequences e.g. time out, loss of privileges, natural and logical consequences -child benefit: aggression

3 key factors for creating tests e.g. of IQ

validity: does your test measure what you think it does? Reliability: does it do so consistently? specificity: does only measure what you think it does? (and ehtical and political issues?)

cognitive model for EDs

vicious cycle: 1) negative self belief 2) negative thought 3) emotion/ feelings 4) thoughts about eating 5) problem eating behaviours, which then reinforce negative self belief

intelligence and work (Strenze, 2007)

work as real life correlate of intelligence -starting with education (years, grade, prestige) to occupation (hierarchical classifications according to prestige) and income ($) STRENZE (20007) meta-analysis on association between intelligence, educaion, occupation, parental SES, and acedmic performance RESULTS: - EDUCATION: about 25% of variance in education explained by intelligence, with mother and father's college education about same assocaitaion -OCCUPATION: mother's and father's education slightly worse preditor than intelligence -INCOME: intelligence less predictive, although this across the board (e.g. SES index, parental income, parental education all v low correlations with income) OVERALL; -intelligence predictive of educational achievement, occupation and income, explaining between $-32% of variance -parental variables (SES, their education, occupation and income) explain simialr amount of variance -hence intelligence can counterbalance e.g. if bron into lower SES

adolescent-onset conduct disorder (Moffitt, 2006)

youth show an exaggeration of the normative process of adolescent rebellion -engages in antisocial and delinquent behaviours as a misguided attempt to obtain a subjective sense of maturity and adult status in way that is maladaptive (e.g. breaking social norms) but encouraged by antisocial peer group