Instructional terminology

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE STRATEGIES

A continuum of instructional approaches from three different perspectives was just presented, ranging from teacher-centered, direct approaches to student-centered, indirect approaches in which students assume more responsibility for their learning. Deductive and inductive instructional strategies can be used within the continuum just reviewed. While not representing a continuum themselves, these strategies lend themselves to use at various points on the continuum presented earlier.

Debate

A debate is a formal discussion approach consisting of set speeches by participants of two opposing teams and a rebuttal by each participant. Panels and debates are conducted for the benefit of the whole class, which becomes involved through question-and-answer sessions upon the panel's completion.

DEMONSTRATIONS

A demonstration is similar to a lecture in its direct communication of information from teacher to students. A demonstration involves a visual presentation to examine processes, information, and ideas. The demonstration allows students to see the teacher as an active learner and a model. It allows for students to observe real things and how they work. There may be pure demonstrations, demonstrations with commentary, or participative demonstrations with students. In many cases, a teacher demonstrates a certain action or activity prior to having the students perform the activity individually, such as the teacher locating certain points on a map before students are asked to do so. For many students, this teacher demonstration provides a model of the actions and establishes expectations. Demonstrations can be used to illustrate points or procedures efficiently, stimulate interest in a particular topic, provide a model for teaching specific skills, and provide a change of pace.

Whole-Class Discussions

A discussion is a conversation among several people who have a particular purpose or objective. A whole-class discussion involves all students in the class in discussing a topic with guidance from the teacher. When conducting a whole-class discussion, you must be able to clearly focus the discussion, keep it on track by refocusing, and encourage all participants to listen carefully to all points of view. Teachers often direct whole-class discussions. Whole-class discussions may go astray when the class drifts from the main objectives of the discussion. Thus, prior to the discussion, it is important to plan key questions to be used so that the discussion is more likely to remain focused on the objectives. Useful resources are available for leading student-centered discussions (Hale & City, 2006). Before beginning a whole-class discussion, make sure that students have an adequate knowledge base about the subject. A discussion cannot take place if students do not know much about the topic. Sometimes a discussion can be used before instruction as a means to generate interest, but the information must still be presented to students at some point.

DISCUSSIONS

A group discussion is a powerful indirect instructional strategy, since students learn and remember when they participate. No matter what the format of the discussion—whole group, small group, or other types of interaction—students have the opportunity to think out loud about concepts, giving them practice that they can then apply to other concepts. As instructional strategies go, discussions are generally less explicit and less teacher centered than other strategies. The class setting may range from informal to formal, with the teacher having a dominant to non-dominant role.

FOUR COMMON GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

1. A Venn Diagram (for comparing and contrasting concepts) 2. T-Chart (for listing cause and effect, problem and solution, etc) 3. KWL Chart (for recording information, activating prior knowledge, evaluating learning) 4. Web (for brainstorming, generating and connecting ideas)

Independent instructional approaches

Allow students to pursue content independently with less teacher direction than other lessons. Students sometimes are permitted to pursue their own interests. Independent approaches include learning centers, contracts, and independent work.

Analogies

An analogy is a comparison between two similar things and can be used to explain something or to make it easier to understand. Analogies are often represented by asking students to identify pairs of concepts. When students can fill in the appropriate word, they demonstrate comprehension of the concept that they are studying. Analogies are represented in the following relationship: A is related to B in the same way that C is related to D. Consider these examples: Galaxy is to Star as Beach is to (Sand) Deciduous is to Maple as Evergreen is to (Pine) Blood is to Vein as Water is to (Pipe) Shakespeare is to Hamlet as J. K. Rowling is to (Harry Potter)

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT APPROACHES

Concepts serve as the building blocks for student higher-level thinking. In general, concepts are main ideas used to help us to categorize and differentiate information. Therefore, when you ask students to place things together or to classify them, you are asking students to use concepts. Robert Gagné (1985) believes being able to label or classify things demonstrates an understanding of concepts and that combinations of concepts can be joined together into rules. He takes this a step further to say that the understanding of concepts and rules is what allows students to problem solve. According to Jensen and Kiley (2005), three types of concepts are incorporated into the concept attainment model. First, conjunctive concepts address steady, unchanging content. For instance, the sun always rises in the east and sets in the west. Second, disjunctive concepts take alternate forms of the topic being considered. For example, the form of government may be democratic, aristocratic, or theocratic. Third, relational concepts describe the relationship between two or more concepts. When discussing the concept of driving, for example, the relationship between the driver, the mode of transportation, and the environment needs to be considered. It's essential that teachers correctly categorize these concepts because understanding the concept type shapes the way the concepts are processed and learned. Consequently, it should also influence teachers' organizational behaviors regarding methods of instruction implementation and instructional strategy choice. Concepts are central to the curriculum in every classroom. Table 6.2 lists a number of common concepts that students are asked to understand in various content areas. As demonstrated in the table, concepts can be simple, such as verb, or difficult, such as evolution. Many strategies designed to help students understand concepts call for students to identify similarities and differences. This can be accomplished through a number of research-based methods.

Teacher-Centered Methods

Demonstration Teacher exhibits or displays an experiment, process, or skill to the class and discusses concepts embedded in lesson. Lecture Teacher-directed lesson with teacher verbalizing for a majority of the class time with questions often asked and answered. Modeling Teacher clearly describes the skill or concept often in multisensory manner (tactile, visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and thinks aloud during modeling. Socratic Teacher uses questions to draw out student thinking and analysis.

COMPONENTS OF DIRECT AND EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION LESSONS

Depending on the degree of directed instruction desired, there are various ways to organize lessons. Based on studies of explicit teaching, for example, Rosenshine (1987) identified six teaching functions that are part of a lesson design: (1) daily review, (2) presenting new material, (3) conducting guided practice, (4) providing feedback and correctives, (5) conducting independent practice, and (6) providing weekly and monthly reviews. A particular lesson framework for direct and explicit instruction lessons is proposed here. The content on explicit instruction from Goeke (2009) serves as the foundation for much of the information in this section. Material from Hollingsworth and Ybarra (2009) and Rosenshine (1987) is also incorporated.

Indirect, student-centered instruction:

■ is based in cognitive and constructivist learning theories ■ helps teachers involve students in planning of activities, encourage and accept student ideas, and establish criteria for student learning while providing them with autonomy and choice ■ engages students in active roles and encourages cooperation and collaboration with peers ■ balances teacher and student intellectual output ■ is generally loosely structured and characterized by a democratic and investigative process ■ couples well with authentic performance assessment

Ten general principles apply when developing an explicit instruction lesson:

1. Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals. 2. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous prerequisite learning. 3. Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step. 4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations. 5. Provide a high level of active practice for all students. 6. Ask many questions, check for student understanding, and obtain responses from all students. 7. Guide students during initial practice. 8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections. 9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises, and when necessary, monitor students during seatwork. 10. Continue practice until students are independent and confident.

Students involved in small-group discussions often get off task easily. Careful organization can help these discussions to run more smoothly. There are at least four things that you can do to effectively conduct small-group discussions:

1. Carefully monitor the activity by moving around the room and checking with each group to make sure it remains focused on the discussion's objectives. 2. Make sure that students have enough background knowledge to effectively contribute to the discussion. Thus, small-group discussions should follow a lesson focusing on content and should build on topics previously developed. 3. Plan for relatively short discussions. If you see that the students are interested and are on task, the discussion can be allowed to continue. If a time limit is specified at the beginning of the lesson, the students are encouraged to remain on task. 4. Give students precise directions for the activity. If the students realize specifically what they are to do during the discussion, they are more than likely to remain on task. At the conclusion of the small-group activity, each group should report its results to the class. This can be accomplished by a written report or by having a representative from the group give an oral report to the class.

To carry out effective demonstrations, follow these guidelines:

1. Carefully plan the demonstration. 2. Break down complex procedures into separate components that can be adequately demonstrated. 3. Practice the demonstration. 4. Develop an outline to guide the demonstration. 5. Make sure that everyone can see the demonstration. 6. Introduce the demonstration to focus attention. 7. Describe the procedure at the same time that you demonstrate it. Repeat as needed. 8. Ask and encourage questions. 9. Permit students to practice the procedure if they are expected to use the procedure. 10. Provide individual corrective feedback. 11. Plan a follow-up to the demonstration

Direct instruction has four key components:

1. Clear determination and articulation of goals 2. Teacher-directed instruction 3. Careful monitoring of students' outcomes 4. Consistent use of effective classroom organization and management methods Direct instruction is effective because it is based on behavioralistic learning principles, such as obtaining students' attention, reinforcing correct responses, providing corrective feedback, and practicing correct responses. It also tends to increase the academic learning time, or the amount of instructional time during which students are attending to the task and performing at a high success rate. Many studies have found that students learn basic skills more rapidly when they receive a greater portion of their instruction directly from the teacher. It is particularly effective in working with low achievers and students with exceptionalities (Flores & Kaylor, 2007; Leno & Dougherty, 2007).

Take the following guidelines into account when planning and implementing effective discussions. These eight guidelines apply to whole-class and small-group discussions, as well as to panels and debates.

1. Consider the goals of the discussion. The goals of the lesson should structure the discussion. If the objective is to focus on cognitive development, then questions dealing with concepts and ideas are appropriate. If the discussion is to focus on the affective domain, then questions dealing with values and personal experiences are appropriate. 2. Consider the experience and development of the students. Younger and/or inexperienced students may need more direction during the discussion. The directions and questions may need to be more explicit, and the discussion itself may need to be shorter than it might be with an older group of students. As students become more mature and gain experience in discussions, they can take on more direction themselves. 3. Study the issues. Be familiar with the issues and/or material to be discussed during the lesson. This may appear too obvious to mention, but too often, teachers have not prepared themselves by learning about all the various issues surrounding a topic and thereby allow the discussion to drift during presentation. 4. Orient the students to the objective of the discussion. Explaining the objectives of the discussion to the students provides a road map for them and gives students a better idea of what to expect during the lesson. 5. Provide a supportive classroom environment. If a classroom discussion is to be successful, students must believe that they can contribute to the discussion without fear of embarrassment or ridicule. The effective teacher creates an environment where all ideas are welcome and where students give and receive constructive criticism in a supportive climate. 6. Provide new or more accurate information when it is necessary. At times, it may be necessary for you to contribute information to the discussion. This allows the discussion to remain focused on the objectives. 7. Review, summarize, or weave opinions and facts into a meaningful relationship. At times, restate the major themes emerging from the discussion in order to provide a needed structure to the lesson. This permits the students to see how ideas are interrelated. 8. Use humor. Some discussions can cause tension within the class. Depending on the topic, students may not always agree with the opinions of their classmates. Students may say something, without realizing it, that offends another student. You can reduce any tension in the classroom by interspersing humor into the discussion.

Johnson and Johnson (1999) point out that each lesson in cooperative learning should include five basic elements:

1. Positive interdependence—students must feel they are responsible for their own learning and other members of the group. 2. Face-to-face interaction—students work in groups of three to five and, therefore, have the opportunity to explain what they are learning to each other. 3. Individual accountability—each student must be held accountable for mastery of the assigned work. 4. Interpersonal and small-group skills—each student must be taught to communicate effectively, maintain respect among group members, and work together to resolve conflicts. 5. Group processing—groups must be assessed to see how well they are working together and how they can improve. Cooperative learning is represented in three different styles: informal groups, formal groups, and base groups (Johnson & Johnson, 1999).

Also take these guidelines into account as you plan for and conduct presentations (Rosenshine, 1987; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986):

1. Present the lesson objectives to the students. 2. Use an advance organizer to introduce the topic and capture the students' interest. 3. Present the information in an organized, step-by-step manner. 4. Give step-by-step directions. 5. Organize material so that one point can be mastered before the next point needs to be introduced. 6. Focus on one thought at a time, completing one point and checking for understanding before proceeding to the next. 7. Expect student interaction in the form of questions and comments. 8. Move from general ideas to specific ideas. 9. Use a graphic organizer (see Figure 5.3) or other aids to promote learning. 10. Use good explanations and examples. 11. Encourage students to reflect on and apply what they have learned. 12. Check for student understanding.

The components of explicit instruction lessons are described here in the sequence they should be arranged in the lesson:

1. Provide set induction. Set induction is the initial activity of a lesson that is used to gain students' attention, inform students of the lesson objectives, and describe the lesson to students. It is intended to create a mental "set" in students so that they are in a receptive frame of mind for the lesson. Set induction is also referred to by various authors as pre-instructional set, anticipatory set, and advance organizer. There are three parts to set induction (Goeke, 2009). First, gain students' attention for the lesson. This is done at the beginning of the lesson, focuses students' attention and interest on the learning about to take place, and is brief (a few seconds to two minutes). It can be a focusing statement, a standard signal, or a question that elicits curiosity. Second, inform students of the learning objectives for the coming lesson. The objectives should be stated in terms of what the students will be able to do at the end of the lesson (e.g., At the end of today's lesson, you will be able to distinguish between facts and opinions from examples of political reporting). Stating the objectives provides a focus that results in more effective, goal-directed teaching and learning. Third, describe the lesson to the students. Students need explicit details about the activities and evaluation that will be required for them to successfully achieve the objective. Describe the activities or procedures to be used in the lesson, what they will be able to do at the end of the lesson, and why it is important for them to reach these lesson objectives. This information prepares students for instruction, increases the efficiency of their learning, and can serve as a means of motivation. 2. Prepare students for the knowledge base. Effectiveness of teaching depends partly on the teacher's presentation and partly on students' prior knowledge and active thought processes during learning. Thus, teachers need to cognitively prepare students for the lesson. There are three parts to preparing students for the knowledge base (Goeke, 2009). First, activate students' prior knowledge. What students already know about a topic is their prior knowledge. Teachers can ask students to identify and share what they already know about a given subject so they can actively link relevant background knowledge with the lesson goals. This can be done in various ways such as a K-W-L chart (What I Know; What I Want to Know; What I've Learned), a questionnaire, and charts and diagrams. Activating prior knowledge is done before the current topic is taught. It reveals students' knowledge, and facilitates comprehension and learning. It may take from 2 to 10 minutes at the start of a new unit or topic of study, but not necessarily in each lesson. Second, provide daily reviews of previously learned knowledge and skills. Before beginning a lesson, conduct a brief review of previously achieved, related learning. This facilitates the storage of information in long-term memory, helps connect old learning to new, and indicates when reteaching is necessary. This review may take 2-10 minutes. In addition, Rosenshine (1987) suggested reviewing the previous week's work every Monday and the previous month's work every fourth Monday. Third, preteach new vocabulary. Briefly preteaching new vocabulary can set students up for success by fostering fluency and prevent them from faltering over unknown words or terms during reading or instruction (Marzano & Pickering, 2005). This part of the lesson may take 2-10 minutes. For reading in the text, preview words that appear most frequently or that students will not be able to figure out given their current skill level. For a lesson, preview vocabulary that will be used during the class session. 3. Provide instruction of new material. Teacher-directed strategies are usually employed when providing new instruction. To do so, teachers may select some of the instructional strategies reviewed later in this chapter, such as presentations, demonstrations, and questioning. Student learning is promoted when teachers reveal their thinking process concerning the content being presented. Through this cognitive modeling, teachers verbalize their own thoughts or "think aloud" so the students hear how they process the information. Modeling the thinking process is helpful for cognitive skills such as reading strategies, math problem solving, editing and revising written work, and even solving social dilemmas (Goeke, 2009). For example, teachers may physically perform a task while verbally guiding oneself, describe each individual step of a process and its importance, make predictions, and even verbalize confusing points. 4. Provide guided practice. Guided practice helps students transfer information from working memory into long-term memory. After instruction of new material, teachers can arrange for guided practice with practice with peers, group problem solving, or teacher-directed individual guided practice. A worksheet at the beginning of an activity is not guided practice. Guided practice is most effective following a presentation or cognitive modeling of an initial concept. It also is directly linked to the learning objectives of the lesson, enables active participation, and promotes student self-direction. The teacher provides cues and support during guided practice, and this is considered a teacher-assisted approach. 5. Provide independent practice. Once students have completed enough guided practice to facilitate independent performance, it is time to check students' understanding and then reinforce individual proficiency with the new skill, concept, or strategy (Goeke, 2009). Sometimes this check for understanding will result in the need for more guided practice. Independent practice is self-directed; students work independently with little or no teacher interaction. For younger students, independent practice may be group or individual work done in class. For middle and secondary students, independent practice is often in the form of homework. Independent practice is not always written and can be conducted through various means of expression. Independent practice activities may be skill based (e.g., worksheets, games, or drills) or application based (e.g., essays, PowerPoint presentations, oral presentation, diorama). Skill-based independent practice promotes mastery, while application-based independent practice often promotes generalizations to meaningful, real-life settings. It is useful to use a variety of approaches. 6. Provide closure to the lesson. Closure refers to actions that are designed to bring a lesson presentation to an appropriate and satisfying conclusion (Shostak, 2011). Closure has several purposes. First, it helps organize student learning, and promote memory and recall. Second, it helps reinforce important points from the lesson. Third, it helps students reflect on their learning. Fourth, it is an opportunity for the teacher to gauge student understanding and to determine whether there are any remaining misunderstandings.

Formal Groups

1. Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD) involves four-member learning teams that are mixed in performance level, gender, and ethnicity. After the teacher presents a lesson, students work within their teams to make sure that all members have mastered the lesson. Students then individually take a quiz, and their scores are based on the degree to which they meet or exceed their earlier performances. These points are then totaled to form team scores. Teams that meet certain criteria may earn certificates or other awards. If students want their team to earn rewards, they must help their teammates to learn the material. Individual accountability is maintained since the quiz is taken without the help of teammates. Because team scores are based on each student's improvement, there is equal opportunity for all students to be successful. 2. Teams-games-tournaments (TGT) uses the same teacher presentations and teamwork as in STAD. In TGT, however, students demonstrate individual subject mastery by playing academic games. Students play these games in weekly tournaments in which they compete with members of other teams who have similar past records in the subject. The competition takes place with three students at each tournament table. Since the tables include students of similar ability (i.e., high-achieving students are at the same table), all students have the opportunity to be successful. High-performing teams earn certificates or other team-based awards. Individual accountability is maintained during competition since teammates cannot help each other. 3. Team accelerated instruction (TAI) is a combination of individualized instruction and team learning. With TAI, students again work in heterogeneous teams, but each student studies individualized academic materials. Teammates check each other's work from answer sheets. Team scores are based on both the average number and the accuracy of units completed by team members each week. 4. Jigsaw involves six-member teams working on academic material that has been broken down into sections. Each team member reads his or her section. Then members of different teams who have studied the same sections meet in "expert groups" to discuss their section. Next the students return to their teams and take turns teaching their teammates about their sections. Since the only way students can learn about sections other than their own is to carefully listen to their teammates, they are motivated to support and show interest in each other's work. 5. Learning together is a cooperative approach in which students are organized into teams that include a cross section of ability levels (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Each team is given a task or project to complete, and each team member works on a part of the project that is compatible with his or her own interests and abilities. The intent is to maximize strengths of individual students to get a better overall group effect. Each team is responsible for gathering the information and materials needed to complete its assigned task or project. Final assessment is based on the quality of the team's performance. Each student on the team receives the same grade. This encourages students to pool their talents so each student makes the greatest possible contribution to the effort.

Let's look in detail at the characteristics of a problem-based project or lesson. A problem-based lesson typically consists of these five components:

1. Students are presented with a problem that is socially important and personally meaningful to them. The problem should be authentic, one that stimulates and motivates the students by having them seek solutions to meaningful problems that exist in the world. Problems often have an interdisciplinary focus that encourages students to investigate and apply many subjects—science, math, economics, government. A cooperative learning approach, in which students work in pairs or small groups, is often used in an inquiry problem-solving lesson. 2. Students describe what is creating the problem or the barriers barring its solution. 3. Students identify solutions for overcoming constraints and hypothesize which solution is likely to work. Students should feel free to brainstorm regarding the hypotheses. At this point, there is no right answer, so no hypotheses should be rejected. All hypotheses should be recorded either within individual student groups or as a whole class on the board. 4. Students gather data and try solutions to solve the problem. During this stage, the students, not the teacher, should do the thinking. 5. Students analyze the data, compare the results to the earlier generated hypotheses, and decide if they want to test another solution or hypothesis. Students construct exhibits or reports that present their solutions. These could take many forms, from an experiment in science to a mock debate in social studies (Arends, 2012; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2005).

Collaborative learning generally occurs in three different ways:

1. Students have specific responsibilities within a larger group task or project. 2. Students work together on a common project or task. 3. Students take responsibility for all group members' learning. Research indicates that cooperative learning approaches lead to higher academic achievement than strategies that call for students to complete similar tasks as individuals or to compete against each other (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2005). In addition, cooperative learning has been shown to have a positive effect on student attitudes. Students in cooperative learning groups have (a) better interpersonal relationships and (b) more positive attitudes toward subjects studied and the overall classroom experience (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Cooperative learning works best with heterogeneous groupings of students. Having students work in groups generally has a positive effect on their achievement when compared to their work as individuals. However, the findings become more complex when comparing the achievement of low-ability students who worked in homogeneous groups to that of low-ability students who were grouped heterogeneously. Low-ability students actually perform significantly worse when placed in homogeneous groups (Lou, et al., 1996). Through cooperative learning, students understand that they are responsible not only for their own learning but also for the learning of their team members. Cooperative learning approaches are often used to supplement other instructional practices. Research conducted by Lou and colleagues (1996) reported that cooperative learning works best when used in a weekly, systematic fashion.

Joyce and Weil (2009) suggest a nine-step process to maximize students' role-playing performance and learning:

1. Warm up the group. The warm-up centers on introducing students to the problem and making sure that they comprehend the problem. Next you provide examples of the problem. These examples can come from a variety of sources, including classroom situations (e.g., how to deal with situations that students often face with peers, such as use of cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs or a friend asking to copy homework) or historical problems without an ending or resolution disclosed. Examples can also come from students' life experiences, films, texts, newspapers, or other source materials. The final phase of the warm-up is for you to ask students questions to make sure that they understand the problem and that they are ready to start predicting various scenarios and outcomes: "What would you do in this situation?" "What are some possible ways this story could end?" 2. Select the participants. In this phase, you and your students describe the various characters or roles: What are they like? How do events affect different characters in different ways? How might a specific character act? What would they do and say? Students must want to play a particular role. As the teacher, you should ensure that students are well matched to their roles and understand the complexities these roles bring. 3. Set the stage. Ask students to outline the scene and set aside a place for the action to take place. 4. Prepare the observers. Several students without roles should be asked to act as observers. They should analyze the enactment relative to its realism, logical sequence of effects, and whether the actors covered the full range of their characters' likely feelings and perceptions. 5. Enact. The players start to role play, responding to the situation and to each other as realistically as possible. This first enactment should be kept short, and you should stop it when the major points have been made and the purpose of the enactment is clear. You can ask other students to provide a second enactment to fully investigate the issue. 6. Discuss and evaluate. You focus the discussion on what motivated the actors and what would be likely to occur should the scene continue. Alternative scenarios should be investigated. 7. Reenact. Reenactments can take place to ensure that students have opportunities to bring in new interpretations. Reenactments and discussion should alternate freely. Cause and effect should be investigated. For example, how does a change in one player's interpretation change the behavior of other players? 8. Discuss and evaluate. Repeat this step as needed. 9. Share experiences and generalize. As the teacher, you should help students to clarify their perceptions and relate the experience to other real-life problems or historical situations.

Based on the work of Bruner (1966), Joyce and Weil (2009) suggest that the following process be used for indirect concept learning:

1. You prepare labeled examples. 2. Students compare attributes of positive and negative examples. 3. Students put forward possible concepts. 4. Students provide a definition based on the essential attributes of the concept. From the attributes listed in Table 6.3, for example, students might define a democracy as follows: "A country with a government that has been elected freely and equally by all its citizens." 5. Add examples, and call on students to indicate a yes or no descriptor for each label. 6. You confirm student hypotheses, name the concept, and have students come up with a common definition. 7. Students generate examples. 8. Students describe their thought processes and discuss the role of hypotheses and attributes.

LEARNING CENTERS OR STATIONS

A learning center is a designated place within the room where a student goes to pursue either required or optional activities on a given topic. It is a self-contained environment that includes all materials that students will need. Learning centers or learning stations are used to provide enrichment and reinforcement opportunities for students. Learning centers can be used to motivate students and provide a variety of instructional activities designed to meet the various ability levels and learning styles of the students. Teachers often design and prepare a number of instructional tasks that the student can perform while in the learning center. These tasks typically accommodate a range of academic abilities and a variety of student interests. Students usually are not required to complete all tasks at a center, but may select the ones that they prefer based on their ability, interests, or other factors.

Panel

A panel is a fairly informal setting in which four to six participants with a chairperson discuss a topic among themselves while the rest of the class listens. Later, there is give and take with the class. Each participant makes an opening statement. A round table is an informal version of a panel.

PRESENTATIONS

A presentation is an informative talk that a more knowledgeable person makes to less knowledgeable persons. There may be little or no student participation by questioning or discussion. Presentations can be used to disseminate information in a short time, to explain difficult ideas, to stimulate student desire to learn, to present information in a certain way or adapt it to a particular group, or to introduce or explain learning tasks. Presentations should not be used when (1) objectives other than knowledge acquisition are sought; (2) the information is complex, abstract, or detailed; (3) learner involvement is important; higher cognitive learning is sought; or (4) students are below average in ability. Presentations often do not actively engage students in learning or permit passive learning and generally do not give the teacher opportunities to check student understanding. You should thoroughly plan and prepare presentations, know the content like an expert, limit the length of the presentation to the tolerance levels of the particular age group, present in a way that is interesting to students, provide appropriate levels of structure and sequence, maintain flexibility, provide organizers, use the presentation in combination with other methods, use instructional media and materials, summarize the content, and provide follow-up activities. Good and Brophy (2008) suggest that the attention span of students needs to be taken into consideration when preparing a presentation. Certainly, the age and maturity level of the students need to be taken into account. Few students can sustain their interest when a teacher talks for over 20 minutes. After presenting for a short time, you could add variety by asking a series of questions that would be the focus of large-group or small-group discussions. Then you could return to the presentation. It is useful to alternate class time with various presentation techniques that require active involvement by students. Some teachers minimize presentations and use more interactive discussion; they often teach by asking questions. Based on a review of the research, Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) describe several useful guidelines for delivering clear presentations: (1) clearly state goals and main points, (2) provide step-by-step presentations, (3) use specific and concrete procedures, and (4) check for students' understanding. In addition, teaching behaviors such as clarity, enthusiasm, and smooth transitions are all necessary for the presentation if the students are to be motivated and learn the material. Some teachers like to provide students with a notetaking outline to help students to follow the lecture and fill in selected information.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

A range of instructional approaches can be placed on a continuum from teacher-centered to student-centered. Another way to look at that continuum is to classify the instructional approaches as being direct or indirect.

Symposium

A symposium is very similar to a panel, but it involves a more formal presentation of information by each panel member

Task Force

A task force is also like a panel, but it involves thorough investigation of a particular problem prior to the presentation to the rest of the class about the problem investigated.

A CONTINUUM OF INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

An instructional strategy is a method for delivering instruction that is intended to help students achieve the learning objective. Strategies range from being very explicit and teacher directed to being less explicit and student centered. This section considers a continuum of instructional approaches from various perspectives: (1) teacher-centered to student-centered approaches, (2) direct to indirect approaches, and (3) the gradual release of responsibility model. In addition, the issue of using deductive and inductive instructional strategies is considered.

Social Approaches

Another indirect, student-oriented approach to instruction involves social instructional approaches, which permit students to interact with each other in various ways to help each other learn. Some common social approaches include discussions; cooperative learning; panels and debates; and role playing, simulations, and games.

Games

Are designed to involve students in competition as the primary means to achieve a learning goal. Games can be used to teach a wide variety of skills, including problem solving and decision making. Of course, you need to select a game to fit the desired objectives. An instructional game has rules, a structure for playing the game, and a method for determining the winners and losers. You structure the setting, facilitate conducting the game, and supervise the students. Educational games can be useful in an interdisciplinary thematic unit.

Simulations

Are exercises that place students in situations that model a real-life environment. They require students to assume roles, make decisions, and face consequences. The goal of the simulated experience is for students to understand the important factors and how to behave in real situations. Students will also benefit by seeing how others behave in real situations. Although the roles for the students in the simulation are clearly defined, student responses are impromptu.

Direct instructional approaches

Are those in which teachers tell the students the concept or skill to be learned and then lead students through most of the instructional activities designed to bring about student learning. Direct instructional approaches include direct instruction, presentations, demonstrations, questions, recitations, practice and drills, reviews, and guided practice and homework.

Inductive instructional approaches

Are those that involve some type of exploratory activity that helps lead students to discover a concept or generalization. Teachers employ several strategies to help students attain the concepts. Inductive approaches include concept attainment strategies, inquiry lessons, and projects, reports, and problems.

TEACHER-CENTERED TO STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACHES

As you plan for instruction, consider instructional strategies that are most suited to help achieve the objectives of the lessons. A wide range of possible strategies exists. Some strategies are teacher directed, such as lectures, recitations, questions, and practice. Others are more interactive, such as various group and discussion methods. Still other strategies are more student directed; these often emphasize inquiry and discovery. Predominant instructional strategies are displayed in Figure 5.1 within four categories on a continuum ranging from teacher-centered, more explicit methods to student-centered, less explicit methods. Teacher centered-direct approaches, teacher assisted-inductive approaches, peer assisted-social approaches, and student centered-independent approaches.

Base Groups

Base groups are long-term, heterogeneous groups that stay together across tasks throughout the year. Base groups provide student-to-student support and a sense of routine in the classroom. Students in these groups build long-term relationships and a support system that encourages academic progress. In elementary schools, base groups might meet in the morning and again at the end of the day. Morning tasks might include taking a lunch count, making sure everyone in the group has completed the homework, getting materials ready for the day, and catching up on outside activities. Afternoon meetings would allow groups to make sure that everyone has the correct homework assignment, share insights into the assignments and tasks, and focus on a question that brings closure to the day's activities. After working with various students in cooperative learning groups, you will gain a sense of how to get the most out of all participants, how much time is needed for groups to complete their work, and how to transition to other activities. You should move around the room as groups work so that you can assess learning and plan follow-up activities.

Formulating Questions

Consider the following guidelines when formulating questions. Plan key questions in advance to provide lesson structure and direction. Write questions into lesson plans, at least one question for each objective, especially higher-level questions necessary to guide discussions. During the lesson, ask spontaneous questions based on student responses. Ask questions at various levels of the cognitive domain. Use knowledge-level questions to determine basic understandings and diagnose potential for higher-level thinking. Higher-level questions provide students opportunities to use knowledge and engage in critical and creative thinking. Phrase questions clearly and specifically. Avoid vague or ambiguous questions such as "What did we learn yesterday?" or "What about the heroine of the story?" Ask single questions; avoid run-on questions that lead to student confusion and frustration. Clarity increases the probability of accurate responses. Adapt questions to student ability level. This enhances understanding and reduces anxiety. For heterogeneous classes, phrase questions in natural, simple language, adjusting vocabulary and sentence structure to students' language and conceptual levels. Ask questions that relate to students' own lives or similar situations. Students will find learning more meaningful when it can be related to their own lives and interests. Useful questions might include "Have you ever felt this way?" or "Do you believe it is right to ...?" Vary the types of questions being asked. Questions might be convergent (leading to a single correct answer: "What is the capital of Florida?") or divergent (there may be a number of possible answers: "What are the consequences of sex role stereotyping in K-12 textbooks?").

Presenting Questions and Prompting Student Responses

Consider the following guidelines when presenting questions during the class session. Ask questions logically and sequentially. Avoid random questions lacking clear focus and intent. Consider students' intellectual ability, prior understanding of content, topic, and lesson objective(s). Asking questions in a planned sequence will enhance student thinking and learning, particularly during discussions. Ask the question before calling on a particular student. Asking the question before calling on someone allows all students more time to consider the question and a possible answer, creates greater interest, and increases attentive behavior. If one student is named before asking the question, others may not pay attention to what follows because they realize they will not have to perform. Use random selection when calling on students. Calling on students in a prearranged format often leads to boredom and disruptive behavior for those who have already answered a question. Calling on students at random helps to keep them more attentive. Teachers tend to call on higher-achieving students rather than their lower-achieving peers. However, you should call on students at all achievement levels. In addition, it is important to create an environment that encourages success for everyone. You will want to ask the lower-achieving students questions that allow them to be successful. Encourage wide student participation by calling on many students. Distribute questions to involve the majority of students in learning activities. For example, call on nonvolunteers, using discretion regarding the difficulty level of questions. Be alert for reticent students' verbal and nonverbal cues, such as perplexed looks or partially raised hands. Encourage student-to-student interaction. Use circular or semicircular seating to create an environment conducive to participation, particularly during discussions. Use variety and unpredictability in asking questions and calling on students. Students should know that they might be called on at any time, regardless of what has gone on before. You need to be cautious about using predictable patterns, such as calling only on students who raise their hands, always calling on someone in the first row first (or another particular area), taking questions in the same order as in the textbook, and not questioning a student again after he or she has answered one question. Wait at least three to five seconds after asking a question before calling on a student. This gives students time to think about the question and their possible response. After asking a question, the average teacher waits for less than one second before calling on a student or answering the question himself or herself. This short amount of time may be fine when posing a lower-order question that deals with recall. However, one second or even three seconds do not provide students with enough time to reflect on a complex question and formulate an appropriate answer. While five seconds does not seem like a long time, research indicates that many possible benefits can be gained from waiting that amount of time. Increasing your wait time to five seconds can result in an increase in the length of students' responses, the number of unsolicited but appropriate responses, students' confidence, the number of students' questions, lower-achieving students' contributions, the variety of students' responses, and also increased evidence to support answers. Do not consistently repeat student answers. Teachers do this for a variety of reasons, but most commonly it is done to make sure that all students hear the answer. Although the motive for this behavior is meant to be positive, it often results in students believing that they do not need to listen to their fellow students' answers and that the individual answering the question does not need to speak loudly. Have students respond to classmates' answers. It is important that all students attend to their classmates' responses to the teacher's questions. This can be accomplished by occasionally asking other students to comment on another's answer. After one student finishes giving reasons for the United States to maintain membership in the United Nations, for example, you might ask others if they agree with that answer or if they might elaborate on these reasons. This strategy not only results in increased attentiveness but also encourages additional student-student interaction.

Student-Centered Methods

Cooperative Learning Students work together to perform specific tasks in small mixed-ability groups with shared responsibility for learning. Debate Competitive discussion of topic between individuals or teams of students. Differentiated Instruction Students engage in different pathways to learning designed to meet their needs and abilities. Discovery Students take an active role in their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to introduce a concept or skill. Discussion Students are active in processing information, defining problems, understanding different points of view. Independent Study Student works with teacher to define a topic or concept for an individualized plan of study. Inquiry Students explore course content and learn to ask questions, make discoveries, or solve problems. Panel Students present and/or discuss information on important topics. Role Playing Students act out roles or situations followed by a debriefing to define what they have learned. Simulations/Games Students engage by becoming directly involved in mock events or conflict.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small, mixed-ability learning teams to address specific instructional tasks, thus aiding and supporting each other during the learning process. It is a popular instructional approach. The teacher presents the group with a problem to solve or task to perform. Students in the group then work among themselves, help one another, praise and criticize one another's contributions, and often receive a group performance score (Gillies, 2007; Jolliffe, 2007). For example, you might divide the class into cooperative groups of four and assign each group to prepare a report on a different country in South America. Within each group, students agree to take on various responsibilities: leader-organizer, recorder of discussions, timekeeper, or other needed roles. Each group also decides on strategies to divide up the work—for example, who will be responsible for (a) collecting information, (b) organizing the information collected from various group members, (c) preparing the report, and (d) presenting the report to the class as a PowerPoint presentation. You would serve as a resource for the students in each group.

Uses and Limitations

Direct instruction can be applied to any subject, but it is most appropriate for performance-oriented subjects such as reading, writing, mathematics, grammar, music, and physical education, and the skill components of science and history (e.g., reading a map, using a time line, using lab equipment). Younger children and slower learners can benefit from direct instruction. It also can help students of all ages and abilities during the first stages of learning new information or material that is difficult to learn. Direct instruction is not intended to achieve social learning outcomes or higher-order thinking. Opponents of direct instruction note that this instruction is too teacher centered and puts too much emphasis on teacher talk. Critics also argue that the model is limited to teaching basic skills and low-level information, while not being as useful when teaching higher-level objectives. Some critics disagree with the behavioral theory underlying direct instruction and do not support the view that students are empty vessels to absorb information rather than active learners who can construct their own knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Direct instruction involves instructional approaches in which the teacher structures lessons in a straightforward, sequential manner focusing on mastery of knowledge and skills that can be taught in a step-by-step manner. The teacher is clearly in control of the content or skill to be learned and the pace and rhythm of the lesson. The direct teaching format calls for teacher-led and teacher-assisted instruction involving presentations, demonstrations, questions and answers, review and practice, and feedback and correction of student errors. Generally, direct instruction allows a teacher to introduce new skills or concepts in a relatively short period of time. Direct instructional strategies are academically focused, with the teacher clearly stating the goals for the lesson to the students. The teacher closely monitors student understanding and provides feedback to students on their performance. A direct instruction lesson requires careful orchestration by the teacher and the creation of a learning environment that is businesslike and task-oriented. Direct instruction focuses mainly on academic learning tasks and aims at keeping students actively engaged.

The Direct Instruction Model

Direct instruction involves teacher-led instructional strategies. This section examines the characteristics of direct instruction and the components of direct and explicit instruction lessons.

The framework proposed by Fisher and Frey (2008) for implementing the gradual release of responsibility has the following components:

Focus lessons—Teachers establish a lesson's purpose and then model their thinking to illustrate for students how to approach the new learning. Focus lessons include modeling and direct explanation of the skills, strategies, or tasks being taught. This is followed by teacher-led metacognitive awareness lessons that show students when and how to use new learning, as well as to evaluate the success of the approach they have selected. Then teachers use think-alouds in which they describe how they make decisions, implement skills, active problem-solving procedures, and evaluate whether success has been achieved. Guided instruction—Teachers strategically use questions and assessment-informed prompts, cues, direct explanations, and modeling to guide students to increasingly complex thinking and facilitate students' increased responsibility for task completion. Students are typically grouped with other learners who are similarly performing, based on assessment data. The groupings change frequently due to ongoing formative assessments. The guided instruction phase facilitates differentiated instruction by content, process, and product because the small group sizes allow for much higher levels of customization (Fisher & Frey, 2010a). Collaborative work—Teachers design and supervise tasks that enable students to be in productive groups to consolidate their thinking and understanding, and that require students to generate individual products that can provide formative assessment information (Fisher & Frey, 2009). There is individual and group responsibility for small-group, collaborative work. In most cases, the groupings should be heterogeneous. Independent Work—Teachers design and supervise tasks that require students to apply information they have been taught to create new and authentic products. Students demonstrate their expanding competence. Independent learning tasks need to provide students with opportunities to apply what they have learned and to become increasingly self-directed and engaged. Independent work is not just a pile of worksheets or rote memorization. Effective strategies for effective independent learning tasks include independent learning centers, sustained silent reading and independent reading, writing to prompts, and conferring with the teacher or other adult to discuss progress, ask questions, obtain feedback, and plan next steps for independent assignments (Fisher & Frey, 2008). The gradual release of responsibility model may take some time to learn. However, it complements other research-based programs such as differentiated instruction (Tomlinson, 2005a) and backward planning (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). Students will also need to be prepared for using some of the instructional strategies. In particular, it is useful to provide instruction on the various routines and procedures used in guided instruction, collaborative work, and independent work so students will know what to do when these instructional practices are employed.

Formal Groups

Formal groups are carefully designed so that a heterogeneous mix of students works together on specific learning tasks. Several common types of cooperative learning techniques are described in this section. Robert Slavin and his associates developed the first four; these rely on student team-learning methods, which include team rewards, individual accountability, and equal opportunities for success (Slavin, 1995).

Social instructional approaches

Have students working together in various ways to gather, process, and learn information or skills. The teacher acts as a facilitator, rather than the information giver. Social approaches include discussions, cooperative learning, panels and debates, role playing, simulations, and games.

THE GRADUAL RELEASE OF RESPONSIBILITY MODEL

In Better Learning Through Structured Teaching, Fisher and Frey (2008) present a model for the gradual release of responsibility to students when selecting and using the instructional strategies. First proposed by Pearson and Gallagher (1983), the gradual release of responsibility model of instruction suggests that the cognitive work should shift slowly and intentionally from teacher-as-model, to joint responsibility between teacher and student, to independent practice and application by the learner. The model provides a structure for teachers to move from assuming "all the responsibility for performing a task ... to a situation in which the students assume all of the responsibility" (Duke & Pearson, 2002, p. 211). This gradual release may occur over one day, a week, a month, or a year. Over time, students assume more responsibility for the task, moving from participants in the modeled lessons, to apprentices in guided instruction, to collaborators with their peers, and finally, to independent performers (see Figure 5.2). The gradual release of responsibility model is built on several theories. These include (1) Piaget's (1952) work on cognitive structures and schema; (2) Vygotsky's (1962, 1978) work on zones of proximal development; (3) Bandura's (1965, 1977) work on attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation; and (4) Wood, Bruner, and Ross's (1976) work on scaffolded instruction. Taken together, these theories suggest that learning occurs through interactions with others, and when these interactions are intentional specific learning occurs.

PROBLEM-BASED STRATEGIES

In problem-based learning, students learn by doing, not by listening to you teach or being asked to read and memorize. As you begin to think about a problem-based assignment, carefully consider what your outcome is for student learning. What knowledge, skills, or attitudes do you want them to take away from your lesson and how will your strategy choice and assessment strategies promote student interest, motivation, and achievement? For example, when you have students working on different tasks, your active engagement with them is crucial. You need to gather data on student progress throughout the project. You do this by asking questions, observing group interaction, giving formative tests, and reviewing work to date. This type of just-in-time feedback can make all the difference between a student staying focused and productive or becoming isolated and lost (Eggen & Kauchak, 2010). The learning process can be greatly enhanced by using reflective practices and online communication through wikis, blogs, Google docs, and other social network tools that allow students to form communities for discussion, learning, and collaboration. Students can post their reflections, answer questions posed by the teacher or peers, and post reports of progress and drafts of projects—all of which can be reviewed, commented on, and edited by the community. Active learning is at the center of project teamwork. Collaborative learning strategies that include group responsibility for each member's learning, project timelines, and providing an audience for student final products can be extremely motivating. Audiences can include community experts, family, peers, and online participants through digital storytelling or podcasts (Arends, 2012; Edutopia, n.d.). There are different degrees of teacher direction with problem-based learning. You can have teacher-directed inquiry, teacher-student shared inquiry, student-directed inquiry, and even multidisciplinary approaches (Barell, 2007).

Independent Approaches

Independent instructional approaches are those in which students work by themselves on some project or at a learning center or learning station in the classroom. The teacher may be involved in some way in the identification and design of the particular instructional tasks. However, there is often considerable latitude for students with independent instructional approaches.

INDEPENDENT WORK AND LEARNING CONTRACTS

Independent work refers to any assignment or activity that students complete without the direct involvement of a teacher or other students. For example, students can independently read and complete writing compositions. Cruickshank and colleagues (2009) note that while there are many reasons why teachers incorporate independent work in the classroom, the most appropriate time for students to work independently is when they need to rehearse or practice a particular skill or set of material. For example, elementary school teachers often allow their students time to rehearse words for a spelling test. Effective independent study should be distinguished from work that some teachers occasionally (and unfortunately) use for convenience. Busywork is when students are given a task to do just to keep them occupied so that a teacher can do something else. In contrast to busywork, effective independent work is meant to advance the learner and aid in the learning process, as well as help students to learn by themselves (Cruickshank 2009). Learning contracts provide a structure for a student and teacher to agree on a series of tasks to be completed in a given time frame. Many contracts are designed to allow students to work independently through a body of required content or to carry out an individual project. Most contracts entail specific assignments drawn from the regular curriculum and optional activities either drawn from the curriculum or planned around student interest. It is not necessary that all students have learning contracts. Contract activities may be pursued during any independent work time, such as when other students are involved in skills instruction, when other assignments have been completed, or at any other time designated by the teacher as being appropriate for independent work.

Inquiry Approaches

Inductive instructional approaches often begin with exploratory activities and then lead to students discovering a concept or generalization. There are various ways to use inductive approaches; some have a higher degree of teacher-directed activity, and others have students more actively involved in planning and designing their instructional activities. Some of the more common inductive instructional approaches are (1) concept attainment strategies, (2) inquiry and discovery learning, (3) problem-based strategies, and (4) projects, reports, and problems.

Informal Groups

Informal groups are short term, often accomplished by asking students to "turn to a neighbor," and used to clarify information, focus students on objectives, or bring about closure on a topic. These groups usually take place after lectures or other direct-teaching strategies. There are numerous types of informal groupings, but a feature central to all informal groups is that students are encouraged to actively participate and stay engaged by sharing their solutions with others. All activities start with the teacher asking students a question or giving them a problem to work on. During think-pair-share, students initially work independently but then move to pairs to discuss their answers. To conclude, you would call on students to report. In a round-robin activity, you place students in groups of three or four and have them share their answers with others in their group.

INQUIRY AND DISCOVERY LEARNING

Inquiry and discovery approaches involve students in the process of discovery by enabling them to collect data and test hypotheses. As such, these approaches are inductive in nature. Teachers guide students as they discover new meanings, practice the skills, and undergo the experiences that will shape their learning. Generally, inquiry and discovery approaches are student centered and less explicit than direct-teaching approaches. Several common inquiry and discovery approaches are considered here.

Selecting Student-Centered Strategies

Instructional methods are of two types: those that actively involve students in shaping their own learning and those where learning is directed by the teacher. Table 6.1 provides a comparison of both teacher-centered and student-centered approaches. Many of the student-centered methods referred to in the table are discussed in more detail in this chapter. Teacher-centered approaches tend to have students learn by reading for understanding or listening to the teacher. Inquiry, discovery, and problem-solving approaches allow students to become involved in the process of discovery and enable students to collect data and test hypotheses. As such, these approaches are inductive in nature. Teachers guide students as they discover new meanings, practice the skills, and undergo the experiences that shape learning. Generally, inquiry, discovery, and problem solving approaches are student-centered and less explicit than direct teaching approaches. Whether you choose to use a student-centered or a teacher-centered method, one of the most important things to keep in mind is that the method should be well matched with your goal. If you want to have students become active citizens, you can have them read about the three branches of government, or you can have them investigate individual issues that affect their lives and the lives of their family and have them write a one-page policy brief to their legislators, major, governor, or school board

Problem solving

Involves the application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals. There are several components for problem-solving skills (Slavin, 2012). First, means-ends analysis is a problem-solving technique that encourages identifying the goals (the ends) of a problem, the current situation, and what needs to be done (the means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions. Second, creative problem solving involves cases for which the answers are not very clear or straightforward.

Guided inquiry

Involves the teacher providing the data and then questioning the students in order to help them arrive inductively at an answer, conclusion, generalization, or solution.

Concept attainment

Is an instructional strategy in which students are provided both examples and non examples of a concept. For instance, you might list a series of words containing some examples of, or attributes of, the concept that you want students to recognize. Table 6.3 shows a list of words, and each word is followed by a yes or a no. The yes answers form the concept under study. Can you guess the concept?

Unguided inquiry

Or open-ended inquiry, has students take more responsibility for examining data, objects, or events; these investigations are commonly done individually. Guided and unguided inquiry approaches may involve discussion and question sessions, guided or controlled discussions, projects, and research projects.

PANELS AND DEBATES

Panels, symposiums, task forces, and debates all involve a group of students becoming informed about a particular topic, presenting information to the class, and interacting in discussion. Each approach has unique characteristics. Panels and debates are designed to help students to understand several points of view related to a topic or issue. They combine prepared activities and statements with the give and take of discussions. They are useful in large-class activities when more informal whole-class or small-group discussions are not feasible.

PROJECTS, REPORTS, AND PROBLEMS

Project-based lessons flow naturally in a problem-solving environment. Students often work either independently or cooperatively on projects related to the objectives of the unit being covered. A project is an activity that involves investigation about the facts of a particular issue and the reporting of these facts in various ways. Projects include research reports, surveys, or case studies that have a particular purpose or objective. Projects provide students with the opportunity to work somewhat independently from the teacher, have positive academic experiences with their peers, develop independent learning skills, become especially knowledgeable in one area of the subject matter, and develop skill in reporting this knowledge. The degree of teacher direction can vary with projects. For a given unit, you may ask all students to prepare a report on one particular topic, or you may offer a choice of several topics. You may ask students to work independently or in small groups, or you could let each student select the grouping that he or she would prefer. It is often helpful to provide written guidelines and time lines for the outlines, drafts, and completed projects. Criteria for evaluation of the project should be clearly stated. After receiving initial guidelines, students decide on the tasks to be done, such as conducting library research or interviewing, and then collect the information in a cohesive way to report their findings and conclusions that they have drawn. Provide sufficient class time over a number of days to enable students to plan their actions, gather the information, and organize and prepare their report. After providing the initial project guidelines, your role will be to assist, advise, and facilitate student learning.

QUESTIONING

Questioning is a critical instructional tool, but there are many facets to successful questioning. Guidance about questioning falls into two categories: the kinds of questions and questioning techniques. Useful guidelines for improving classroom questions are provided by Morgan and Saxton (2006) and Walsh and Sattes (2005, 2011).

ROLE PLAYING, SIMULATIONS, AND GAMES

Role playing is a student-directed activity in which students act out or dramatize a particular situation, circumstance, or idea. The teacher structures and facilitates the role playing and conducts the follow-up discussion. The majority of the class will be involved in observing and analyzing the enactments. Role playing can be successfully used at both the middle and secondary levels. Role playing is particularly useful in helping students to understand the perspectives and feelings of other people concerning a variety of personal and social issues. In addition, role playing can be used to clarify and demonstrate attitudes and concepts, plan and test solutions to problems, help students to prepare for a real situation, and deepen understanding of social situations.

Small-Group Discussions

Small-group discussions can meet the goal of increased student participation by allowing more students to become involved in the discussion. Groups of four to five students are most appropriate for small-group work. In addition to promoting higher-level thinking skills, small-group discussions help to promote the development of communication skills, leadership ability, debate, and compromise.

Indirect Instructional Approaches

Student-centered instructional strategies are sometimes referred to as indirect instruction. With indirect instruction, the teacher often takes the lead in identifying the instructional objectives and corresponding content, but students may be involved in this process to some degree. Instructional strategies are used that actively involve students through cooperative and interactive approaches such as projects, cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and inquiry approaches. Students interact with peers and are actively involved in the learning process. The teacher serves as a guide and a resource. Indirect instruction lends itself more to the middle and upper levels of the revised Bloom's taxonomy, with emphasis on doing something with the facts—applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating knowledge. Indirect instruction lends itself to authentic and performance assessments. However, when selecting instructional strategies, it is not an either-or decision. It is not either a teacher-centered, direct instructional strategy or a student-centered, indirect instructional strategy. As noted in Figure 5.1, there are different degrees along the continuum—teacher-centered, teacher-assisted, peer-assisted, and student-centered. Teachers sometimes like to start with teacher-centered approaches since they can control the classroom conditions and environment. When teachers see they have control and students are learning with these approaches, they next try instructional approaches in which they give more responsibility to the students with peer-assisted and student-centered instructional approaches. This leads to our next section on the gradual release of responsibility to students.

Direct Instructional Approaches

Teacher-centered instructional strategies are sometimes referred to as direct instruction. With direct instruction, the teacher typically selects the instructional objectives, the corresponding content, and the instructional strategies that will be used in the lessons. The teacher structures the learning environment and is primarily the conveyer of information in teacher-directed instructional activities (e.g., presentations, demonstrations, recitations, drill and practice). Students generally are not involved in the selection of objectives, content, or instructional strategies. Students have a relatively passive role in the process, often responding to teacher-specified directions to achieve the learning outcomes. Direct instruction lends itself more to the lower level of the revised Bloom's taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), with emphasis on knowing and remembering the facts, understanding the facts, and applying them to some degree. Generally, there are fewer objectives in the higher-higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy in direct instruction, partly because students are not expected to be very active in the learning process or in constructing their own learning. Assessments are more likely to be tests, quizzes, and other selected-response assessments.

Degrees of Direct Instruction

There are different degrees of direct instruction. Some approaches are more structured than others. First, the teacher-directed approach is the most structured in which the teacher transmits information to students in the most direct way possible. This often takes the form of a structured presentation, with explanations, examples, opportunities for practice and feedback, and checking for understanding. The teacher-directed approach is typically fairly scripted and sequential, and peer-assisted and student-centered instruction would not be very evident. Some forms of this instruction may involve creating homogeneous learning groups to focus on specific knowledge and skills that must be mastered. There is little opportunity for student input or variation. Second, a less direct approach is called explicit instruction (Rosenshine, 1987, 1995). Explicit instruction calls for the teacher to gain student attention, present new material, reinforce correct responses, provide feedback to students on their progress, and increase the amount of time that students spend actively engaged in learning course content. Its objective is to teach skills and help students to master a body of knowledge. It is teacher-led instruction, with some involvement by students.

Constructivist approach

Therefore, a constructivist approach involves students in constructing meaning out of information that they have been exposed to through active engagement and investigation. Constructivism promotes (1) the student point of view, (2) teacher-student interaction, (3) questioning to encourage student thought, and (4) the importance of nurturing student reflection and thought, rather than a primary focus on a single correct answer or product. Useful resources are available, such as Creating and Sustaining the Constructivist Classroom (Marlowe & Page, 2005) and Constructivist Learning Design (Gagnon & Collay, 2006). A constructivist approach provides students with the opportunity to investigate concepts and assists students in understanding new information by providing an environment of student-based discussion and investigation. You should ensure that your students are challenged by the instructional activities and stimulated by their own questions and the questions that you also might offer. Encourage your students to actively seek understanding and knowledge and to use prior knowledge to help them to understand new material.

Deductive Strategies

Think of deductive strategies as being direct. Deductive strategies involve deductive reasoning in which the teacher starts with a known principle or concept followed by examples of the concept. For example, a teacher using a deductive approach might give students the following definition of a topic sentence (the main concept): "A topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. This sentence provides the reader with a sense of the writer's purpose. The rest of the paragraph contains specific details related to this purpose." With the deductive approach, the teacher next might give students some sample paragraphs and highlight the topic sentence to illustrate the concept (examples are provided). Students then could be given sample paragraphs that do not have a topic sentence, and be asked to write a topic sentence for each paragraph. The teacher could then review these sentences and give feedback on the students' performance. The strengths of the deductive strategy are the directness and specific focus of the teaching strategy and the tight linkage between the teacher's examples and the task required of students. Deductive strategies are more direct and straightforward and lend themselves to direct instructional approaches.

Inductive Strategies

Think of inductive strategies as being indirect. Inductive strategies involve inductive reasoning where the lesson begins with examples, and the students examine the examples in an effort to identify the main principle or concept. For example, a teacher using an inductive approach might give students sample paragraphs with the topic sentences underlined (provide examples). With this strategy, the teacher would not tell students at the start that they are studying topic sentences, nor would the teacher provide a definition of a topic sentence. Instead, students would study the paragraphs and answer questions posed by the teacher. For example, the teacher might ask, "What do the underlined sentences in these paragraphs have in common?" And after receiving a series of answers, the teacher might ask a second question: "Can anyone provide a name for the underlined sentences?" From these two questions, many ideas could be generated. Student thinking is engaged throughout this process. Ultimately, the concept of topic sentences would be identified through this inductive, indirect process. This inductive approach is indirect, but it can be very effective because students interact with the content to make meaning. Sometimes, you may want to have fairly direct presentation of the content and thus would use deductive teaching approaches. Other times, you may want to start out with examples and then lead to the main concept through the use of inductive approaches.

Questioning Techniques

To be effective, teachers don't just walk into a classroom and ask questions. They need to give careful consideration to formulate questions, present questions, prompt student responses, assess and use questions, and encourage student questions (Walsh & Sattes, 2005). Guidelines presented here represent a synthesis of suggestions from Morgan and Saxton (2006), Walsh and Sattes (2005, 2011), and other sources.

Kinds of Questions

When using questions, consider the level of question, the use of convergent and divergent questions, and the type of question: 1. Questions for the learning domains. Most questions focus on the cognitive domain, as discussed in Chapter 4. Questions can be developed for each level of the cognitive domain (see Table 4.1): remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The first three levels generally require low-level questions because they emphasize primarily the recall and moderate use of the information. The upper three levels of the cognitive domain require high-level questions that go beyond memory and partial recall; they deal with abstract and complex thinking. 2. Convergent and divergent questions. Two types of answers might be required from questions. Convergent questions tend to have one correct or best answer (e.g., What is the capital of Illinois? Who is the author of Moby Dick?). These questions may be phrased to require either low- or high-level thinking. Divergent questions are often open ended and usually have many appropriate but different answers (e.g., Why is it important that we continue to explore space? What would be a good title for this story?). 3. Types of questions. There are different types of questions for different purposes: ■ Focusing questions are used to focus students' attention on the day's lesson or on material being discussed. They may be used to determine what students have learned, to motivate and arouse students, to generate interest at the start of or during a lesson, or to check for understanding during or at the close of a lesson (Moore, 2011). You may need to prompt students when asking questions. ■ Prompting questions include hints and clues to aid students in answering questions or to assist them in correcting an initial response. A prompting question is usually a rewording of the original question with clues or hints included. ■ Probing questions may be needed when a student does not answer a question completely. In this case, you may stay with the same student by asking one or more probing questions that are intended to seek clarification and to provide guidance to more complete answers (e.g., What do you mean by that? Could you explain that more fully? What are your reasons for that?).

Instructional Approaches for Direct Instruction

When using teacher-led instructional approaches, several instructional strategies are common including presentations, demonstrations, questioning, recitations, practice and drills, reviews, guided practice, and homework. These same strategies may be used by teachers in various ways when using teacher-assisted, peer-assisted, and student-centered approaches.

Inquiry

is an open-ended and creative way of seeking knowledge. One of the strengths of this approach is that both the lesson content and the process of investigation are taught at the same time. The steps of inquiry essentially follow John Dewey's (1933) model of reflective thinking. The common steps include the following: (1) identify and clarify a problem; (2) form hypotheses; (3) collect data; (4) analyze and interpret the data to test the hypotheses; and (5) draw conclusions. Dewey, along with Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, was instrumental in developing a major concept central to understanding the power of inquiry learning. This concept is referred to as constructivism. Through studies of how children think and develop, Piaget confirmed that children strive to construct understandings of the world in which they live. Vygotsky held that individuals develop intellectually when they confront new and puzzling events that they try to understand by linking this new knowledge to knowledge that they already possess in an effort to create new meanings.