Intro to Business (Bus 109): Ch. 16-Financial Management, Securities Marketw
What are the current developments in financial management and the securities markets?
1. Developments: technology is improving the efficiency with which financial managers run their operations. In the wake of a slowing economy and corporate scandals, the SEC assumed a stronger role and implemented additional regulations to protect investors from fraud and misinformation. A wave of merger mania hit the global securities markets as the securities exchanges themselves have begun to consolidate to capture larger shares of the world's trading volume in multiple types of securities. Online brokerage firms are seeking new ways to capture and keep their customers by broadening the services they offer and keeping the fees they charge highly competitive. balancing a strategic focus with overseeing corporate compliance with the act. The NYSE and NASDAQ are battling for supremacy as the regional exchanges look for niche markets to exploit.
What are Securities?
investment certificates that represent either equity (ownership in the issuing organization) or debt (a loan to the issuer). Corporations and governments raise capital to finance operations and expansion by selling securities to investors, who in turn take on a certain amount of risk with the hope of receiving a profit from their investment.
Where can investors buy and sell securities?
The two segments of the secondary markets are broker markets and dealer markets, 1. Broker market consists of national and regional securities exchanges that bring buyers and sellers together through brokers on a centralized trading floor. In the broker market, the buyer purchases the securities directly from the seller through the broker. Broker markets account for about 60 percent of the total dollar volume of all shares traded in the U.S. securities markets. New York Stock Exchange The oldest and most prestigious broker market is the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), which has existed since 1792. Often Another national stock exchange, the American Stock Exchange (AMEX), Regional Exchanges: The remaining 6 percent of annual share volume takes place on several regional exchanges in the United States. These exchanges list about 100 to 500 securities of firms located in their area. Regional exchange membership rules are much less strict than for the NYSE. The top regional exchanges are the Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and National (formerly the Cincinnati) exchanges. An 2. Dealer market: dealer markets do not operate on centralized trading floors but instead use sophisticated telecommunications networks that link dealers throughout the United States. Buyers and sellers do not trade securities directly, as they do in broker markets. They work through securities dealers called market makers, who make markets in one or more securities and offer to buy or sell securities at stated prices. A security transaction in the dealer market has two parts: the selling investor sells his or her securities to one dealer, and the buyer purchases the securities from another dealer (or in some cases, the same dealer). NASDAQ The largest dealer market is the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation system, commonly referred to as NASDAQ. The first electronic-based stock market, the NASDAQ is a sophisticated telecommunications network that links dealers throughout the United States. Founded in 1971 with origins in the over-the-counter (OTC) market, today NASDAQ is a separate securities exchange that is no longer part of the OTC market. The NASDAQ lists more companies than the NYSE, 3. The Over-the-Counter Market: refer to those other than the organized exchanges described above. There are two OTC markets: the Over-the-Counter Bulletin Board (OTCBB) and the Pink Sheets. These markets generally list small companies and have no listing or maintenance standards, making them attractive to young companies looking for funding. OTC companies do not have to file with the SEC or follow the costly provisions of Sarbanes-Oxley. Investing in OTC companies is therefore highly risky and should be for experienced investors only. 4. Alternative Trading Systems In addition to broker and dealer markets, alternative trading systems such as electronic communications networks (ECNs) make securities transactions. ECNs are private trading networks that allow institutional traders and some individuals to make direct transactions in what is called the fourth market. ECNs bypass brokers and dealers to automatically match electronic buy and sell orders. They are most effective for high-volume, actively traded stocks. Money managers and institutions such as pension funds and mutual funds with large amounts of money to invest like ECNs because they cost far less than other trading venues.
What's the key principle of financing?
match the term of the financing to the period over which benefits are expected to be received from the associated outlay. Short-term items should be financed with short-term funds, and long-term items should be financed with long-term funds. Long-term financing sources include both debt (borrowing) and equity (ownership). Equity financing comes either from selling new ownership interests or from retaining earnings. Financial managers try to select the mix of long-term debt and equity that results in the best balance between cost and risk.
What is insider trading, and how can it be harmful? How
the use of information that is not available to the general public to make profits on securities transactions. The meaning of insider was expanded beyond a company's directors, employees, and their relatives to include anyone who gets private information about a company.
What are financial manager's 3 Key Activities? Main Goal?
1. Financial planning: Preparing the financial plan, which projects revenues, expenditures, and financing needs over a given period. 2. Investment (spending money): Investing the firm's funds in projects and securities that provide high returns in relation to their risks. 3. Financing (raising money): Obtaining funding for the firm's operations and investments and seeking the best balance between debt (borrowed funds) and equity (funds raised through the sale of ownership in the business). wise planning, investment, and financing decisions? The main goal of the financial manager is to maximize the value of the firm to its owners. The value of a publicly owned corporation is measured by the share price of its stock. A private company's value is the price at which it could be sold.
What's The Role of Investment Bankers and Stockbrokers
1. Investment bankers help companies raise long-term financing. These firms act as intermediaries, buying securities from corporations and governments and reselling them to the public. This process, called underwriting, is the main activity of the investment banker, which acquires the security for an agreed-upon price and hopes to be able to resell it at a higher price to make a profit. Investment bankers advise clients on the pricing and structure of new securities offerings, as well as on mergers, acquisitions, and other types of financing. 2. stockbroker is a person who is licensed to buy and sell securities on behalf of clients. Also called account executives, these investment professionals work for brokerage firms and execute the orders customers place for stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities. Investors are wise to seek a broker who understands their investment goals and can help them pursue their objectives. Brokerage firms are paid commissions for executing clients' transactions. Although brokers can charge whatever they want, most firms have fixed commission schedules for small transactions. These commissions usually depend on the value of the transaction and the number of shares involved. Online Investing Improvements in internet technology have made it possible for investors to research, analyze, and trade securities online. Today almost all brokerage firms offer online trading capabilities. Online
What are the 3 key cash management strategies?
1. collect money owed to the firm (accounts receivable) as quickly as possible, 2. pay money owed to others (accounts payable) as late as possible without damaging the firm's credit reputation 3. minimize the funds tied up in inventory.
What are unsecured short term loans?
A short-term loan comes due within one year; a long-term loan has a maturity greater than one year. Short-term financing is shown as a current liability on the balance sheet and is used to finance current assets and support operations. Short-term loans can be unsecured or secured. 1. Trade Credit: Accounts Payable: seller extends credit to the buyer between the time the buyer receives the goods or services and when it pays for them. Trade credit is a major source of short-term business financing. The buyer enters the credit on its books as an account payable. In effect, the credit is a short-term loan from the seller to the buyer of the goods and services. 2. Bank Loans: Unsecured bank loans are another source of short-term business financing. Companies often use these loans to finance seasonal (cyclical) businesses. Unsecured bank loans include lines of credit and revolving credit agreements. A line of credit specifies the maximum amount of unsecured short-term borrowing the bank will allow the firm over a given period, typically one year. The firm either pays a fee or keeps a certain percentage of the loan amount (generally 10 to 20 percent) in a checking account at the bank. Another bank loan, the revolving credit agreement, is basically a guaranteed line of credit that carries an extra fee in addition to interest. Revolving credit agreements are often arranged for a period of two to five years. 3. commercial paper is an unsecured short-term debt—an IOU—issued by a financially strong corporation. Thus, it is both a short-term investment and a financing option for major corporations. Corporations issue commercial paper in multiples of $100,000 for periods ranging from 3 to 270 days. Many big companies use commercial paper instead of short-term bank loans because the interest rate on commercial paper is usually 1 to 3 percent below bank rates.
What is Debt Financing and Types?
Long-term debt is used to finance long-term (capital) expenditures. The initial maturities of long-term debt typically range between 5 and 20 years. Three important forms of long-term debt are term loans, bonds, and mortgage loans. 1. A term loan is a business loan with a maturity of more than one year. Term loans generally have maturities of 5 to 12 years and can be unsecured or secured. They are available from commercial banks, insurance companies, pension funds, commercial finance companies, and manufacturers' financing subsidiaries. A contract between the borrower and the lender spells out the amount and maturity of the loan, the interest rate, payment dates, the purpose of the loan, and other provisions such as operating and financial restrictions on the borrower to control the risk of default. The payments include both interest and principal, so the loan balance declines over time. Borrowers try to arrange a repayment schedule that matches the forecast cash flow from the project being financed. 2. Bonds are long-term debt obligations (liabilities) of corporations and governments. A bond certificate is issued as proof of the obligation. The issuer of a bond must pay the buyer a fixed amount of money—called interest, stated as the coupon rate—on a regular schedule, typically every six months. The issuer must also pay the bondholder the amount borrowed—called the principal, or par value—at the bond's maturity date (due date). Bonds are usually issued in units of $1,000—for instance, $1,000, $5,000, or $10,000—and have initial maturities of 10 to 30 years. They may be secured or unsecured, include special provisions for early retirement, or be convertible to common stock. 3. A mortgage loan is a long-term loan made against real estate as collateral. The lender takes a mortgage on the property, which lets the lender seize the property, sell it, and use the proceeds to pay off the loan if the borrower fails to make the scheduled payments. Long-term mortgage loans are often used to finance office buildings, factories, and warehouses. Life insurance companies are an important source of these loans. They make billions of dollars' worth of mortgage loans to businesses each year.
How do securities markets help firms raise funding?
Stocks, bonds, and other securities trade in securities markets. These markets streamline the purchase and sales activities of investors by allowing transactions to be made quickly and at a fair price. Individual investors invest their own money to achieve their personal financial goals. Institutional investors are investment professionals who are paid to manage other people's money. Most of these professional money managers work for financial institutions, such as banks, mutual funds, insurance companies, and pension funds. Institutional investors control very large sums of money, often buying stock in 10,000-share blocks. They aim to meet the investment goals of their clients. Institutional investors are a major force in the securities markets, accounting for about half of the dollar volume of equities traded. 1. primary market is where new securities are sold to the public, usually with the help of investment bankers. In the primary market, the issuer of the security gets the proceeds from the transaction. A security is sold in the primary market just once—when the corporation or government first issues it. The Blue Apron IPO is an example of a primary market offering. 2. secondary market, where old (already issued) securities are bought and sold, or traded, among investors. The issuers generally are not involved in these transactions. The vast majority of securities transactions take place in secondary markets, which include broker markets, dealer markets, the over-the-counter market, and the commodities exchanges.
What is managing Accounts Receivable?
goal is to collect money owed to the firm as quickly as possible, while offering customers credit terms attractive enough to increase sales. Accounts receivable management involves setting credit policies, guidelines on offering credit, credit terms, and specific repayment conditions, including how long customers have to pay their bills and whether a cash discount is given for quicker payment, deciding on collection policies for collecting overdue accounts. consider the impact on sales, timing of cash flow, experience with bad debt, customer profiles, and industry standards when developing their credit and collection policies.
How does the risk-return trade-off relate to the financial manager's main goal?
higher the risk, the greater the return that is required. Return: the opportunity for profit is termed Risk: potential for loss, or the chance that an investment will not achieve the expected level of return, Financial managers consider many risk and return factors when making investment and financing decisions.: changing patterns of market demand, interest rates, general economic conditions, market conditions, and social issues (such as environmental effects and equal employment opportunity policies).
What. is Financial management—
the art and science of managing a firm's money so that it can meet its goals—is not just the responsibility of the finance department. Financial managers must track how money is flowing into and out of the firm (see Exhibit 16.2). They work with the firm's other department managers to determine how available funds will be used and how much money is needed. Then they choose the best sources to obtain the required funding.
What are some other popular securities?
1. A mutual fund is a financial-service company that pools its investors' funds to buy a selection of securities—marketable securities, stocks, bonds, or a combination of securities—that meet its stated investment goals. Each mutual fund focuses on one of a wide variety of possible investment goals, such as growth or income. Many large financial-service companies, such as Fidelity and Vanguard, sell a wide variety of mutual funds, each with a different investment goal. Investors can pick and choose funds that match their particular interests. Some specialized funds invest in a particular type of company or asset: in one industry such as health care or technology, in a geographical region such as Asia, or in an asset such as precious metals. 2. exchange-traded fund (ETF): similar to mutual funds because they hold a broad basket of stocks with a common theme, giving investors instant diversification. ETFs trade on stock exchanges (most trade on the American Stock Exchange, AMEX), so their prices change throughout the day, whereas mutual fund share prices, called net asset values (NAVs), are calculated once a day, at the end of trading; industry sectors such as health care or energy, and geographical areas such as a particular country (Japan) or region (Latin America). ETFs have very low expense ratios. However, because they trade as stocks, investors pay commissions to buy and sell these shares. 3. Futures contracts are legally binding obligations to buy or sell specified quantities of commodities (agricultural or mining products) or financial instruments (securities or currencies) at an agreed-on price at a future date. An investor can buy commodity futures contracts in cattle, pork bellies (large slabs of bacon), eggs, coffee, flour, gasoline, fuel oil, lumber, wheat, gold, and silver. Financial futures include Treasury securities and foreign currencies, such as the British pound or Japanese yen. Futures contracts do not pay interest or dividends. The return depends solely on favorable price changes. These are very risky investments because the prices can vary a great deal. 4. Options are contracts that entitle holders to buy or sell specified quantities of common stocks or other financial instruments at a set price during a specified time. As with futures contracts, investors must correctly guess future price movements in the underlying financial instrument to earn a positive return. Unlike futures contracts, options do not legally obligate the holder to buy or sell, and the price paid for an option is the maximum amount that can be lost. However, options have very short maturities, so it is easy to quickly lose a lot of money with them.
What are secured short term loans?
1. Secured loans require the borrower to pledge specific assets as collateral, or security. The secured lender can legally take the collateral if the borrower doesn't repay the loan. Commercial banks and commercial finance companies are the main sources of secured short-term loans to business. Borrowers whose credit is not strong enough to qualify for unsecured loans use these loans. Typically, the collateral for secured short-term loans is accounts receivable or inventory. Because accounts receivable are normally quite liquid (easily converted to cash), they are an attractive form of collateral. The appeal of inventory—raw materials or finished goods—as collateral depends on how easily it can be sold at a fair price. 2. factoring: short-term financing using accounts receivable; A firm sells its accounts receivable outright to a factor, a financial institution (often a commercial bank or commercial finance company) that buys accounts receivable at a discount. Factoring is widely used in the clothing, furniture, and appliance industries. Factoring is more expensive than a bank loan, however, because the factor buys the receivables at a discount from their actual value.
What types of short-term and long-term expenditures does a firm make?
1. Short-term expenses (a year or less) support the firm's day-to-day activities; call operating expenses; are outlays used to support current production and selling activities. They typically result in current assets, which include cash and any other assets (accounts receivable and inventory) that can be converted to cash within a year. The financial manager's goal is to manage current assets so the firm has enough cash to pay its bills and to support its accounts receivable and inventory. For instance, athletic-apparel maker Nike regularly spends money to buy such raw materials as leather and fabric and to pay employee salaries. 2. Long-term expenses (greater than a year) are typically for fixed assets. physical assets such as land, buildings, machinery, equipment, and information systems; capital budgeting is important
Describe the major changes taking place in the U.S. securities markets. What trends are driving these changes?
1. The NYSE and NASDAQ continue to wage a heated battle for supremacy in the global securities markets. The NYSE fell behind its more nimble rival, which already had an electronic platform. Its answer was to make sweeping changes in its organizational structure by going public and merging with Archipelago, a major ECN, to enter the electronic marketplace. NASDAQ responded immediately by acquiring another ECN, Instinet's INET. The NYSE then made history by signing an agreement to merge with Euronext and create the first exchange to span the Atlantic. Not to be outdone, the NASDAQ increased its ownership of shares in the London Stock Exchange to 25 percent. These transactions reduced the fragmentation in the marketplace and also eliminated many of the differences between the two exchanges. 2. Global focus: in 2017, as the London Stock Exchange looks for a buyer after the European Commission refused to allow a merger between LSE and Germany's Deutsche Borse; It remains to be seen whether either U.S. exchange is ready to purchase an international exchange; however, their recent strategic moves have made them stronger and more competitive.
What's the differences between Debt v. Equity Financing? (Table 16.1)
1. The major advantage of debt financing is the deductibility of interest expense for income tax purposes, which lowers its overall cost. In addition, there is no loss of ownership. The major drawback is financial risk: the chance that the firm will be unable to make scheduled interest and principal payments. The lender can force a borrower that fails to make scheduled debt payments into bankruptcy. Most loan agreements have restrictions to ensure that the borrower operates efficiently. 2. Equity, on the other hand, is a form of permanent financing that places few restrictions on the firm. The firm is not required to pay dividends or repay the investment. However, equity financing gives common stockholders voting rights that provide them with a voice in management. Equity is more costly than debt. Unlike the interest on debt, dividends to owners are not tax-deductible expenses.
Differences between Unsecured v. Secured Loans?
1. Unsecured Loans: made on the basis of the firm's creditworthiness and the lender's previous experience with the firm. An unsecured borrower does not have to pledge specific assets as security. The three main types of unsecured short-term loans are trade credit, bank loans, and commercial paper. 2. Secured Loans: require the borrower to pledge specific assets as collateral, or security. The secured lender can legally take the collateral if the borrower doesn't repay the loan. Commercial banks and commercial finance companies are the main sources of secured short-term loans to business.
What is financial managers goal of assuring liquidity (SHORT TERM)?
1. making sure that enough cash is on hand to pay bills as they come due and to meet unexpected expenses. Businesses estimate their cash requirements for a specific period. Many companies keep a minimum cash balance to cover unexpected expenses or changes in projected cash flows. The financial manager arranges loans to cover any shortfalls. If the size and timing of cash inflows closely match the size and timing of cash outflows, the company needs to keep only a small amount of cash on hand. A company whose sales and receipts are fairly predictable and regular throughout the year needs less cash than a company with a seasonal pattern of sales and receipts. 2. tries to keep cash balances low and to invest the surplus cash. Surpluses are invested temporarily in marketable securities; looks for low-risk investments that offer high returns. Three of the most popular marketable securities are Treasury bills, certificates of deposit, and commercial paper. 3. Companies with overseas operations face even greater cash management challenges.dealing with multiple foreign currencies, treasurers must understand and follow banking practices and regulatory and tax requirements in each country. Regulations may impede their ability to move funds freely across borders; be aware of local customs 4. shorten the time between the purchase of inventory or services (cash outflows) and the collection of cash from sales (cash inflows).
What is Equity Financing?
A firm obtains equity financing by selling new ownership shares (external financing), by retaining earnings (internal financing), preferred stock, or for small and growing, typically high-tech, companies, through venture capital (external financing). 1. External Financing/common stock is a security that represents an ownership interest in a corporation. A company's first sale of stock to the public is called an initial public offering (IPO). An IPO often enables existing stockholders, usually employees, family, and friends who bought the stock privately, to earn big profits on their investment. (Companies that are already public can issue and sell additional shares of common stock to raise equity funds.) 2. Retained Earnings: profits that have been reinvested in the firm, have a big advantage over other sources of equity capital: They do not incur underwriting costs. Financial managers strive to balance dividends and retained earnings to maximize the value of the firm. Often the balance reflects the nature of the firm and its industry. Most high-growth companies, such as those in technology-related fields, finance much of their growth through retained earnings and pay little or no dividends to stockholders. 3. Preferred Stock: Unlike common stock, preferred stock usually has a dividend amount that is set at the time the stock is issued. These dividends must be paid before the company can pay any dividends to common stockholders. Also, if the firm goes bankrupt and sells its assets, preferred stockholders get their money back before common stockholders do. 4. Venture Capital/External Financing: most often used by small and growing firms that aren't big enough to sell securities to the public. This type of financing is especially popular among high-tech companies that need large sums of money.Venture capitalists invest in new businesses in return for part of the ownership, sometimes as much as 60 percent. They look for new businesses with high growth potential, and they expect a high investment return within 5 to 10 years. Venture capitalists generally get a voice in management through seats on the board of directors.
What is investing in bonds? Types? Ratings?
A. Investing in Bonds: bonds can be bought and sold in the securities markets. However, the price of a bond changes over its life as market interest rates fluctuate. When the market interest rate drops below the fixed interest rate on a bond, it becomes more valuable, and the price rises. If interest rates rise, the bond's price will fall. B. Types of Bonds: 1. Corporate bonds, as the name implies, are issued by corporations. They usually have a par value of $1,000. They may be secured or unsecured (called debentures), include special provisions for early retirement, or be convertible to common stock. Corporations can also issue 2. mortgage bonds, bonds secured by property such as land, buildings, or equipment. Approximately $1.5 trillion in new corporate bonds were issued in 2016. 3. high-yield, or junk, bonds—high-risk, high-return bonds often used by companies whose credit characteristics would not otherwise allow them access to the debt markets. They generally earn 3 percent or more above the returns on high-quality corporate bonds. 4. U.S. Government Securities and Municipal Bonds Both the federal government and local government agencies also issue bonds. The U.S. Treasury sells three major types of federal debt securities: Treasury bills, Treasury notes, and Treasury bonds. All three are viewed as default-risk-free because they are backed by the U.S. government. C. Ratings of Bonds: depending on the financial strength of the issuer. Because the claims of bondholders come before those of stockholders, bonds are generally considered less risky than stocks. However, some bonds are in fact quite risky. Companies can default—fail to make scheduled interest or principal payments—on their bonds. Investors can use bond ratings, letter grades assigned to bond issues to indicate their quality or level of risk. Moody's and Standard & Poor's (S&P), Table 16.2
How does Regulation of Securities Markets work?
Both state and federal governments regulate the securities markets. The states were the first to pass laws aimed at preventing securities fraud. But most securities transactions occur across state lines, so federal securities laws are more effective. In addition to legislation, the industry has self-regulatory groups and measures. 1. Securities Legislation Congress passed the Securities Act of 1933 in response to the 1929 stock market crash and subsequent problems during the Great Depression; 1934 act also banned insider trading; Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has given the SEC more power when it comes to regulating how securities are offered, sold, and marketed. Regulation FD (for "fair disclosure") in October 2000. Regulation FD requires public companies to share information with all investors at the same time, leveling the information playing field. The Insider Trading and Fraud Act of 1988 greatly increased the penalties for illegal insider trading and gave the SEC more power to investigate and prosecute claims of illegal actions. Investment Company Act of 1940, which gives the SEC the right to regulate the practices of investment companies (such as mutual funds managed by financial institutions), and the Investment Advisers Act of 1940, which requires investment advisers to disclose information about their background. The Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC) was established in 1970 to protect customers if a brokerage firm fails, by insuring each customer's account for up to $500,000. 2. Self-Regulation The investment community also regulates itself, developing and enforcing ethical standards to reduce the potential for abuses in the financial marketplace. The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) oversees the nation's more than 3,700 brokerage firms and more 600,000 registered brokers. It develops rules and regulations, provides a dispute resolution forum, and conducts regulatory reviews of member activities for the protection and benefit of investors. Put breakers stop trading for a 15-minute cooling-off period to limit the amount the market can drop in one day.
Why pay attention to Global Trading and Foreign Exchanges
Improved communications and the elimination of many legal barriers are helping the securities markets go global. The number of securities listed on exchanges in more than one country is growing. Foreign securities are now traded in the United States. Likewise, foreign investors can easily buy U.S. securities. London Stock Exchange (LSE) and the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Other important foreign stock exchanges include Euronext (which merged with the NYSE but operates separately) and those in Toronto, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Zurich, Australia, Paris, and Taiwan. The number of big U.S. corporations with listings on foreign exchanges is growing steadily, especially in Europe. Emerging markets such as India, whose economy has been growing 6 percent or more a year, continue to attract investor attention. The Sensex, the benchmark index of the Bombay Stock Exchange,
How has the role of CFO changed since the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act?
balancing a strategic focus with overseeing corporate compliance with the act. CFOs consider accuracy of financial reporting their top priority, and they also must now provide more detailed explanations of what's behind the numbers to board members and other stakeholders. Rather than showering the board with financial reports and statistics, CFOs are crafting more focused presentations that deal with the company's overall financial health and future prospects They must also educate board members about the implications of Sarbanes-Oxley and other legislation, such as Dodd-Frank, and what the company is doing to comply with federal regulations.
Why should U.S. investors pay attention to international stock markets? B
because the world's economies are increasingly interdependent, businesses must look beyond their own national borders to find materials to make their goods and markets for foreign goods and services. The same is true for investors, who may find that they can earn higher returns in international markets.
What is managing Inventory?
cost of inventory includes not only its purchase price, but also ordering, handling, storage, interest, and insurance costs. must work closely with production and marketing to balance these conflicting goals. Techniques for reducing the investment in inventory are inventory management, the just-in-time system, and materials requirement planning. closely monitor inventory turnover ratios. This ratio shows how quickly inventory moves through the firm and is turned into sales. If the inventory number is too high, it will typically affect the amount of working capital a company has on hand, forcing the company to borrow money to cover the excess inventory. If the turnover ratio number is too high, it means the company does not have enough inventory of products on hand to satisfy customer needs, which means they could take their business elsewhere.
