Intro to Physical Anthropology Final Study Set

Evolution

(biology) the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

polymorphism

- Any trait that has two or more alleles that occur at appreciable frequencies, at a given genetic locu A discrete genetic trait in which there are at least two alleles at a locus having frequencies greater than 0.01. Polymorphism[1] in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species—in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph. In order to be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time and belong to a panmictic population (one with random mating).[2]

strategy of paleoanthropology

1) find suitable field sites where fossil humans may be found

Bipedalism-advantages

1. Carry offspring, tools, food, hunting. more energy efficient way of locomotion, cool the body in hot temps, able to scan the area.

Physical Anthropology-3 broad areas of study

1. Paleoanthropology 2. Bioanthropology 3. Ethology or Primatology

Paleontology Goals

1. describe the world's past biodiversity 2. outline the history of life on earth 3. develop new ideas about evolution and ecology

Paradigm

1. example; 2. model; 3. way of looking at things something that serves as a model, example, or pattern; the framework of assumptions and understandings shared by a group or discipline that shapes its worldview

Five causes of evolution

1. mutation 2. migration also known as gene flow 3. random genetic drift (small populations) 4. non-random mating 5. natural selection *this is the correct order

How old is Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis?

1.5 to 2.4 mya hablis, rudolfensis discoved by Richard Leakey at East Turkana-dated 1.9-2.5 mya

Late Pleistocene

125,000 to 10,000 ya

Taung quarry site

1924, Dart found a mold of a skull and the skull itself. About the size of a baboon skull. The cranial capacity of the skull appeared to be about 3 times the capacity of a baboon skull.

Supreme Court

1968 struck down the ban on teaching evolution in public high schools.

Homozygous

2 alleles of the same kind (TT) (tt)

Heterozygous

2 different alleles (Tt)

Neandertal species age range

200,000 to 30,000ya according to the book: lived in Europe 130,000 ya.

Oligocene

34-24 mya The oldest Old World Anthropoids come from a single Oligocene dated area, the Fayum, about 30 miles outside of Cairo, Egypt. The Fayum environment was a combination of tropical forest and swamp. In general, the Fayum fossils show anthropoid dental features, but lack locomotor characteristics. The largest group of Fayum primate fossils are the species Apidium. These small, arboreal quadrupeds existed on a diet of fruits and nuts. Their dental pattern shows an extra premolar (a possible dental pattern of all early anthropoids), with a total of 36 teeth. This characteristic is also found in New World monkeys, which could show a relationship between the two groups.

Eocene

55-35 mya True Prosimians do appear before Europe and North America separated. They probably spread to Africa from Europe when these two continents were connected. The climate was right, by this time, for the adaptive radiation of primates. The most intriguing fossil discovered, to date, is 47 million year old Darwinius masillae - "Ida" - a find from Europe. Ida is interesting for several reasons. 1) Ida is a complete skeleton (it is difficult to find anything this complete from this time period). 2) Ida lacks a dental comb and a grooming claw - making her a good contender on the evolutionary path of the earliest primates. shifts to diuranal vs. nocturnals activity. towards climbing and quadrupedalism vs. leaping towards the eating of insects vs. just fruits/vegetables.

Miocene

6 mya Back in Africa, by 6 million years ago, the Mediterranean Sea had dried up, expanding the dry land connections in this area. High moisture plants decreased and draught tolerant plants increased. Forests shrank and savannas spread. By 2-3 million years, there was more cooling and major volcanic activity. The time was right, and the environment was right for the emergence, at this time, of a primate that would leave the trees, forever, and take its place as the only habitually bipedal primate in the Old World. The first creatures to do this do not look like any living primates, human or non-human. They were unique, small creatures with primitive brains and an adaptation to bipedal locomotion. They did not resemble us, but they were a start. And, remember, this is a slow adaptive process. During the end of this Miocene period, Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Bonobos, Orangutans and hominids have all diverged from their common ancestor. The oldest in the hominid group is Sahelanthropus tchadensis, and we will get to this genus when we talk about the evolution of the hominids.

Pre-Austalpiths

6-4.4 mya. Had small braincase, but build very large, with large brow ridges, crest on top and large muscle attachments in rear. Had different style teeth that were very un-apelike. This included the lower face being tucked under the brain vault, the upper canine tooth was reduced and worn down. This lack of shearing is called honing complex. Position of foramen magnum is in between apes and hominins. These have some evidence of bipedal locomotion.

Paleocene

64-56 myaDuring this time period, we see the earliest evidence of animals recognized as possible primates. We know that early primates evolved from early placental mammals. We do not know, for sure, whether they first appear during this time period. Laurasia (the linked continents of North America, Europe, Asia) was a large land mass and there was free migration throughout Laurasia, which encouraged the evolution of prosimians. The climate, during this period, showed cooling as Laurasia moved north. With this cooling came an emergence of seed plants (deciduous trees, grasses). It was not until the Eocene that North America and Europe finally separated. The oldest primate-like animal with a reasonable fossil record from this time period is Plesiadapis, which, for some time, was considered the first prosimian. However, it has recently been re-evaluated, in light of new fossil finds, and is now no longer widely accepted as an early primate. It is a mammal, and it does have some primate-like characteristics, including a long tail, agile limbs, and claws instead of nails.

Middle Pleistocene

780,000 ya and ending 125,000 ya.

Cro-Magnon

A European of the Upper Paleolithic after about 36,000 years ago 50,000-30,000 human species that made tools-known for cave painting Cro-Magnon H.sapiens sapiens-most famous early modern human find in world; earliest evidence of modern humans in France.

Science

A body of knowledge gained through observation and experimentation; from the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge. Orderly framework for the explanation of events, through systematic observation and or experimentation.

Theory

A broad statement of scientific relationships or underlying principles that has been substantially verified through the testing hypotheses. A theory is a system of validated hypothesis that show a systematic explanation. Some theories hold over time some do not Seriously, remember this - a theory is not a guess. A theory is the end result of extensive hypothesis testing and data collection/analysis/interpretation. And, in science, we are fine with the idea that we may have to revise a theory. No problem. It does not mean that we don't accept theories. It just means that if we get some new data tomorrow that forces us to revise our thinking, this is ok. After all, we are trying to explain our natural world. We are not trying to make up stories, create myths, or dream about our history, our environment, ourselves as biological creatures. We are trying to observe and understand our world and the creatures in it. That is what science is all about.

Zygote

A cell formed by the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell. It contains the full complement of chromosomes, in humans 46, and had the potential of developing into an entire organism.

Mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome. The term can refer to changes in DNA bases, specifically called point mutations, as well as to changes in chromosome number and or structure.

Point mutation

A change in one of the 4 DNA bases.

Evolution

A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.

flake

A chip of stone knocked off a core, using a hammerstone, in order to make a stone tool. Flakes have a striking platform and a bulb of percussion (bulge on opposite side from point of contact with hammerstone).

australopiths

A colloquial name referring to a diverse group of Plio-Pleistocene African hominid. Australopiths are the most abundant and widely distributed of all early hominids and are also the most completely studiedAustralopiths- 4.2-1.2 mya. Most diverse and widely known African hominins. Consists of two genera - Australopithecus and Paranthropus, they are the most long enduring hominin. Obviously they are more developed than Pre-Australopiths. The two species include an older, more primitive one, and a younger more derived. Major characteristics include: 1. They are all clearly bipedal (which wasn't sure for Pre-Australopiths). 2. They all have relatively small brains 3. They all have large teeth, particularly the back teeth, with thick enamel. Other features in the dentition include a large canine, and sectorial lower first premolar.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A form of RNA that assembled on a sequence of DNA bases. It carries the DNA code to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Sickle cell anemia

A genetic disorder that causes abnormal hemoglobin, resulting in some red blood cells assuming an abnormal sickle shape.

Species

A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species.

species

A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.

Sickle-cell anemia

A human genetic disease of red blood cells caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; it is the most common inherited disease among African Americans. Severe inherited hemoglobin disorder in which red blood cells collapse when deprived of oxygen. it results from inheriting two copies of a mutant allele. The type of mutation that produces the sickle-cell allele is a point mutation.

Sickle cell anemia

A human genetic disease of red blood cells caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; it is the most common inherited disease among African Americans. People who inherit the altered form of the gene from only one parent don't have sickle cell anemia, but the do have what's called sickle cell trait. they are much less severely affected because only about 40% of their hemoglobin is abnormal. The type of mutation that produces the sickle cell allele is a point mutation. It is one of the best examples of natural selection acting on humans, it shows us how a disadvantageous mutation can become more frequent in certain environments.

compare hypothesis and theory

A hypothesis is a proposed scientific explanation for a set of observations that has to be testable, while a theory is a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations.

Savannah/Savannah

A large flat grassland with scattered trees & shrubs. Savannas are found in many regions of the world with dry and warm-to-hot climates.

anthropoids

A member of the primate group made up of the apes, monkeys, and humans

Polymerase Chair Reaction (PCR)

A method of producing thousands of copies of a DNA sample.

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions. A movement of ideas that occurred in Europe between 1680 and 1790. Attempted to apply reason to understand, explain and even change the world.

haplotype

A particular set of alleles at some number of genetic loci that are transmitted together on the same chromosome.

mosaic evolution

A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominin evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, and neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedly different rates.

Hemoglobin

A protein molecule that occurs in red blood cells and binds to oxygen molecules.

Hypothesis

A provisional explanation of a phenomenon. Hypotheses require verification or falsification through testing. Tentative explanation for a phenomenon.

Gene

A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product, such as RNA. A gene may be composed of thousands of DNA bases.

scientific method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

haplogroup

A set of related haplotypes that share similar mutations lineage or branch of a genetic tree marked by one or more specific genetic mutations

Continuum

A set of relationships in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum, for example color. All life reflects a single biological continuum.

Stratigraphy

A site's physical structure produced by the deposition of geological and/or cultural sediments into layers, or strata. Study of the sequential layering of deposits. determine relative age based on what layer of sedimentary rock it is in; impossible to calculate the actual age of a geological stratum and the objects within it

Nucleus

A structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus contains DNA and RNA, among other things.

Adaptation

A trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce

Paradigm Shift

A transition from one conceptual framework or prevailing and widely accepted viewpoint to another. The acceptance of the discovery that the sun is the center of our solar system is an example of a paradigm shift.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A type of RNA that binds to specific amino acids and transports them to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Dubois, Eugene

A young researcher from Amsterdam named Eugene Dubois went to Sumatra, and then Java, to look for fossils in the late 1800s. He began finding fossils at sites such as Wadjak, Java, and by 1894 he shipped 400 cases of fossil bones home. Dubois stayed in Java, deciding to look along the Solo River, at the site of Trinil. In September of 1891 he found his first significant fossil, a hominid tooth. He then found a skull. It had a low, flat cranium unlike anything seen before. In 1894, Dubois announced his discovery and called it Pithecanthropus erectus. No one would believe the combination of a flat, apelike head and upright posture (this was before the Piltdown hoax and before the first Australopithecine find in Africa). Dubois got little support from his colleagues and he eventually returned home, where he hid his finds under his dining room floor and became a recluse.

fitness

Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

Australia

About 50,000 years ago, a small band of humans landed in northern Australia, arriving on a primitive boat or raft. It is likely that the journey was planned because enough men and women arrived to found a new population there. Perhaps guided by rivers, the group ventured deeper inland, where they found giant mammals, birds, and reptiles ripe for hunting, and no other humans to challenge them. This intrepid group had stumbled upon a new continent, and they had it all to themselves. Archaeological evidence reveals that modern humans had spread into Southeast Asia from Africa by about 60,000 years ago, and that they were in Australia by about 50,000 years ago. The earliest known evidence of human occupation in Australia is a rock shelter in the Northern Territory that is about 55,000 years old, while the oldest human fossils ever discovered in Australia are about 10,000 years younger.

Portugal

Abrigo do Lagar Velho-Portugal-H.sapiens sapiens-Child's skeleton, some suggestion of possible hybrid between neandertal and modern human-but it is controversial.

DNA bases

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

Christian fundamentalists

Adherents to a movement in American Protestantism that began in the early 20th century. This group holds that the teachings of the Bible are infallible and should be taken literally.

hominins earliest fossils

Africa

Homo eragster

Africa, species somewhat older,no sagittal keel,thin rounded brows,no nuchal ridge, steeper forehead

Physical Anthropology

Also known as biological anthropology. The systematic study of humans as biological organisms. The study of "human biology" within the framework of evolution and the interaction between biology and culture The science concerned with the comparative study of human evolution, variation and classification through measurement and observation. Looks at the ways in which humans are similar to and different from other species

neocortex

Also known as the cerebrum, it's the part of the brain that gets even bigger during human evolution

Alleles

Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on paired chromosomes and thus govern the same trait, but because they're different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait.

Mendel

An Austrian monk who began studying genetics, at the University of Vienna, after entering the monastery. He argued that scientists studying inheritance must follow a couple of basic rules. 1. systematic breeding from generation to generation was necessary to ensure good science. 2. meticulous records must be kept as a way to accurately record the work.

Malthus

An English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence; consequences will be war, famine, and disease (1766-1834)

Adaptation

An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change, specifically as a result of natural selection.

Scientific method

An approach to research whereby a problem is identified, a hypothesis is stated and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data. Begins with a paradigm

Homeobox genes

An evolutionarily ancient family of regulatory genes that directs the development of the overall body plan and the segmentation of body tissues. There are at least 20 families of homeobox genes.

speciation

An evolutionary process in which one species splits into two or more species.

Human Genome Project

An international effort aired at sequencing and mapping the entire human genome, completed in 2003.

endothermic

An organism that is internally warmed by a heat-generating metabolic process characteristic of mammals, birds and perhaps some dinosaurs.

Phenotype

An organism's appearance or other detectable characteristic

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

science

An organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world. the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.

Anatomically modern Homo sapiens?

Anatomically, modern humans can generally be characterized by the lighter build of their skeletons compared to earlier humans. Modern humans have very large brains, which vary in size from population to population and between males and females, but the average size is approximately 1300 cubic centimeters. Housing this big brain involved the reorganization of the skull into what is thought of as "modern" -- a thin-walled, high vaulted skull with a flat and near vertical forehead. Modern human faces also show much less (if any) of the heavy brow ridges and prognathism of other early humans. Our jaws are also less heavily developed, with smaller teeth. Scientists sometimes use the term "anatomically modern Homo sapiens" to refer to members of our own species who lived during prehistoric times.

Vertebrates

Animals with segmented bony spinal columns; these include fishes amphibians, reptiles (including birds), and mammals.

Absolute dating

Any method of measuring the age of an event or object in years.

Behavior

Anything organisms do that involves action in response to internal or external stimuli; the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment. Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren't necessarily the result of conscious decision making, which is absent in single-celled organisms, insects, and many other species.

Order primate differences

Apes don't have tails, generally larger

Humans

Are Homosapiens

ER 1470 skull

At Koobi Fora, in East Turkana, Richard Leakey discovered the famous ER 1470 skull, and almost complete cranium with a relatively flat face, large zyomatic arches and large molars. The 775cc cranium and assumed tool use placed it in the Genus Homo.

Mendel

Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)

haetoli and hadar

Australopithecus afarensis.

Cells

Basic unit of life

Nucleotides

Basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of the four DNA bases.

Somatic cells

Basically all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction.

Culture

Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological means.

What is the difference between biocultural evolution and mosaic evolution?

Biocultural-The mutual interactive, evolution of human biology, anatomy, neurological attributes, etc. Makes culture possible and that developing cultural further influences the direction of biological evolution, this is a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution. Mosaic Evolution-A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolutionin one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominin eoultion the dental system. locomotor system, and neurological system all evolved at markedly differnt rates. The difference is that mosaic is about the body and it's evolution and biocultural is about the body with the combination of culture and how that affects evolution.

Niah Cave

Borneo, Indonesia-Niah Cave-H.sapiens sapiens-partial skull recently redated more accurately; oldest modern human find from Asia

environmental factors affect the relationship between genotype and phenotype.

Both has helpful and harmful effect on health. (e.g., quality of air and water, livestock wastes or chemical, lack of transportation, distance to services, and location of services). Extrinsic factors which affect the agent and the opportunity for exposure

amino acids

Building blocks of protein

Meiosis

Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes. Meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. These cells can develop into gametes.

proteins

Chains of amino acids

hominidae family

Chimps, gorillas, orangutans, humans

Scopes Monkey Trial

Clarence Darrow-John Scopes, a high school teacher was arrested and tried for teaching evolution-he was convicted and fined $100, this was later overturned.

Bloody types

Class characteristic of blood., A, AB, B, O - Controlled by multiple alleles

Hominins

Colloquial term for members of the evolutionary group that includes modern humans and non-extinct bipedal relatives.

Gene pool

Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population

France

Cro-Magnon H.sapiens sapiens-most famous early modern human find in world; earliest evidence of modern humans in France.

Anthropology sub-disiplines

Cultural or social, archaeology, linguistic anthropology and physical or biological

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

DNA found in the mitochondria. Mitochrondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother.

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.

noncoding DNA

DNA that does not direct the productions of proteins. However, such DNA segments produce thousands of molecules, for example RNA, that are involved in gene regulation. Thus the term noncoding DNA is misleading.

Ethnographies

Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. In cultural anthropology, an ethnography is traditionally the study of a non-Western society.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene

What trend in brain size do we see with the appearance of Homo erectus and Homo ergaster?

Early homo had cranial capacities ranging from as small as 500 cm to 800cm. Homo erectus had cc of 700 to 1250cm. Homo erectus was larger than earlier membrs of the genus Homo.

Where was evidence for Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis found (sites)?

Early transitional human fossils were first discovered in 1960 by Louis and Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The Leakeys named them Homo habilis (Latin for "handy or skilled human") because they apparently made stone tools. Similar fossils were found at East Lake Turkana in Kenya by Richard Leakey's team of fieldworkers that began searching there in 1969. These latter specimens were named Homo rudolfensis after Lake Rudolf (i.e., the former name for Lake Turkana).

Why are these early humans considered to be transitional?

Early transitional human fossils were first discovered in 1960 by Louis and Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The Leakeys named them Homo habilis (Latin for "handy or skilled human") because they apparently made stone tools. Similar fossils were found at East Lake Turkana in Kenya by Richard Leakey's team of fieldworkers that began searching there in 1969. These latter specimens were named Homo rudolfensis after Lake Rudolf (i.e., the former name for Lake Turkana). Homo habilis has often been thought to be the ancestor of the more gracile and sophisticated Homo ergaster, which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species, Homo erectus

Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

punctuated equilibrium

Evolutionary model suggesting species often diverge in spurts of relatively rapid change, followed by long periods of little change.

Data

Facts from which conclusions can be drawn; scientific information.

Mendel's contribution to science

First to record study how traits pass from one generation to the next

Florisbad

Florisbad and Elandsfontein (South Africa) and Laetoli in Tanzania-these african pre-modern humans are also quite similar to those found in Europe. they are H.heidelbergensis

feet of early hominins

From Sterkfontein, large toe is divergent, it is still a grasping toe. not quite as bipedal as as later hominin

Worldview

General cultural orientation of perspective shared by the members of a society.

Mendel's Principle of Segregation

Genes , alleles, occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs. During gamete formation, the members of each pair of alleles separate so that each gamete contains one member of each pair. also known as first Mendel's first principle of inheritance. 1. hereditary factors maintain their individuality , they do not blend. 2 alleles define each trait 2. in the formation of sex cells, the hereditary factors (alleles) separate. 3. each sex cell contains one or the other factor (allele) 4. during fertilization, union of egg & sperm, the full number of chromosomes is restored and members of a gene(allele pairs) are reunited.

Allele

Genes occur in two forms and each alternative form is an allele

Regulatory genes

Genes that influence the activity of other genes. Regulatory genes direct embryonic development and are involved in physiological processes throughout life. They are critically important to the evolutionary process.

Genome

Genome the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species. In humans, it's estimated that the human genome comprises about 3 billion DNA bases.

Gigantopithecus

Gigantopithecus was probably not an ancestor of modern apes. This large primate probably became extinct in by the Middle Pleistocene.

Oldowan tools

H. erectus took with them to Dmanisi, Java, and Spain. The Oldowan Stone Tool Industry. The oldest formally recognized stone tool assemblage in the world is Oldowan. This tradition of making simple flakes struck off unmodified cores began during the Lower Paleolithic period in Africa.

Gametes

Haploid cells (n) produced by diploid cells (2n) for the purpose of sexual reproduction

What are the common characteristics that reflect parental investment in a small number of offspring?

Having a small number of offspring and then investing a huge amount of care into their offspring is a trait of primates. Primates do this more than most other mammals. This is the reproductive strategy, K-selection, it is an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring in whom they invest increased parental care. Only a few infants are born, but chances of survival are increased due to parental investments of time and energy. Other mammals that are K-selected are birds, elephants, wolves, dogs and coyotes. Common characteristics of K-selected are: 1. larger than r-selected species 2. long gestation period-how long the organism is pregnant for. 3. they have a stable environment. 4. it is usually the mother that is making the investment into the offspring.

heterodont

Having different kinds of teeth; characteristic of mammals, whose teeth consist of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.

Genetic

Having to do with the study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the foundation to evolutionary charge.

Darwin's contribution to science

He developed a theory of biological evolution explaining how modern organisms evolved over long periods of time.

What is the Acheulian tool industry?

Homo erectus and Homo ergaster developed, perhaps, the greatest tool industry - the Acheulian tool industry. Acheulian is the most widespread and longest lasting tool tradition known in the archaeological record. This was light years ahead of Oldowan tools. Dating to as early as 1.6 mya at Konso-Gardula, Ethiopia, the Acheulian tool industry can be found at sites such as Olorgesailie, East Turkana and Olduvai.

What do we know about the brain and cranial shape of Homo erectus and Homo ergaster?

Homo erectus had a cranial capacity of 700-1250 cc. Its large, thick boned skull was long and flat (platycephalic). The greatest width of the skull was low and broad at the base. The back of the skull featured a nuchal torus, an angular occipital (for attached neck muscles). It did not have a sagittal crest, but it did have a sagittal ridge or keel. The brows on Homo erectus are interesting. They are large and robust, resembling a very large unibrow. The Jaw of Homo erectus was relatively large and U shaped. The front teeth were relatively small teeth and their incisors were shovel shaped. The back teeth were larger (although small compared to later Homo sapiens neandertalensis teeth). Postcranially, they had very large, thick bones

What is Homo erectus and Homo ergaster?

Homo erectus lived from around 2 million years ago until around 200,000 years ago. Homo erectus was relatively tall, ranging from 5-6 feet (5.6 feet average) and weighing 100-150 lbs. There is a great deal of sexual dimorphism in this species. Homo erectus had a cranial capacity of 700-1250 cc. Its large, thick boned skull was long and flat (platycephalic). The greatest width of the skull was low and broad at the base. The back of the skull featured a nuchal torus, an angular occipital (for attached neck muscles). It did not have a sagittal crest, but it did have a sagittal ridge or keel. The brows on Homo erectus are interesting. They are large and robust, resembling a very large unibrow. The Jaw of Homo erectus was relatively large and U shaped. The front teeth were relatively small teeth and their incisors were shovel shaped. The back teeth were larger (although small compared to later Homo sapiens neandertalensis teeth). Postcranially, they had very large, thick bones

What do we know about the postcranial skeleton of Homo erectus and Homo ergaster?

Homo erectus was relatively tall, ranging from 5-6 feet (5.6 feet average) and weighing 100-150 lbs. There is a great deal of sexual dimorphism in this species. Postcranially, they had very large, thick bones

Homo habilis

Homo habilis was found at Olduvai Gorge, by the Louis and Mary Leakey. It dates to about 1.5 - 2.4 m.y.

Kabwe (Broken Hill)

Homo heidelbergensis skull from Zambia. Note the very robust brow ridges

Homo rudolfensis

Homo rudolfensis was discovered by Richard Leakey at East Turkana and is dated from 1.9-2.5 my.

Allele frequency

How often a form of a gene appears in a gene pool.

Lagar Velho

In April 1999, the discovery of a human skeleton from Lagar Velho in Portugal was announced in the media, followed by a scientific paper a couple of months later (Duarte et al. 1999). The skeleton is of a young boy, about 4 years in age, who was deliberately buried about 24,500 years ago. According to the paper's authors, which included Neandertal expert Erik Trinkaus, the skeleton contains a mixture of features from both modern humans and Neandertals, and is best explained as being a hybrid. And because it is dated to be at least 4,000 years more recent than the last known Neandertals, they consider it to be not the result of a direct interbreeding, but the descendant of a hybrid population which persisted for thousands of years. If true, this would strongly support the claim that Neandertals should be considered a subspecies of modern humans (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis), rather than a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis.

Aramis

In Ethiopia's Middle Awash region, a very large and significant assemblage of fossil hominids have been discovered at a site called Aramis. Radiometeric dating firmly places these remains at 4.4 may. it has yielded more than 6,000 bones. plus wood and pollen samples.

classification

In biology the ordering of organisms into categories such as orders, families, an d genera to show evolutionary relationships.

Complementary

In genetics, referring to the fact that DNA bases form pairs, called base pairs, in a precise manner. For example, adenine can bond only to thymine. These two bases are said to be complementary because one requires the other to form a complete DNA base pair.

stable carbon isotopes

Isotopes of carbon that are produced in plants in differing proportions, depending on environmental conditions. By analyzing the proportions of the isotopes contained in fossil remains of animals (who ate the plants), it's possile to reconstructaspects of ancient environments (particularly temperature and ardity).

Defining characteristics of each hominin species?

It is now understood that while there were considerable anatomical differences between the early hominins, they also shared a number of important traits. By 3 million years ago, most of them probably were nearly as efficient at bipedal locomotion as humans. Like people, but unlike apes, the bones of their pelvis, or hip region, were shortened from top to bottom and bowl-shaped (shown below). This made the pelvis more stable for weight support when standing upright or moving bipedally. The longer ape pelvis is adapted for quadrupedal locomotion. Early hominin leg and foot bones were also much more similar to ours than to those of apes. This is consistent with the likelihood of early hominin bipedalism.

Major early hominin sites of South, East and Central Africa?

Kabwe(Broken Hill) in Zambia-complete cranium found 600,000 to 125,000y a Bodo-a nearly complete cranium 600,000y it is a H.heidelbergensis from the African continent. The most important finds are: Florisbad and Elandsfontein (South Africa) and Laetoli in Tanzania-these african pre-modern humans are also quite similar to those found in Europe. they are H.heidelbergensis

Laetoli, evidence of bipedalism

Laetoli is a site in Tanzania, dated to the Plio-Pleistocene and famous for its hominin footprints, preserved in volcanic ash (Site G). The site of the Laetoli footprints is located 45 km south of Olduvai gorge. The location was excavated by archaeologist Mary Leakey in 1978. "The Laetoli Footprints" received significant recognition by the public, providing convincing evidence of bipedalism in Pliocene hominids based on analysis of the impressions. Several hominin footprints have also been found, including a trail more than 75 feet long made by at least 3, maybe 3 individuals. For the first time, we can make definite statements regarding the locomotor pattern and stature of early hominins. These hominins are members of the species Australopithecus afarensis.

Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, northern Spain)

Large sample; very early evidence of Neandertal ancestry >500,000 ya earliest evidence of deliberate body disposal of the dead anywhere.

LCA

Last common ancestor

Omomydae

Lived in Europe, North America, and Asia, and shows characteristics similar to tarsiers, with it's forward rotated eyes that were incased in bone, a short snout and an upside down V shaped jaw.

placental

Mammal whose young develops inside the female uterus until it forms and ready to be born; has a placenta - a saclike organ- which supplies the embryo with food and oxygen and removes wastes. most widespread and numerous mammals and today are represented by upward of 20 orders, including the primates.

Primates

Members of the mammalian order Primates,which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

Relative dating

Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock.

Sivapithecus

Miocene 23-5 mya Sivapithecus lived on the boundary of the forest and the open plain. It was a fruit-eating animal, with a mobile forearm and opposability in its digits. It showed marked sexual dimorphism and had thick enamel on its classic primate teeth. It facial features show a possible ancestry to the Orangutan.

Mousterian tool industry

Mousterian industry, tool culture traditionally associated with Neanderthal man in Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa during the early Fourth (Würm) Glacial Period (c. 40,000 bc). The Mousterian tool assemblage shows flaking techniques in common with the Clactonian, as well as the frequent practice in some assemblages of the Levallois flaking technique. Tools included small hand axes made from disk-shaped cores; flake tools, such as well-made sidescrapers and triangular points, probably used as knives; denticulate (toothed)

natural selection related to environmental factors

Natural Selection explains how Evolution occurs. Evolution is the genetic change in a population of organisms with time. This occurs because certain individuals in a population have advantageous genetic characteristics. Individuals with advantageous characters are more likely to survive for longer than individuals without advantageous characters and produce more offspring, while individuals without advantageous characters are less likely to survive and may have fewer offspring.

Dali (China) 230,000-180,000 ya

Nearly complete skull; best evidence of H. heidelbergensis in Asia.

Borneo, Indonesia

Niah Cave-H.sapiens sapiens-partial skull recently redated more accurately; oldest modern human find from Asia

Artifacts

Objects of materials made or modified for use by hominids. The earliest artifacts are usually tools made of stone or occasionally bone.

Hybrids

Offspring of parents, who differ from each other with regard to certain traits or certain aspects of genetic makeup, also known as heterozgotes.

How does the Acheulian tool industry compare with the Oldowan tool industry?

Oldowan tool industry, named for Olduvai Gorge. The most basic tool was the Oldowan chopper. This tool was made by smashing a cobble with another rock, causing a large chip to fly off. The second whack gives another chip, now there is a jagged edge or point on the stone that is sharp enough to cut meat.

Wallace, Alfred Russel 1823-1913

On the Tendency of Varieties to depart Indefinitely from the Original Type 1858. He describes evolution as a process driven by by competition and natural selection.

Lufengpithecus

On the other hand, some researchers have argued that Lufengpithecus is an even better link to the Orangutans, with its interesting mix of facial features, incisors and curved fingers.

What do we know about the individual discovered at Nariokotome?

One of the most interesting of these sites is Nariokotome. One of the finds from this site, KNM-WT-15000 (the Nariakatome boy) is an almost complete skeleton of a 11-13 year old boy. This find gives us a great look at an African early Genus Homo individual.

Clones

Organisms that are genetically identical to another organism. The term may also be used to refer to genetically identical DNA segments, molecules or cells.

Adaptive patterns in early African hominins

Page 304 in the book 1. had restrictive ranges 2. partially tied to arboreal habitats. 3. very little in the way of an evolutionary trend of increased body size or of markedly greater encephalizaiton. 4. accelerated developmental pattern.

peppered moth case

Pages 39 & 40 Change in moth color after the industrial revolution (spotted to black) peppered tree moths would rest on trees, due to the coal dust pollution in England the trees got darker with coal dust. originally the lighter peppered tree moths were more successful when the trees were cleaner, once the trees got darker, the dark gray moths became more successful. Birds eat the moths and the ones that stand out on the trees are targeted. Now that there are clean are acts in Britain and the US, the trees are lighter and the predominant color of the peppered tree moth is again the lighter colored ones.

Paleoanthropology

Paleoanthropology, which includes physical anthropology, archaeology, and geology, provides the scientific basis to understand hominin evolution.

cenozoic

Paleocene, oligocene, eocene

Jinniushan (China) 200,000 ya

Partial skeleton with cranium showing relatively large brain size; some Chinese scholars suggest it as possible ancestor of early Chinese H. sapiens.

Heredity

Passing of traits from parent to offspring

Codominant alleles

Pattern where the phenotypes of both homozygote parents are produced in heterozygous offspring so that both alleles are equally expressed.

Aegyptopithecus

Perhaps the best transitional primate between the Eocene prosimians and the Miocene hominoids is Aegyptopithecus. Often known as a primitive catarrhine, this fruit-eating fossil was a small animal with a brain and skull that is typical of higher primates. It showed increased vision and an anthropoid dental pattern. There is sexual dimorphism in its teeth and it was an arboreal quadruped. None of the Oligocene primates have been identified with living forms, and, although there are no distinct lineages yet, given the evidence, it is possible that Aegyptopithecus evolved into early Miocene hominoids.

Acheulian technology

Pertaining to a stone tool industry from the Early and Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both sides). Acheulian tool kits are common in Africa, Southeast Asia, and western Europe, but they are thought to be less common elsewhere.

Reproductively isolated

Pertaining to groups of organisms that mainly because of genetic differences are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other such groups. For example dogs can not mate with cats.

Quantitatively

Pertaining to measurements of quantity and including such properties as size, number, and capacity. When data are quantified, they're expressed numerically and can be tested statistically.

Plio-Pleistocene

Pertaining to the Pliocene and first half of the Pleistocene a time range of 5 to 1 may. For this time period, numerous fossil hominids have been found in Africa.

Magdalenian

Pertaining to the final phase of the Upper Paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe.

microwear

Polishes, striations, and other diagnostic microscopic changes on the edges of stone tools.

Abrigo do Lagar Velho

Portugal-H.sapiens sapiens-Child's skeleton, some suggestion of possible hybrid between neandertal and modern human-but it is controversial.

Cranial vs. postcranial body parts

Post cranial is behind the head. like a dogs body is postcranial to it's head. behind the head.

Dating methods indicating that something is older or more recent that something else

Relative dating methods

Empirical

Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning experienced.

Gametes

Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) developed from precursor cells in ovaries and tested.

Requirements for successful reproduction

Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes. In practice, this is often a tally of the number of offspring produced by an individual. A more correct definition, which incorporates inclusive fitness, is the relative production of fertile offspring by a genotype. For example, the offspring produced as a result of normal mating are an example of reproductive success, because they too can pass their genetic material on to the next generation. Alternatively, the birth of a mule as a result of the mating of a horse and a donkey is not an example of reproductive success because the mule is sterile and thus not able to continue the germ line.

Gaps in the fossil record, why?

Response: The fact that some transitional fossils are not preserved does not disprove evolution. Evolutionary biologists do not expect that all transitional forms will be found and realize that many species leave no fossils at all. Lots of organisms don't fossilize well and the environmental conditions for forming good fossils are not that common. So, science actually predicts that for many evolutionary changes there will be gaps in the record. Also, scientists have found many transitional fossils. For example, there are fossils of transitional organisms between modern birds and their theropod dinosaur ancestors, and between whales and their terrestrial mammal ancestors.

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid-a single stranded molecule similar in structure to DNA. 3 forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis; messenger RNA (mRNA) transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

What are the major eras of geological time over which vertebrates have evolved?

Rise of the first vertebrates is synonymous with the Paleozoic era precambrian, paleozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic

Introns

Segments of genes that are initially transcribed and then deleted. Because introns are not expressed, they are not involved in protein synthesis.

Exons

Segments of genes that are transcribed and are involved in protein synthesis. the prefix ex denotes that these segments are expressed.

Mitosis

Simple cell division, the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter cells.

Asia

Sivapithecus, Lufengpithecus and Gigantopithecus.

Levallois technique

Some of the later premodern humans in Africa and Europe invented a method for controlling flake size and shape, resulting in a turtle back profile. The Levallois technique required serveral complex and coordinated steps, suggesting increased cognitive abilities n later premodern populations.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

Southwestern France-a nearly complete skeleton was found buried in a shallow grave in a flexed position. Several bones and tools were around his body. He was about 40, very robust in the Neandertal range of variation. He had arthritis of the spine and that is why it was thought for a long time that Neandertals did not walk completely erect.

Enzymes

Specialized proteins that initiate and direct chemical reactions in the body.

Ribosomes

Structures conposed of a form of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. Ribosomes are found in a cell's cytoplasm and are esssential to the manufacture of proteins.

Mitochondria

Structures contained within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that convert energy, derived from nutrients to a form that can be used by the cell.

Molecules

Structures made up of two or more atoms. molecules can combine with other molecules to form more complex structures.

Ethology

Studies other non-human primates in an effort to learn more about our closest ancestors and perhaps to learn a bit more about ourselves.

Primatology

Studies other non-human primates in an effort to learn more about our closest ancestors and perhaps to learn a bit more about ourselves.

paleoanthropology

Study of earlier hominins-their chronology, physical structure, etc.

Hormones

Substances, usually proteins, that are produced by specialized cells and that travel to other parts of the body, where they influence chemical reactions and regulate various cellular functions.

Linneaus

Swedish botanist that set out to reveal part of the divine plan (this was seen as the naturalist's duty: to help map out the divine plan for the rest of mankind) by collecting and classifying plants; believed species were fixed and distinct types, and therefore could not evolve or change; his Systema Natura (1735); invented a new system of classifying organisms (chain of being)

Linnaeus, Carolus 1707-1778

Swedish naturalist who developed a method of classifying plants and animals. "Systema Naturae" 1735, he standardized

What is the Movious Line and why might it exist?

The Movius line is a theoretical "line" across Eurasia proposed by an archaeologist (Movius) in the late 1940s. According to his study of artifacts related to early Genus Homo, Movius proposed that early hominids migrated out of Africa with the Oldowan tool industry.

Shanidar, Iraq

The Shanidar I skeleton was found in Shanidar Cave, which is located in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq. Shanidar I is the skeleton of a male, who was between 30 and 45 when he died. He was 5 feet 7 inches tall and had a cc of 1,600 cm. The amazing thing about this man is that he was hurt badly years prior to his death and was very disabled for the rest of his life. His injuries include a blow to the left side of his head, which probably caused blindness in the left eye. His right arm was injured and did not heal, causing it to atrophy, possibly his right forearm was amputated or withered away. In addition to this he had injuries to his legs and might have had a limp or limited mobility. The amazing this is that he lived for years after the incident that caused his injuries.

Why did the Genus Homo leave Africa

The archaeological record indicates that the Genus Homo (or the last of the Australopithecines) left Africa around 2 mya.

Random Assortment

The chance distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells during meiosis. Along with recombination, random assortment is an important source of genetic variation, but not new alleles.

Karyotype

The chromosomes of an individual, or what is typical of a species, viewed microsopically and displayed in a photograph. The chromosomes are arranged in pairs and according to size and position of the centromere.

Why has it been difficult to date the South African sites?

The dolomitic caves of South Africa around Johannesburg contain numerous remains of a diversity of hominins including Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus robustus, Homo habilis and others. The deposits are mainly rapidly deposited silts, jumbled breccias and flowstones the stratigraphy of which has to be reconstructed in painstaking detail. From fauna the age of the deposits were known to be somewhere in the range 1 to 4 million years old but, otherwise, the strata from which the fossils were, and are, being extracted have been the most difficult to date. Reliable ages are important for the period from 3 to 1.5 Ma which is reckoned crucial for various aspects of hominin evolution. There are no volcanic ashes for the Ar-Ar technique or fission track work; samples are out of range for U-Th, and ESR on fossil teeth has to rely on partly untestable model assumptions; the nearest dated faunal assemblages are from east Africa. It is important to note, however, that South African sites, lacking the clear ... ash of East African sites, are much more difficult to date and interpret

Pleistocene

The epoch of the Cenozoic from 1.8 mya until 10,000 ya. Frequently referred to as the Ice Age, this epoch is associated with continental glaciations in northern latitudes.

Anthropology

The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical, or biological, anthropology.

What is a biface tool?

The greatest invention in the Acheulian tool industry was the concept of the biface tool (2 sides) and the development of the hand axe. Acheulian tools begin with the creation of a flatter core than Oldowan tools. And, they produce sharper edges. The core is worked on both sides, which takes a great deal of planning and precision.

regional continuity model

The hypothesis that the evolution from homo erectus to homo sapiens occured gradually throughout the whole population Advocated by Milford Wolpoff, that modern humans evolved more or less simultaneously in a major regions of the Old World from local archaic humans.

Protein Synthesis

The manufacture of proteins, that is the assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules. Protein synthesis is directed by DNA.

Fossils preserved and in what types of environments?

The most common method of fossilization is called permineralization, or petrification. After an organism's soft tissues decay in sediment, the hard parts — particularly the bones — are left behind. Water seeps into the remains, and minerals dissolved in the water seep into the spaces within the remains, where they form crystals. These crystallized minerals cause the remains to harden along with the encasing sedimentary rock. In another fossilization process, called replacement, the minerals in groundwater replace the minerals that make up the bodily remains after the water completely dissolves the original hard parts of the organism. Fossils also form from molds and casts. If an organism completely dissolves in sedimentary rock, it can leave an impression of its exterior in the rock, called an external mold. If that mold gets filled with other minerals, it becomes a cast. An internal mold forms when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as a shell or skull, and the remains dissolve.

Natural Selection

The most critical mechanism of evolutionary change, first described by Charles Darwin: the term refers to the genetic change or changes in the frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential reproductive success between individuals.

Biocultural Evolution

The mutual interactive, evolution of human biology, anatomy, neurological attributes, etc. Makes culture possible and that developing cultural further influences the direction of biological evolution, this is a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution.

Fixity of Species

The notion that species, once created, can never change is diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.

Chordata

The phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates.

Applied Anthropology

The practical application and archaeological theories and techniques. For example, many biological anthropologists work in the public health sector.

Strepsirhini

The primate suborder that includes lemurs and lorises.

Haplorhini

The primate suborder that includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

what is the relationship between animo acids and proteins

The relationship between amino acids and proteins is that amino acids are the baics of a protein. In other words different arrangements of amino acids creates different proteins.

Cytoplasm

The semifluid, gel-like substance contained within the cell membrane. The nucleus and numerous structures involved with cell function are found within the cytoplasm.

Osteology

The study of skeletal material. Human osteology focuses on the interpretation of skeletal remains from archaeological sites, skeletal anatomy, bone physiology, and growth and development. Some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to study early hominins.

Plio-Pleistocene

The term Plio-Pleistocene refers to the geological period more recent than circa 5 million years (Ma) ago, incorporating both the formally defined epochs of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene

Catastrophism

The view that the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. Cuvier promoted this view, especially in opposition to Lamarck.

Upper Paleolithic peoples artwork

There is little evidence of artwork from this time period, not surprising, given the difficulties in preserving artwork over long periods of time. There are some engravings and ornaments, but nothing to compare with what was to come with Homo sapiens. Their focus was, clearly, on survival vs. recreation or art. The art of the Upper Paleolithic is amongst the oldest art known (sometimes called prehistoric art). Older possible examples include the incised ochre from Blombos Cave. Upper Paleolithic art is found in Aurignacian Europe and the Levant some 40,000 years ago, and on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia at a similar date, suggesting a much older origin perhaps in Africa.[1]

paAustralopithecine group and Homo habilis/rudolfensis similarities and differences?

There may have been one or possibly two species of the first humans living in East Africa--Homo rudolfensis click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced and Homo habilis click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced. The few rudolfensis fossils that have been found are somewhat earlier, dating about 2.4-1.6 million years ago, while the more common habilis remains are around 1.9-1.4 million years old. Rudolfensis apparently was a bit taller and relatively larger brained on average. However, many paleoanthropologists consider the differences to be too slight to warrant a separate species designation. Some have suggested that rudolfensis were males and habilis were females. As a result, they classify them both as a single species--Homo habilis. That is the approach taken in this tutorial.

Australopithecus afarensis (ex. Lucy)

These remains are of a slightly later fossil, found in Hadar, Ethiopia. It is a Australopith with a general time line around 4.1 - 1.2 mya. For this species, there were also many footprints found, indicating bipedalism, however not the same way that modern humans are. They moved in a slower, strolling, fashion with a short stride. Afarensis are more primitive Australopiths-the canines include large pointed teeth. The craniums display primitive characteristics, such as a crest in the back. Capacity is estimated between 375-500cm. Compared to lower limbs, upper limbs are much longer than modern humans. Wrist, hand, and foot bones show a difference from modern humans. This was a short hominin. Very sexually dimorphic, large men and small females. What makes this species a hominin is their form of locomotion.

Paranthropus robustus/boisei (ex Zijn)

This is a more derived Australopith 3.0-1.2 mya. Had biggest teeth of all Australopithecus, have dentition for power chewing, such as large deep lower jaws and extra muscles for chewing. This was most likely for a diet emphasizing rough vegetable foods. Most likely an omnivore that also ate meat. There is a very degree with sexual dimorphism in this species. Paranthropus Boisei was given it's own species because they are so robust. South African Paranthropus Robustus, is still very robust but not as dentally robust as Boisei.

Ardipithecus radius (Ardi)

This was a Pre-Austrolopith (species time range around 6-4.4 mya) Found in Aramis, Ethiopia, Africa. Ardi was female with a brain size of around 300 and 350 cm. Height was about 4'10 and weighed about 110 pounds. Fossils of the foot show us that Ardi was a biped - the ilium is short and broad and foot has been modified to act as a prop for propulsion during walking. However, it has a more primitive pelvis. Ardi was an able climber who was also adapted to walking on all fours along branches. This is a very primitive hominin.

Proteins

Three dimensional molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules.

China

Tianyuan Cave-H. sapiens sapiens-partial skull and a few ostcranial bones; oldest modern human find from China.

Tianyuan Cave

Tianyuan Cave-H. sapiens sapiens-partial skull and a few ostcranial bones; oldest modern human find from China.

Codons

Triplets of messenger RNA bases that code for specific amino acids during protein synthesis.

Relativistic

Viewing entities as they relate to something else. Cultural relativism is the view that cultures have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts.

Ethnocentric

Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one's own culture. This often causes other cultures to be seen as inferior to one's own.

Homozygous alleles

When both alleles of a pair are the same for that characteristic. Ex: PP or pp. AA or aa pair of alleles for a single gene which contain the same genetic information

Compare Heterozygous alleles and homozygous alleles

When the alleles are identical, the individual is homozygous for that trait. While if the pair is made of two different alleles, the individual is heterozygous. A homozygous pair of can be either dominant (AA, BB) or recessive (aa, bb). Heterozygous pairs are made up of one dominant and one recessive allele (Aa, Bb). In heterozygous individuals only one allele, the dominant, gains expression while the other allele, the recessive, is hidden but still present. Capital letters represent dominant genes and lower case letters, recessive genes. The word genotype is was created to identify genes of an individual and phenotype for the expression of the trait and genes. Phenotype and genotype are terms used to describe the difference between the visible expression of the trait vs. the actual gene makeup. An individual which expresses a dominant trait may carry a recessive allele, but the recessive expression is hidden by it's dominant partner.

balanced polymorphism

When two different variants of a phenotype coexist in the same population Balanced polymorphism is a situation in which two different versions of a gene are maintained in a population of organisms because individuals carrying both versions are better able to survive than those who have two copies of either version alone. The evolutionary process that maintains the two versions over time is called balancing selection.

A, B or O blood and their possible genotypes

While the genes for most human traits exist in two alternative forms or alleles, the genes that determine human ABO blood types exist as three alleles (A, B, O). These multiple alleles are passed from parent to offspring such that one allele is inherited from each parent. There are six possible genotypes (genetic makeup of inherited alleles) and four phenotypes (expressed physical trait) for human ABO blood types. The A and B alleles are dominant to the O allele. When both inherited alleles are O, the genotpye is homozygous recessive and the blood type is O. When one of the inherited alleles is A and the other is B, the genotype is heterozygous and the blood type is AB. AB blood type is an example of co-dominance since both traits are expressed equally. Type A: The genotype is either AA or AO. The antigens on the blood cell are A and the antibodies in the blood plasma are B. Type B: The genotype is either BB or BO. The antigens on the blood cell are B and the antibodies in the blood plasma are A. Type AB: The genotype is AB. The antigens on the blood cell are A and B. There are no A or B antibodies in the blood plasma. Type O: The genotype is OO. There are no A or B antigens on the blood cell. The antibodies in the blood plasma are A and B.

What do we know about the inhabitants of Zhoukoudian?

Zhoukoudian consists of several cave sites. It is a really interesting site, with the remains of several caves (many of the caves have been completely excavated and destroyed). The largest cave dates to around 500,000 years. Zhoukoudian is, perhaps, the longest occupied archaeological site, with continuous occupation for about 300,000 years. Were they hunting and gathering, bringing their food back to the caves? Probably. Near Beijing, China. are by far the largest collection of H. erectus material found anywhere. 14 skull caps. Traditionally it was thought they were hunter-gatherers, made tools. it is argued that they were scavengers. no fires inside of the caves, the harths wee not hearths, just depressions formed in the past by water.

Biological continuity

a biological continuum. when expressions of a phenomenon continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they exist on a continuum. Color is one such phenomenon, and life-forms are another.

In the complete replacement model anatomically modern humans appeared as a result of

a biological speciation event. Also says that modern migrating H.sapiens from Africa could not have mated with non African populations, because they were a different species of Homo.

Trait

a certain characteristic that is expressed in an individual

Point mutation

a change in one of the four DNA bases.

cladogram

a chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by cladistic analysis. It's based solely on interpretation of shared derived characters. It contains no time component and does not imply ancestor-descendant relationships.

phylogenetic tree

a chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by evolutionary systematics. It contains a time component and implies ancestor-descendant relationships.

recognition species concept

a concept that defines a species as a set of organisms that recognise each other as potential mates The idea that specific mating adaptations become fixed in a population and form the basis of species identification. a depiction of species in which the key aspect is the ability of individuals to identify members of their own species for purposes of mating, and to avoid mating with members of other species.

Upper Paleolithic

a cultural period usually associated with modern humans but also found with some Neandertals and distinguished by technological innovation in various stone tool industries. Best known from western Europe, similar industries are also known from central and eastern Europe and Africa. Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing, with industries based on fine blades rather than simpler and shorter flakes. Burins and racloirs were used to work bone, antler and hides. Advanced darts and harpoons also appear in this period, along with the fish hook, the oil lamp, rope, and the eyed needle.

biological species concept

a depiction of species as groups of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups.

Tabun, Israel

a female skeleton dated at 120,000 to 110,000 ya. The Neandertals from Israel are less robust than the classic Neandertals from Europe.

genus

a group of closely related species.

polygynous

a mating system in which a males mates with more than one female. this is the most common mating pattern found in mammals, including most primates.

polyandry

a mating system wherein a female continuously associates with more than one male, usually 2 or 3, with whom she mates. among nonhuman primates polyandry is seen only in marmosets and tamarins. it also occurs in a few human societies.

Kebara

a neighboring cave at Mt. Carmel, Israel. It is a partial skeleton dated to 60,000 ya, it contains the most complete Neandertal thorax and pelvis yet found. a hyoid, which is a small bone located in the throat and the first found from a Neandertal, this is important, because of it's usefulness in reconstructing language capabilities.

Lucy

a partial hominin skeleton discovered at Hadar in 1974. This individual is assigned to Australopithecus afarensis.

Broom, Robert

a physician, he examined Taung child and he agreed with Dart.

Selective breeding

a practice whereby animal or plant breeders choose which individual animals or plants will be allowed to mate based on the traits they hope to produce in the offspring. Animals or plants that don't have the desirable traits aren't allowed to breed.

Selective Breeding

a practice whereby animal or plant breeders choose which individual animals or plants will be allowed to mate based on the traits, such as coat color, size, they hope to produce in the offspring. Animals or plants that don't have the desirable traits aren't allowed to breed.

Nuchal torus

a projection of bone in the back of the cranium where neck muscles attach. These muscles hold up the head.

biostratigraphy

a relative dating technique based on the regular changes seen in the evolving groups of animals as well as the presence or absence of particular species.

sagittal crest

a ridge of bone that runs down the middle of the cranium like a short Mohawk. This serves as the attachment for the large temporal muscles, indicating strong chewing.

Sterkfontein

a site in South Africa.

hyoid

a small bone located in the throat and found in a Neandertal male, means they might have had language capabilities.

endocast

a solid impression of the inside of the skull vault, often preserving details relating to the size and surface features of the brain.

Australopithecine

a species of the genus Australopithecus. They lived during the Pliocene and early Pleistocene geological Epochs in Africa (i.e., ca. 4.2-1.4 million years ago). Australopithecines and humans are hominins. One or more species of australopithecines probably were our ancestors.

core

a stone reduced by flake removal. A core may or may not itself be used as a tool

prehensile tail

a tail that is able to grasp, New World monkeys

thermoluminescence TL

a technique for dating certain archaeological materials such as stone tools that were heated in the past and that upon reheating release the stored energy of radioactive decay as light.

pressure flaking

a technique of stone tool manufacture in which a bone, antler, or wooden tool is used to press, rather than strike off, small flakes from a piece of flint or similar stone

Robust

a term used by paleoanthropologists to refer to a big boned and muscular body. The robust species of early hominins were Australopithecus robustus, boisei, and aethiopicus.

slash and burn agriculture

a traditional land-clearing practice involving the cutting and burning of trees and vegetation. In many areas, fields are abandoned after a few years and clearing occurs elsewhere.

sexual selection

a type of natural selection that operates on only one sex within a species. It's the result of competition for mates, and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits. some examples are colorful male birds. common in groups where there is competition for mates.

inbreeding

a type of nonrandom mating in which relatives mate more often than predicted under random mating conditions.

altruism

actions that benefit another individual but at some point potential risk or cost to oneself.

prosocial behaviors

actions that benefit other individuals and or a society as a whole. Loosely speaking, the term prosocial is the opposite of anti-social.

diurnal

active during the day

nocturnal

active during the night

Recessive alleles

actually do have some effect on the phenotype, although these effects aren't usually detectable through simple observation. It turns out that in heterozygotes the products of many recessive alleles are reduced but not completely eliminated.

sectorial

adapted for cutting or shearing; among primates, this term refers to the compressed (side to side) first lower premolar, which functions as a shearing surface with the upper canine.

Krapina, Croatia

an abundance of bones, 1,000 fragments resenting up to 70 individuals and 1,000 stone tools or flakes. classic Neandertals

Dominant alleles

an allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present

adaptation

an evolutionary shift in response to environmental change is called adaptation

group selection

an individual may act altruistically to benefit other group members because ultimately it's to the performer's benefit that the group be maintained.

kin selection

an individual may enhance his or her reproductive success by saving the life of a relative. Even if the performer's life is lost because of the act the relative may survive to reproduce and pass on genes that both individuals shared.

Empirical Data

an observation or experience that one personally witnessed or experienced.

adaptive niche

an organism's entire way of life, where it lives, what it eats, how it gets food, how it avoids predators, and so on.

Paleoprimatology

anthropology specializing in the study of the nonhuman primate fossil record

sectorial premolars

are considered a primitive trait, that function as shearing surfaces with the upper canines.

brachiation

arm swinging, a form of locomotion used by apes and humans. involves hanging from a branch and moving by alternately swinging from one arm to the other.

Fire

around 1.5 mya. So, we know that the early Genus Homo did gain control of fire. Move around/travel at night Keep warm Fight off predators Cook your food and kill parasites in the food (leading to a longer life!) Create a gathering point, sitting around the campfire, singing and telling stories (if there is some form of language develop at this time) Develop rituals and possibly an early belief system Create new types of tools, with new materials such as bone

reproductive strategies

behavior or behavioral complexes that have been favored by natural selection to increase individual reproductive success. the behaviors need not be deliberate and they often vary considerably between males and females.

culture

behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social rules. Culture is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next by nonbiological (non genetic) means.

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste

believed that species change was influenced by environmental change. He is best known for his theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

interspecific

between species refers to variation beyond that seen within the same species to include additional aspects seen between two different species.

Why have researchers proposed that humans are part of a biological and behavioral continuum with other primate species?

biological continuum - refers to the fact that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviors and traits seen in one species are also seen in others to varying degrees differences between ourselves and primate relatives are more quantitative rather than qualitative neurological processes are functionally the same; ex. close bonding with a parent, developmental stages and dependence on learning, capacity for cruelty, compassion, etc.

Australopithecus share characteristics

bipedal

habitual bipedalism

bipedal locomotion as the form of locomotion shown by hominids most of the time.

Taung indicates

bipedalism and a changed diet came first, while the brain took much longer to enlarge and become more complex.

obligate bipedalism

bipedalism as the only form of hominid terrestrial locomotion. Since major anatomical changes in the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs are required for bipedal locomotion, once hominids adopted this mode of locomotion, other forms of locomotion on the ground became impossible.

Sex linked traits

bundled on sex chromosomes, there are 120known x linked genes. like beards, hemophilia

Principles of Geology 1830-33

by Charles Lyell-the geological process we see today are the same as those that existed in the past. Uniformitarianism.

New World Monkeys

can be found throughout most forested areas in Mexico, Central, and South America. almost exclusively arboreal, some never come to the ground. all except the owl monkey are diurnal.

epochs

categories of the geological time scale. subdivisions of periods. in the cenozoic era: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene (from the Teritary Period) and Pleistocene and Holocene (from the Quaternary Period).

Microevolution

changes in a particular population, small changes.

Taung

child's skull, about 6 years old. Small jaw, face more vertical than a typical ape, small cranial capacity, canines that were small, blunt and human like. Most importantly a foramen magnum that was moved forward on the skull and centered, the mark of a biped. If it had reached adulthood it would have cranial capacity would have been around 440 cc. In comparison the average modern human cranial capacity is around 1400cc and a chimps is about 450cc

Relative dating and chronometeric dating

chrono meaning time and metric meaning measure. a dating technique that gives an estimate in actual numbers of years: also known as absolute dating.

chronometric dating

chrono meaning time and metric meaning measure. a dating technique that gives an estimate in actual numbers of years: also known as absolute dating.

Interglacials

climatic intervals when continental ice sheets are retreating eventually becoming much reduced in size. Interglacials in northern latitudes are associated with warmer temperatures, while in southern latitudes the climate becomes wetter.

Glaciations

climatic intervals when continental ice sheets cover muh of the northrn continents. Glaciations are associated with colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern latitudes, most notably in Africa.

Primate vision

color vision, in anthropoids the eyes are placed more to the front of the face, greater degree of color vision, back of eye protected by bony plate.

Phenotype

combination of genotype and environment, so what you see is what you get, even if that is not your actual definition.

Cercopithecines

common name for members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons.

colobines

common name for members of the subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and the asian langurs.

Lyell, Charles

considered the founder of modern geology. He was a lawyer, a geologist and Darwin's mentor. Wrote "Principles of Geology" published 1830-33

what is the difference between a territory and a core area?

core area- the portion of a home range containing the highest concentration and most reliable supplies of food and water; core area is defended; where group is most likely to be found territories - portions of an individual's or group's home range that are actively defended against intrusion, especially by members of the same species core area is within a group's home range

Potassium/argon dating

dates materials in the 1 to 5 million year range, especially in East Africa involves potassium-40 which as a half life of 1.25 billion years and produces argon-40 bone cannot be directly dated by these techniques, but the rock matrix in which the bone is found can be rocks that provide the best samples for K/Ar are those that have been heated to an extremely high temperature, such as that generated by volcanic activity rock must in the past have been exposed to extreme temperatures so limits these techniques to areas where sediments have been superheated scientists have to reheat the rock and measure the escaping heat

paleomagnetism

dating method based on the earth's shifting magnetic pole.

Piltdown hoax

debunked in the mid 1950's. It was driven by a desire to find the "missing link" and a fear that this link could be found someplace other than Europe.

Neandertals burial practices

deliberately biried their dead. goes back 90,000 years at Tabun. In the middle Pleistocene there is evidence of deliberate disposal of the dead. Evidence found at La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, Tabun, Amud, Kebara, Shanidar, and Teshik-Tash, and other locations, especially in France.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid-The double stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. DNA is a main component of chromosomes.

recessive

describing a trait that isn't expressed in heterozygotes; it also refers to the allele that governs the trait. For a recessive allele to be expressed, and individual must have two copies of it. the individual must be homozygous.

sexual dimorphism

differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller on average, than females of the same population. Sexual dimorphism is very pronounced in many species, including gorillas.

Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment

different alleles assort independently of one another during sex cell (gamete) formation.

Selective pressures

different ecological circumstances

sensory modalities

different forms of sensation (touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold, vision, taste, hearing and smell).

Heterozygous alleles

different forms of the same gene on homologous chromosomes Aa

Chromosomes

discrete structures comprosed of DNA and proteins found only in the nuclei of cells. Chromosomes are visible under magnification only during certain phases of cell division.

What are dominance hierarchies and why are they important?

dominance hierarchies - systems of social organization wherein individuals within a group are ranked relative to one another; higher ranking animals have greater access to preferred food items and mating partners than lower-ranking individuals tend to reduce amount of actual physical violence; increased reproductive success of high-ranking animals

Cladistics

draws relationships based on evolutionary change, this approach studies homologous structures and compares traits, draws evolutionary relationship among organisms throughout classification, studies derived characteristics.

Homo sapiens

earliest evidenceOur species of humans first began to evolve nearly 200,000 years ago in association with technologies not unlike those of the early Neandertals. It is now clear that early Homo sapiens, or modern humans, did not come after the Neandertals but were their contemporaries. However, it is likely that both modern humans and Neandertals descended from Homo heidelbergensis. Compared to the Neandertals and other late archaic humans, modern humans generally have more delicate skeletons. Their skulls are more rounded and their brow ridges generally protrude much less. They rarely have the occipital buns found on the back of Neandertal skulls. They also have relatively high foreheads, smaller faces, and pointed chins.

Environment

environment can determine whether a genetic predisposition is manifested.

Hadar and Omo

evidence of stone tool making 2.5 mya

genetic variation

evolution occurs when DNA changes and genetic variation is further influenced by natural selection and other factors.

continental drift

evolutionary consequence is the isolation of populations of organisms.

Vindija Cave in Croatia

excellent source of faunal, cultural, and hominid materials stratified in sequence throughout much of the Late Pleistocene. Neandertal fossils from Vindija consist of some 35 specimens dated to between 42,000 and 32,000 ya, making them some of the most recent Neandertals ever discovered.

Fitness

favorable traits increase the likelihood that they will survive to adulthood and reproduce.

Gran Dolina

finds from northern Spain are definitely not Homo erectus. may be members of a new hominid species. or may simply represent the earliest well dated occurrence of H. heidelbergensis, possibly dating as early as 850,000 ya.

Dart

first to describe and classify australopithicus fossil

Flourine analysis

fluorine analysis - another method of relative dating; applies only to bones bones in the earth are exposed to seepage of groundwater, which contains fluorine; the longer the bone has been there, the more fluorine it should have collected fluorine analysis can only compare bones of the same location because the amount of fluorine in groundwater is different at different locations - some locations may not even have fluorine in groundwater used fluorine analysis to prove Piltdown hoax

dizygotic

fraternal twins-two eggs

Neandertals-classic where and when did they live?

from western Europe. The classic is the more robust.

What is the importance of gene FOXP2 to the development of human language?

gene FOXP2 produces a protein that influences the expression of other genes those genes control the embryological development of brain circuits that relate to language in humans people who have FOXP2 mutation have speech and language impairment other mammals have this gene too, but does not function like the human gene - ex. chimpanzee and gorilla amino acid has two bases that are different which shows that this gene has undergone 2 point mutations in human evolution

Compare genotype and phenotype

genotype list the 2 alleles or factors one receives from its parent. Phenotype is what is expressed that we observe.

Last Common Ancestor

good infographic on page 219 of textbook stem group - all of the taxa in a clade before a major speciation event; stem groups are often difficult to recognize in the fossil record since they don't often have the shared derived traits found in the crown group (older group) crown group - all of the taxa that come after a major speciation event; crown groups are easier to identify than stem groups because the members possess the clade's shared derived traits (newer group) Last Common Ancestor - the final evolutionary link between two related groups

Stem Group

good infographic on page 219 of textbook stem group - all of the taxa in a clade before a major speciation event; stem groups are often difficult to recognize in the fossil record since they don't often have the shared derived traits found in the crown group (older group) crown group - all of the taxa that come after a major speciation event; crown groups are easier to identify than stem groups because the members possess the clade's shared derived traits (newer group) Last Common Ancestor - the final evolutionary link between two related groups

Pongidae

great apes-orangutan, chimps, gorillas

frugivorours

having a diet composed of primarily fruits.

omnivorous

having a diet consisting of many food types, such as plant materials, meat, and insects.

Derived trait

having five fingers is a primitive trait, it turning into a flipper is a derived trait. a trait that shows up that was NOT present in a common ancestor.

complete replacement model/partial replacement model

holds that anatomically modern populations arose in Africa within the last 200,000 years, migrated out and replaced populations in Europe and Asia. They did not interbreed because they were a separate species. -Developed by Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews. Partial-a hypthesis to explain the origin of modern homo sapiens. It proposes that the first modern humans evolved in Africa, but when they migrated into other regions they did not simply replace existing human populations. they interbred to a limited degree with late archaic humans resulting in hybrid populations.

monozygotic

identical twins-one egg

biostratigraphic dating

if two sites both contain fissil remanins of the same extinct animal and ther is a K/Ar date for one site, we can infer that the other site has a similar age using.

Cladogram

illustrates relationships based on shared derived traits. It offers no timeline and not ancestral/descendent links.

principle of superposition

in a stratigraphic sequence, the lower layers were deposited before the upper layers. Or simply put the stuff on top of the heap was put there last.

Principle of Superposition

in a stratigraphic sequence, the lower layers were deposited before the upper layers; the stuff on top of a heap was put there last

lactase persistence

in adults, the continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose (milk sugar). This allows adults in some human populations to digest fresh milk products. The discontinued production of lactase in adults leads to lactose intolerance and the inability to digest fresh milk.

incest avoidance

in animals, the tendency not to mate with close relatives. This tendency may be due to varius social and ecological factors that keep the individuals apart. There may also be innate factors that lead to incest avoidance, but these aren't well understood.

blanks

in archaeology, stones suitably sized and shaped to be further worked into tools.

dominant

in genetics, describing a trait governed by an allele that is expressed in the presence of another allele, (in heterozygotes). Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes. (this is the definition of complete dominance).

Dmanisi

in the republic of Georgia, 1.81 mya. The Dmanisi crania is similar to those of H.erectus. however, there are differences: less robust and thinner brow ridge, projecting lower face, and relatively large upper canine. viewed from the front is more reminiscent of the smaller early Homo specimens from East Africa than it is of H.erectus. Small cc, about 600.

Reproductive success

individual who produce more offspring in comparison to others

Adapidae

inhabited Europe and North America, Asia, Africa. It was the most diversified of the Eocene primates, and some genera show a close resemblance to the loris and lemur. Known for its forward rotated orbits, grasping hands and big toes, nails vs. claws and shift forward in the foramen magnum.

Macroevolution

is a big picture perspective, can result in a new species.

pelvis

is composed of three elements: two hip bones or ossa coxae, joined at the back to the sacrum. The ossa coxae are the bones that are parallel to the spine.

Homo heidelbergensis

is hypothesized to have evolved into modern H. sapiens. In Europe, H. heidelbergensis evolved into Neandertals.

Naming rule in Taxonomy

is that the person who discovers a unique fossil can assign a scientific name to the fossil, as long as it is properly analyzed, and the analysis is published and presented to a review of one's peers. If later the fossil is found to be similar to an already named fossil species, then the name can be changed to reassign the fossil to that species.

Taxonomy

is the practice and science of classification. the basis of the system is the one that Linnaeus created.

Culture and bicultural evolution

is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences.[1] After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. Contemporary biocultural anthropologists view culture as having several key roles in human biological variation: Culture is a major human adaptation, permitting individuals and populations to adapt to widely varying local ecologies. Characteristic human biological or biobehavioral features, such as a large frontal cortex and intensive parenting compared to other primates, are viewed in part as an adaption to the complex social relations created by culture.[2] Culture shapes the political economy, thereby influencing what resources are available to individuals to feed and shelter themselves, protect themselves from disease, and otherwise maintain their health.[1] Culture shapes the way people think about the world, altering their biology by influencing their behavior (e.g., food choice) or more directly through psychosomatic effects (e.g., the biological effects of psychological stress).[3]

Observation

is the scientific information or facts that are gathered. Observations combine for form data

Cultural Anthropology

is the study of recent & present cultures. The life ways of different cultural groups & the strategies humans use to adapt to the environment. Cultural anthropology focuses on observable human behavior. Specialties in cultural anthropology, include political, medical, business and economic.

Where has Homo heidelbergensis been discovered?

it is named after a fossil found in Germany in 1907. it is a transitional species.

Neandertal artwork

jewelry, perforated shells, natural pigments used.

Neandertal cranial anatomy-key characteristics

large, long, low and bulging at the sides. occipital bone is bun shaped. the brow ridges arch over the orbits, the face stands out, it projects,

clade

lineages that share a common ancestor

Polygenic traits

linked on the same chromosome, like skin and eye color

What is the significance of the Dmanisi site?

located in the Republic of Georgia, has jproduced several individuals. 1.8 mya Dmanisi crania are similar to tose of H. erectus. However other characteristics of the Dmanisi individuals are less robust and thinner browridge, projecting lover face, relatively large upper canine. when viewed from the front it is more similar to the smaller early Homo specimens from East Africa than of H. Erectus. cc capacity is small 600cm. The skull of the male with only one tooth was found at Dmanisi. Tools found are similar to Oldowan. based on the evidence from Dmanisi we can assume that Homo erectus was the first hominin to leave Africa.

polymorphisms

loci with more than one allele. Polymorphisms can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action, as in ABO, or they can exist solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions.

polymorphisms

loci with more than one allele. polymorphisms can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action, as in ABO, or they can exist solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions.

Recessive allele

lower case (t) is a trait that is not necessarily seen but is passed on-or the trait that is not fully expressed in the presence of a dominant allele. One word of warning on this recessive alleles can have some effect, although it is a diminished effect when in the presence of a dominant allele.

Neandertal care for the disabled

male skeleton found at Shanihar Cave in northeastern Iraq. He was very disabled and lived for years after his injury.

strata

materials

exogamy

mating patterns whereby individuals obtain mates from groups other than their own.

endogamy

mating with individuals from the same group

Binomial nomenclature

meaning two names, the convention established by Carolus Linnaeus, whereby genus and species names are used to refer to living things. for example Homo sapiens

bushmeat

meat from wild animals, especially in Africa.

Primates

members of the mammalian order Primates, which includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

hominoids

members of the primate superfamily (Hominoidea) which includes apes and humans.

intelligence

mental capacity, ability to learn, reason, or comprehend and interpret information, facts, relationships, and meanings: the capacity to solve problems, whether through the application of previously acquired knowledge or through insight.

phytoliths

microscopic silica structures formed in the cells of many plants, particularly grasses

Y-5 molar

molar that has five cusps with grooves running between them, forming a Y shape. This is a characteristic of hominoids.

Old World monkeys

most widely distributed of all living primates, except for humans. Found sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, and even in northern Japan.

pre-agriculture diet

mostly protein,

dental formula

numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws.

artifacts

objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. The earliest artifacts are usually tools made of stone or occasionally bone.

hemisphere

one of the two halves of the cerebrum, which are connected by a dense mass of fibers. The cerebrum is the large rounded outer portion of the brain.

infanticide

one way males may increase their chances of reproducing is to kill infants, fathered by other males.

flourine analysis

only used on bone

sagittal crest

paranthropus species, raised ridge of bone

Swanscombe (England)

partial skull, but shows considerable brain expansion.

nonrandom mating

pattern of mating in which individuals choose mates preferentially, with mate choice based on criteria such as social status, ethnicity, or biological relationship. In nonrandom mating an individual doesn't have an equal chance of mating with all the other individuals in the group.

knappers

people who make stone tools, frequently archaeologists

Chatelperronian

pertaining to an Upper Paleolithic industry found in France and Spain, containing blade tools and associated with Neandertals.

Aurignacian

pertaining to an upper paleolithic stone tool industry in Europe beginning at about 40,000 ya.

r-selected

pertaining to r-selection, a reproductive strategy that emphasizes relatively large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care compared with K-selected speices. Mice are r-selected compared with primates but K-selected compared to insects.

multidisciplinary

pertaining to research involving mutual contributions and the cooperation of experts from various scientific fields or disciplines.

Morphological evidence

pertaining to the form and structure of organisms, anatomical.

morphological

pertaining to the form and structure of organisms, anatomical.

territorial

pertaining to the protection of all or a part of the area occupied by an animal or group of animals. Territorial behaviors range from scent marking to outright attacks on intruders.

Which Australopithecines were still in existence when the first Genus Homo individuals appeared?

pg

breeding isolates

populations that are clearly isolated geographically and or socially from other breeding groups.

territories

portions of an individual's or group's home range that are actively defended against intrusion, especially by members of the same species.

K-selected

primates are among the most K-selected of mammals. individuals produce only a few young, in whom they invest a tremendous amount of parental care. it is an adaptive strategy, even though only a few infants are born, the chance of survival are increased for each one, because of the parental investments of time and energy. Birds, elephants and canids are examples of K-selected non-primate species.

displays

primates communicate through them, examples chest slapping and waving it's arms.

radiocarbon dating

radiocarbon dating is another method of radiometric dating that uses carbon-14 which has a halflife of 5730 years used to measure the age of organic materials - wood, bone, cloth, and plant remains dating from less than 1,000 years to more than 75,000 years though accuracy is reduced for materials more than 40,000 years old

carbon-14

radiometric dating method that is popular with archaeologists that can be used to date organic materials up to 75,000 years old

derived (modified)

referring to characters that are modified from the ancestral condition and thus diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages.

bilophondont

referring to molars that have four cusps oriented in two parallel rows, resembling ridges, or lophs. This trait is characteristic of Old World monkeys.

polytypic

referring to species composed of populations that differ in the expression of one or more traits.

lithic

referring to stone tools

biological continuum

refers to the fact that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviors and traits seen in one species are also see in others to varying degrees.

Cladistics

related species are grouped by their shared derived traits.

shared derived

relating to specific character traits shared in common between two life forms and considered the most useful for making evolutionary interpretations.

Primate nose

rhinarium-moist hairless pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammalian species. In primates, the nose is smaller, flat, nostrils set close together, point forward or downward, very narrow septum. reduced reliance on olfaction, indicated by absence of a rhinarium.

Darwin, Charles 1809-1882

sailed on HMS Beagle on 12/17/1831 natural selection His greatest work, On Origin of Species 1859

Ancestral trait

shared through remote ancestry, also called primitive.

Habitual bipeds

shortening and broadening of the pelvis.

erectness in primates

shorter back, less flexible, allows more upright posture. 1. retained the clavicle, collar bone. 2. the shoulder blade, scapula is on their backs, 3. greater mobility of the arm 4. the forearm, allows 180 degree rotation of the arm. 5. distinct bones along their spinal column. less lumbar vertebrae from 6 to 5.

structural changes in anatomy were required for bipedalism?

shorter back, less flexible, longer leg ratio, arch in the foot, line the big toe up with the rest of the toes. Wider and shorter pelvis, spine more S shaped, Foramen magnum moved to be more centered on the bottom of the skull, the femur is centered more under the body, not curved out.

Bodo

significant African premodern fossil-the earliest evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa.

Gracile

slender , slender, and delicate. This 17th century English term is used to describe the body characteristics (especially bones) of the early australopithecines and the earliest humans.

sahelanthropus

small braincase, huge browridges

Amino acids

small molecules that are the components of proteins.

microliths

small stone tools usually produced from narrow blades punched from a core; found especially in Africa during the latter part of the Pleistocene

theropods

small to medium sized ground living dinosaurs, dated to approximately 150 may and thought to be related to birds.

Burins

small, chisel-like tools with a pointed end; thought to have been used to engrave bone, antler, ivory or wood.

Why are Chimpanzees said to have culture?

social behavior is extremely complex; individuals form lifelong attachments with friends and relatives communication, grooming, facial expressions

first australopithicus discovered

south africa, 1924

paleospecies

species defined from fossil evidence, often covering a long time span.

hominin feet from south africa

spent time in trees, are adapted for bipedalism

Early human artifacts

stone tools

Genetic Code

stored in the nucleus

direct percussion

striking a core or flake with a hammerstone

Paleoanthropology

study of human evolution through an examination of fossil record. They trace the ancestry of Homo Sapiens

stratigraphy

study of sequential layering of deposits.

Bioanthropology

study on genetics and biological variations, examining the biological characteristics that define us as humans, as well as the differences between groups.

Pre-modern or archaic humans

succeeded H. erectus. Characteristics, face is large, the brows are projected, the forehead is low, cranial vault is still thick in some cases, increased brain size, more rounded braincase, more vertical nose, less angled back of the skull.

Original data

that one observes is Empirical data

Fertility

the ability to conceive and produce healthy offspring.

empathy

the ability to identify with the feelings and thoughts of another individual.

What are the possible explanations for the different stone tool industries associated with Middle Pleistocene?

the acheulian technology of H.erectus carried over into the Middle pleistocene. near the end of the period when it became more sophisticated with the use of bone tools

Taxonomy

the branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

cusps

the bumps on the chewing surface of premolars and molars.

ecological species concept

the concept that a species is a group of organisms exploiting a single niche. this view emphasizes the role of natural selection in separating species from one another.

biological determinism

the concept that phenomena, including various aspects of behavior, intelligence, values, morals, are governed by biological factors (genetic) the inaccurate association of various behavioral attributes with certain biological traits, such as skin color.

steroscopic vision

the condition whereby visual images are, to varying degrees, superimposed. This provides for depth perception, or viewing the external environment in three dimensions. Steroscopic vision is partly a function of structures in the brain.

Genome

the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species. In humans, it's estimated that the human genome comprises about 3 billion DNA bases.

context

the environmental setting where an archaeological trace is found. Primary context is the setting in which the archaeological trace was originally deposited. A secondary context is one to which it has been moved, for example by a stream.

recombination

the exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes during meiosis, also called crossing over.

nondisjunction

the failure of the duplicated chromosomes to divide-Down Syndrom is a non-fatal example.

morphology

the form (shape, size) of anatomical structures: can also refer to the entire organism.

Gene

the genetic unit for a particular trait (also a sequence of DNA that carries the instructions for making protein)

natal group

the group in which animals are born and raised, the word natal pertains to birth.

Historical linguistics

the history of languages and the relationship of one language to another.

balanced polymorphism

the maintenance of two or more alleles in a population due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote.

Hardy-Weinberg theory of genetic equilibrium

the mathematical relationship expressing under conditions in which no evolution is occuring-the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the central theorem of population genetics.

rhinarium

the moist hairless pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammalian species. The rhinarium enhances an animal's ability to smell.

Hemoglobins

the molecule that transports oxygen through the body through the bloodstream

neocortex

the more recently evolved portions of the cortex (outer layer) of the brain that are involved with higher mental functions and composed of areas that integrate incoming information from different sensory organs.

continental drift

the movement of continents on a sliding plates of the earth's surface. as a result, the positions of large landmasses have shifted drastically during the earth's history.

foramen magnum

the opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord emerges.

geological time scale

the organization of earth history into eras, periods, and epochs, commonly used by geologists and paleoanthropologists.

eugenics

the philosophy of race improvement through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that's now discredited.

core area

the portion of a home range containing the highest concentration and most reliable supplies of food and water. The core area is defended.

ecological niche

the position of a species within its physical and biological environments. a species's ecological niche is defined by such components as diet, terrain, vegetation, type of predators, relationships with other species, and activity patterns, and each niche is unique to a given species. Together ecological niches make up and ecosystem.

Locus

the position of location on a chromosome where a given gene occurs. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with gene.

Flexed position

the position of the body in a bent orientation, with arms and legs drawn up to the chest. Found in 16 of the 20 best documented Neandertal burial contexts.

speciation

the process by which a new species evolves from an earlier species. Spreciation is the most basic process in macroevolution.

mineralization

the process in which parts of animals and some plants become transformed into stone like structures. mineralization usually occurs very slowly, as water carrying minerals such as silica or iron seeps into the tiny spaces within a bone. in some cases, the original minerals within the bone or tooth can be completely replaced, molecule by molecule, with other minerals.

encephalization

the proportional size of the brain relative to some estimate of overall body size, such as weight. more precisely, the term refers to increases in brain size beyond what would be expected given the body size of a particular species.

adaptive radiation

the relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life forms into new ecological niches.

Dart was blackballed

the scientific community could not believe that a human ancestor with a brain the size of a chimp could be walking around on two legs some two million years ago. It was all wrong and the scientific community would not have it. Dart was blackballed.

olfaction

the sense of smell

honing complex

the shearing of a large upper canine with the first lower premolar, with the wear leading to honing of the surfaces of both teeth. This anatomical pattern is typical of most Old World anthropoids but is mostly absent in hominins.

Sociolinguistics

the social uses of speech

Paleoanthropology

the study of ancient humans

taphonomy

the study of how bones and other materials came to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils. Taphonomists study the processes of sedimentation, the action of streams, preservation properties of bone, and carnivore disturbance factors.

Taphonomy

the study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.

Ethnolinguistics

the study of language and culture

Linguistic Anthropology

the study of languages and the relationship between language and culture. Humans preserve and transmit culture through language. Specialites: historical linguistics, ethnosemantics, sociolinguistics, ethnolinguistics.

Archaeology

the study of past human groups through an examination of their material culture. by studying their material remains Inportant to physical anthropology because 1. shows us how people adapted to their environments 2. applies archaeological techniques for excavation, preservation and restoration of early human sites and artifacts

population genetics

the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a micro-evolutionary perspective.

Ethnosemantics

the study of the meaning of words.

cercopithecidae

the taxonomic family that includes all Old World monkeys.

Uniformitarianism

the theory that the earth's features are the result of long term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past. Elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and greatly contributed to the concept of immense geological time.

half-life

the time period in which one half the amount of a radioactive isotope is converted chemically to a daughter product. For example after 1.25 billion years, half the potassium-40 remains; after 2.5 billion years, one fourth remains.

gene pool

the total complement of genes shared by the reproductive members of a population.

knuckle walking

the weight of the upper body is supported on the knuckles and not the palm of the hand.

Neandertal post cranial anatomy-key characteristics

their bodies were robust, barrel-chested and powerfully muscled.

selective agents

they apply selective pressures on the moths, in the peppered moth case the birds are the selective agents.

Replicate

to duplicate. The DNA molecule is able to make copies of itself.

focus of anthropology

to find general principals that influence cultures is the study of humans. Its main subdivisions are cultural anthropology, which describes the workings of societies around the world, and biological anthropology, which concerns long-term development of the human organism. A related discipline, archaeology, studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence.

fossils

traces of remnants of organisms found in geological beds on the earth's surface.

adaptive traits of primates

tree climbing, inc a rotating shoulder joint, separated toes and a thumb and stereoscopic vision. one offspring per pregnancy, flattened nails, larger brain/body ratio, hold body upright, 1. arboreal living or an adaptation to living in trees 2. omnivorous diet 3. investing large amounts of parental care in small number of offspring.

arboreal

tree living, adapted to life in the trees.

Codominance

two dominant alleles are present in a gene and both are expressed.

Order Primate

two main groups: prosimians and anthropoids. prosimians include lemurs. Anthropoids include monkeys, apes, humans.

Where do physical anthropologists work

university, teaching biology or anthropology, as a practitioner working with primate groups, forensic anthropologist, applying their knowledge to legal issues, or for a museum.

Quadrupedal

using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion, the basic mammalian and primate form of locomotion

quadrupedal

using all four limbs to support the body during locomotion; the basic mammalian and primate form of locomotion.

anthropocentric

viewing nonhuman organisms in terms of human experience and capabilities. emphasizing the importance of humans over everything else.

binocular vision

vision characterized by overlapping visual fields provided by forward facing eyes. Binocular vision is essential to depth perception.

Dart's article

was met with disbelief and anger, why? 1. there was little fossil evidence available to scientists and there was nothing as old as this fossil. 2. It conflicted with the Piltdown skull 3. Dart's fossil was discovered in Africa, not Europe or Asia. 4. The brain was small, the teeth relatively modern, and the fossil showed evidence of bipedalism.

Clean excavations

where special precautions are used to prevent contamination and allow more controlled later DNA analyses.

reciprocal altruism

where the recipient of an altruistic act may later return the favor.

Hyoid

which is a small bone located in the throat and the first found from a Neandertal, this is important, because of it's usefulness in reconstructing language capabilities.

Patrilocal form of mating

which related males stay together and mate with females from other groups.

intraspecific

within species, refers to variation seen within the same species.

Dart, Raymond

working in Johannesburg, South Africa in the 1920's. He asked quarry owners throughout South Africa, asking them to save any quarry rocks that contained fossilized bone. In one of those boxes he made the first significant discovery of an early hominin fossil. It took him 73 days to free the skull from the rock.

K/Ar

works best on volcanic rock

Dominant allele

written in upper case (T) is a trait that is seen, or a trait that is expressed the the presence of a different allele.