Intro to Psychology CLEP
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables, a positive number near 1.0 indicates two variables are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship
Double-blind study
Research method in which both the subjects and the experimenter are unaware to the anticipated results.
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Amygdala
limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger
Somatic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system with sensory receptors, muscles, and the skin
Axon Terminal
the endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored
Control Group
the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
Resting potential
when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)
Behaviorist Approach
A theoretical perspective that focuses only on objective, observable reactions. Behaviorism emphasizes the environmental stimuli that determines behavior.
Edward Titchener
Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology; set up first psychology lab in U.S.
Myelin Sheath
a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission
Classical Conditioning
a learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus
Introspection
a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings
Humanistic Approach
approach to psychology that sees humans as basically good and striving to reach their ideal self
Ions
positively and negatively charged atoms
Vesicles
small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell
Negative Relationship
when an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other variable
William James
1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth
Biological Approach
A psychological perspective that examines behavior and mental processes through a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.
Positive Relationship
A relationship in which the values of one variable increase (or decrease) as the values of another variable increase (or decrease)
Cognitive Approach
According to this approach, behavior is a result of information processing, such as perception, memory, thought, judgment, and decision making
Psychodynamic Approach
Approach that states that behavior reflects unconscious internal conflict between inherited instincts and society's behavioral rules. **Sigmund Freud
Structuralists
Believed that consciousness was made up of basic elements that were combined to produce diffferent perceptions
Perceptual Sets
Demonstrates our readiness to percieve in a particular manner; Based on experience and expectation
Sense Receptors
Detect heat, light, or touch and then pass information about those stimuli on to the brain, thereby triggering thoughts about those things and/or causing behavioral responses to occur
Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Case Study
In-depth study analysis of only one person
Random Subject assignment
Is done to ensure that the average behavior of the two groups would be the same PRIOR to manipulation.
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.
Nervous System
The body system of nervous tissues--organized into the brain,spinal courd, and nerves--that send and receive messages and integreate the body's activities.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor, "cause", that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Texture Gradients
The gradual diminishing of detail that occurs in surfaces as they recede into the distance, compared with objects in the visual field that are close and seen in fine detail
Synaptic Gap
The tiny gap at the junction between the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Experimental Group
Exposed to presumed "cause"
Retinal Disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object
Convergence
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
Hippocamus
a brain structure in the limbic system that is involved in forming and indexing memories
Limbic System
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Linear Perspective
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance
Reticular Formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Action Potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep,arousal,and mood. appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons
Axons
a part of a neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body
Signal Detection Theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 199)
Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Difference Threshold
also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected
Behavioral Neuroscience
an approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
Critical Period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
Hormones
chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and spinal cord
Cell Body
contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules the neuron needs to survive and function is manufactured
Broca's area
controls language expression-an aread of the frontal, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's area
controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;usually in the left temporal lobe
Motion Parallax
cue to depth that involves images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates
Antagonists
drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
Sensory Restriction
includes loss of a sense such as sight, resulting in increase perception in other senses
Functionalists
studied the function of consciousness
Monocular Cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
Agonists
drugs which mimic or increase the activity of neurotransmitters
Placebo Effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Wilhelm Wundt
german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879
Pituitary Gland
gland in the base of the skull that secretes nine hormones that directly regulate many body functions and control the actions of several other endocrine glands
Neurons
individual cells that are the smallest units of the nervous system; the long, thin cells of nerve tissue along which messages travel to and from the brain
Neural Networks
interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.
Hypothalamus
limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions
Interposition
monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away
Feature Detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Sensory (or afferent) Neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
Motor (or efferent) Neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
Naturalistic Observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Blind Study
participants are not told whether they're in the control or experiment group
Top-down
refers to processing in which our experience and expectations influence our perceptions
Bottom-up
refers to visual processing in which experience does not influence perception
Correlational Studies
research method that examines relationships between variables in order to analyze trends in data, test predictions, etc. (they do NOT discern cause and effect relationships)
Refractory Period
resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response
Self-actualization
self fulfillment the realization of all ones potential and desire to become creative in the full sense if the world.
Dendrites
short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages
Endoctrine System
system in the body that sends messages to the bodily organs via hormones
Dependent Variable
the "effect" of an experiment; will usually involve measuring how subjects behave.
Sympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Cerebral Cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
Synapse
the junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle
Absolute Threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Occipital Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
Parietal Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Frontal Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Temporal Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
Weber's Law
the principle that for any change in a stimulus to be detected, a constant proportion of that stimulus must be added or subtracted
Experiments
a means for researchers to assess cause-and-effect relationships between at least two variables.
Binocular Cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes
Cerebellum
the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
Thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
inter-rater reliability
the degree of agreement between co-observers watching the same set of events
Peripheral Nervous System
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Interneurons (or association Neurons)
Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
