Intro to Rhetoric Final

Rhetorical Discourse

Goal-oriented discourse that seeks, by means of planned use of symbol, to adapt ideas to an audience

art of rhetoric

Methods or principles that guide effective symbolic expression

Rhetor

Individual engaged in creating or presenting rhetorical discourse

rhetoric

Study and Practice of effective symbolic expression

6. What is your reaction to Jurgen Habermas' search for universal guidelines of conversational practice that might help assure rational and just discourse? Is such a system possible, or is this a utopian dream that does not have any application to the real world of rhetorical interactions?

• Allow students to reflect on this question based on their own experiences and insights. • The issue of rhetorical education can be brought into the discussion as a means of exploring possible answers. • Where did they receive rhetorical training, and did such education equip them for participation in a rational society? • Is our current public discourse rational? • Is it just? How could it be made more so? • Is a rational society possible, one in which no one is under anyone else's domination? • Do the rules of argument matter in such a situation? • Does freedom of speech matter? • Does education in argument give one an edge in being liberated? • If so, should everyone have access to education in rhetoric or argument?

In Gorgias, Plato argues that rhetoric is a knack, and not a techne or true art. In Rhetoric, Aristotle argues that rhetoric is a techne. Explain why you think that Aristotle takes this position. If rhetoric is a true art, what does the art allow one to accomplish, and about what sorts of things does it instruct one. Give examples. Be specific.

• Aristotle's argument was that that studying rhetoric is useful for: • (a) defending the truth • (b) adapting complicated ideas to a large and untrained audience • (c) thinking through both sides of a case, and • (d) self-defense? • In Gorgias, Plato criticized rhetoric as a kind of trickery, or a mere knack of persuasion. • Aristotle, on the other hand, defined rhetoric as a techne, or true art. • Rhetoric was, for him, "the faculty (dunamis) of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." • Whereas Plato had only hinted at the possibility of a true art of rhetoric in Phaedrus, in Rhetoric, Aristotle set out a systematic course in rhetoric. • Aristotle avoided the moralizing tone of Plato, and approached rhetoric in a pragmatic and scientific way.

5. The elocutionary movement of the eighteenth century offered training in rhetorical delivery as a means of personal refinement. Even though this particular idea may be foreign to contemporary education, are there ways in which an ability to speak clearly and effectively is still seen as a mark of personal success or social status?

• Ask students to offer their opinion about the utility of public speaking in a world in which people are linked by computers and are used to receiving information by electronic media. • Are speaking and writing clearly still important to one's success? • Is the concept of social status and speech still with us? • Has expression via computer leveled the classes of society? • Have technological advances rendered considerations such as good writing and speaking antiquated?

How does Augustine's approach to rhetoric compare to Plato's? In what ways is Augustine's relationship to sophistic rhetoric similar to Plato's? In what ways, if any, is his relationship different?

• Augustine assigned to the rhetoric of preaching a cleansing or purging function. • The individual's soul was cleansed and made ready to contemplate God by having errors pointed out, and remedies to those errors suggested. • Plato apparently understood that a true or just use of rhetoric would accomplish something similar, bringing a soul into a state of harmony by refuting error and assisting its submission to the wisdom-loving part. • Both Augustine and Plato rejected the sophistic approach to rhetoric. • Augustine had taught rhetoric, and understood how it could be used to mislead and to persuade on the basis of falsehoods. • Plato rejected sophistic rhetoric for similar reasons. • Both sought a rhetoric grounded in an absolute truth, and not in "mere opinion."

What for St. Augustine were the two functions of rhetoric within the Church? In today's church, are these still the only two functions deemed important. If there are others, what are they?

• Augustine sought a true art of rhetoric that could be used in the service of Christianity. • He believed that there were two tasks for the Christian teacher: to discover and to teach the contents of scripture. • Rhetoric assists the preacher to discover divine truth in the scriptures (the modus inveniendi), and to teach this truth to the congregation (the modus proferendi). • The chapter also mentions that Augustine found rhetoric useful for doing the work of apologetics, or defending the Christian faith against its critics.

What dilemmas faced Augustine of Hippo regarding rhetoric? What was Augustine's response to these dilemmas?

• Augustine, a leader of the Christian Church, faced the dilemma that rhetoric was useful to the advancement and defense of Christianity, but was also the product of pagan authors of Greece and Rome. • Some Christians were suspicious of rhetoric because of its pagan origins. Augustine's resolution of the dilemma was to recommend that Christians study rhetoric, on the reasoning that truth needed trained advocates to counter the promoters of false beliefs. • The chapter discusses a second dilemma also faced by Augustine—that Christian teachers are commanded to speak about God, but that no language is adequate to discuss God. • Augustine's partial solution of this dilemma was his semiotic theory, or his theory of symbols, in which he posited that the world is filled with symbols pointing us toward God.

What quality did Mikhail Bakhtin find intriguing in the novels of Dostoevsky?

• Bakhtin sought the possibility of a full voice for various perspectives in the novel in order that, as part of the Great Dialogue that is human existence, we might discover the best avenues to truth. • Thus, Bakhtin admired the polyphonic nature of Dostoevsky's novels, the quality of each character being fully developed and speaking fully his or her perspective on the world. Bakhtin saw Dostoevsky's works as models for allowing equal voice to varied perspectives in the continuous dialogue among people about their conditions and the truths by which they live.

What are the key terms in Burke's dramatistic pentad? What do the terms describe?

• Burke's most famous contribution to rhetorical theory is known as his dramatistic pentad, presented in his work, A Grammar of Motives in 1945. • As the name "dramatistic pentad" implies, the concept is drawn from the world of drama and divides rhetorical situations into five constituent elements for analysis. • Burke sought in the pentad a "grammar of motives," that is, a means of understanding human motivation. • The five elements of the pentad are the act, the scene, the agent, agency, and purpose. • Briefly, the act is what was done or is being done. • The scene is the location of the act, its setting. • The agent is the person performing the action, while the agency is the means by which the agent performs the act. • Finally, the purpose is the reason for the action, the intended goal.

Cicero held that eloquence had been separated from some other crucial factor in Roman rhetoric. What is that other factor, and why was he concerned to bring these two qualities together?

• Cicero held that eloquence and wisdom must be united in the orator. • Eloquence without wisdom was merely a swirl of words, while wisdom without eloquence benefited little. • Cicero viewed the eloquence of the wise to be the foundation of civilization. • Implied in his emphasis on wisdom is Cicero's concern for personal character.

In what ways was classical rhetoric adapted to maintain the hierarchical structure or medieval Europe? From your study of classical and medieval rhetoric, does it seem to you that rhetorical theory is often used to maintain existing social orders? Can you think of any modern examples of this cultural ordering along the lines of hierarchy? How is rhetoric involved with such?

• Classical rhetoric provided the theoretical basis for the rigid structures of both preaching and letter writing, which were employed to maintain the dominance of Church and state authorities. • Classical rhetoric, then, provided more than simply an aid to writing or speaking. Its structures and methods of conveying ideas forcefully actually assisted the maintenance of hierarchies. • Ask students whether it is possible to preserve hierarchical systems of authority in the absence of some sort of rhetoric that assists its maintenance. • Is rhetoric typically employed in a conservative fashion, to perpetuate systems and institutions already in place? • Is rhetoric also used to subvert established power structures? • If so, what conditions have to be in place to make this possible? • Have students provide examples of rhetoric's use by those in power, as well as by those seeking a voice.

5. Does the commercial life of modern capitalistic society still depend on the language skills of a class of highly trained specialists? If so, what professions do these new notaries represent? If not, what has changed?

• Contemporary business culture does rely on attorneys, public relations specialists, advertisers and a host of other professionals skilled in writing and speaking. • The advent of the Internet requires the presence of specialists in the language of the computer and the webpage. • Those skilled in the artful management of symbols are still important to commercial life, though we do not rely on one particular professional group in which all of the arts of language were concentrated in quite the same way that the commercial cities of the Renaissance did.

Describe the courses someone might take in a modern university in order to learn the components of the art of rhetoric as Aristotle describes that art in the Rhetoric.

• Courses in psychology might assist the understand pathos and perhaps ethos. Courses in argumentation would sharpen ones logical skills, or capacity with logos. • Political science and economics that might prepare one to do deliberative speaking, and criminology courses could prepare one for forensic pleading. • There are numerous other possibilities including logic, composition, and even poetry to learn about stylistic devices. If we expand the art to include visual rhetorics, a student might study photography or painting as a means of understanding the persuasive components of rhetorics of display.

Aristotle defines rhetoric as "the counterpart of dialectic," and later as "the faculty of discovering in any situation the available means of persuasion." Expand on his apparent meaning in each of these definitions. Be specific. Give examples.

• Dialectic was a logical method of debating issues of general interest, starting from widely accepted propositions. • Dialectic was often employed for resolving foundational questions in philosophy, but the dialectical method was also useful for resolving a range of issues. • Dialectic allowed one to reason on both sides of a question, and thus assisted discovery of knowledge. • Dialectic is typically a matter of briefly stated questions and relatively brief answers, and its typical argument is the syllogism.

Chapter 3 Definitions

• Doxa - Greek term for a belief or opinion. Public opinion. • Techne - Greek term for a true art, which Plato contrasts to a sham art or "knack." • Pistis - Greek term employed by Plato to mean a mere belief, as contrasted to true knowledge. • Episteme - Greek term for true knowledge, which Plato felt the Sophists lacked on crucial questions such as justice. • Psyche - Greek term for the mind or soul

4. How might the goals of feminist and ancient rhetoricians be viewed as similar?

• Feminist rhetorical theory represents a break with male-dominated rhetorics. • Nevertheless, some scholars have argued for connections between contemporary feminist rhetorical theory and rhetorical models originating in Greece and Rome. • Cicero's vision of the ideal orator joins a moral vision with a life lived for the betterment of the community. • Here is a connection between ancient rhetorical theorists such as Cicero and contemporary feminist rhetoricians such as bell hooks.

5. In your own words, what is the basic feminist criticism of the Western rhetorical tradition?

• Feminists have pointed up the problems for women that emerge from a male rhetorical history. • Feminist critics have identified rhetoric as a particularly destructive influence on the fortunes of women in the west. • They have noted that women's experience of the world differs from that of men for a number of reasons. • Women's understanding, experience, meaning, and values are not represented by the male history of rhetoric. • Women are denied a voice in culture, because their discourse has been excluded from the public realm. • They have been denied access to power because they have been denied access to rhetoric. • The exclusion of women from the rhetorical mainstream has resulted in the loss of women's meanings, and thus, it is argued, in the loss of women themselves as members of the social world. • The exclusion of women from the history of rhetoric and public address are significant for a variety of reasons, but of perhaps the most immediate concern is the role of women as contributors to democratic society.

2. What is an "episteme" in Foucault's theory? Why is he interested in discovering the episteme of an age?

• Foucault believed that discursive texts, understanding the term very broadly, could be treated as archaeological artifacts, and that what they revealed was what he termed an archaeology of knowledge. • Foucault's archaeological study was pursued in the search for the episteme of an age, that is, the totality of discursive practices of a society at a particular point in time. • As Foucault moved through the various historical strata, he sought to reveal the conditions that allowed people at a particular time to manage the relationship between knowledge and discourse. • Foucault sought the history of rational possibilities; he wished to understand the underlying potentialities that made certain thoughts possible at a given time in human history. • An episteme is a way of organizing knowledge by regulating discourse, but it is more. • It is an underlying and probably largely subconscious set of assumptions and operating hypothesis that make thought and social life possible. • Foucault was interested in the discursive practices within a culture which provided the framework for knowledge, meaning, and power.

1. Why, generally, was Foucault interested in language and discourse? What is discourse's relationship to knowledge? To power?

• Foucault's interest in language was in large measure a reflection of his interest in "the central problem of power." • Power was not, for Foucault, a fixed and predictable element in social structures. • Nor was it principally something imposed from above through social structures and hierarchies. • Rather, power was a fluid concept closely connected to the strategies of discourse—with the ways we talk, and the systems of talk in which we participate. • Foucault was particularly concerned with the systems of talk within the limits of various disciplines such as medicine or law or business. • Such discourse systems, he maintained, control how we think and how we know. • Power, for Foucault, is a matter of how discourse constrains what we can know.

4. What theory of psychology influenced George Campbell's theory of rhetoric? How was this influence revealed in Campbell's theory? How may Campbell's interest in religious questions have influenced his theory of rhetoric?

• George Campbell advanced a "scientific" rhetoric, but science for him meant something like what philosophy means today--an organized and rational account of a subject. His rhetoric reflects advances in psychology. Campbell connected eloquence to psychology. • His theory of eloquence was based on the belief that the mind responds only to ideas it acknowledges as good or true. • Campbell's rhetorical theory reflects the faculty psychology view that the mind consisted of the understanding, the imagination, the passions, and the will. • For Campbell, each faculty spoke virtually its own language. For instance, the understanding spoke the language of logic, while the passion spoke the language of emotion. • Each part performed a particular function. • The understanding was informed and, when satisfied, responded with conviction. The imagination perceived beauty. • The passions and will moved one toward action. • Thus, each faculty has a part to play in the persuasive process. • As he writes, "all the ends of speaking are reducible to four; every speech being intended to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, or to influence the will." • Campbell was a religious polemicist who was seeking a rational basis for the Christian faith. • His theory of rhetoric may have been tied to this search for arguments in support of Christian beliefs.

7. George Campbell built his rhetorical theory on a particular view of the human mind. We have seen something like this in the suggestions Plato made in Phaedrus about the nature of the human soul. What view of the human mind and its workings might a contemporary rhetorical theory reflect?

• Have students think about the relationship between a theory of mind and a theory of persuasion. Why are the two so frequently linked? • Would accepting a metaphor such as, "The human mind is like a computer" have any bearing on the theory of persuasion one might accept? • Does there appear to be any particular view of the mind behind, say, advertisements?

Excluding preaching itself, which rhetorical practices of our own time seek goals similar to those of medieval preaching? Be sure to give specific examples.

• If the principal goal of medieval preaching was moral instruction, then various contemporary practices provide possible parallels. • Persuasive campaigns within schools often try to steer students away from violence, drugs or dangerous sexual practices. • Advise columnists often serve as moral guides, as do radio talk show hosts on occasion. • Politicians make statements on moral issues that actively advocate a particular stance or course of action. • Students will likely be able to come up with other examples, though the idea of rhetoric as moral instruction also strikes some as not in keeping with the values of a pluralistic society. • Pluralism itself can be viewed as a moral stance advocated rhetorically, however.

What are the three essential components of Bitzer's "rhetorical situation"?

• In "The Rhetorical Situation," Lloyd Bitzer argued that a rhetorical situation is marked by three elements: an audience, an exigence, and constraints. • Bitzer defined an exigence as "an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done, a thing which is other than it should be." • Not all exigencies, however, contribute to rhetorical situations. • The particular exigence in question must be one capable of modification by discourse. • The second element in the rhetorical situation is the audience. However, it is again important to point out that not all audiences are rhetorical audiences from Bitzer's point of view. • A rhetorical audience is made up only of persons able to be influenced by discourse, and then to mediate change. • Finally, Bitzer maintains that rhetorical situations exhibit constraints. Bitzer defines the concept of constraint as follows: "[C]onstraints [are] made up of persons, events, objects, and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence." • Bitzer compares constraints to the artistic and inartistic proofs of Aristotle's Rhetoric. • He apparently has in mind, then, that constraints are any factors that a rhetorician must contend with in the inventional process. • They are factors both limiting and liberating the rhetor as arguments and appeals are both discovered and advanced for audience acceptance.

According to your reading of chapter 5, what are Cicero's five canons of rhetoric? Define each.

• In De Inventione, Cicero advances his five canons of oratory. • The first of the canons is invention [inventio], which the discovery of arguments. • The second canon is arrangement [dispositio] or the distribution of arguments in an effective order. Arrangement is a matter of composing the materials for a speech into an intelligible and effective order. • The third canon, expression [elocutio], focused on the appropriate language for a speech. Rhetors must convey their arguments in a striking, persuasive, and moving manner. • The fourth canon is memory [memoria], the firm mental grasp of words of a speech. Since orators spoke from memory, a trained memory was essential to the public speaker. • Fifth, delivery [pronuntiatio] is the control of the voice and the body in a dignified manner. A speech in Rome was a performance, and the skilled orator had presence, poise, power and grace.

What is the specific role assigned to a true art of rhetoric by Plato in Phaedrus?

• In Phaedrus Plato considers the possibility of a rhetoric used for the good of the individual and of the society. • A techne of rhetoric would be an art useful for bringing about justice and harmony is society. • A true art of rhetoric would be founded on knowledge of justice and of the human soul. The goal of rhetoric is to establish order in the individual and in the state. • The wisdom-loving part of the soul persuades the other two parts to submit to its control. • Similarly, wisdom-lovers in the society would also be engaged in the activity of persuading others to submit to their control. • The goal of the techne of rhetoric is voluntary submission of the lower parts to the wisdom-lover, a submission producing harmony in the soul as well as the state.

2. What, according to Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, are the advantages of argumentation before a single listener?

• In order to know that our arguments are ready for appeal to the universal audience, the careful scrutiny that takes place when one person argues directly with another is helpful. • Argumentation before a single hearer makes a special claim to reasonableness, and provides another kind of test of arguments. • The single hearer sometimes acts like an audience of one's opponents by advancing the counterarguments to one's own arguments. • The single listener or reader carefully checks each step in the argumentation, raising objections to it, asking for clarifications, providing arguments in response. • The individual listener can in some cases fulfill this role so well that he or she represents the universal audience. • If our arguments succeed before an audience of a single, careful critic, they may be ready for the test of the universal audience.

Plato argues in Gorgias that rhetoric is a sham art. He also discusses a number of true arts. What is the true art to which rhetoric corresponds? What does Plato apparently mean by this comparison?

• In the interaction between Socrates and Polus, Plato compares rhetoric to the "knack"of cooking pleasing foods that make one feel better. Cookery, of course, involves no real knowledge of medicine or of restoring health to the body. • Activities that achieve an effect without any true knowledge of how the effect is accomplished are not true arts. • Rather, they are examples of "flattery" because they "aim at pleasure without consideration of what is best." (465) • The true art that restores lost health to a sick soul is called justice, not rhetoric, while the true art that restores lost health to the body is medicine, not cookery. Rhetoric is the counterfeit of the true art of justice. • True justice aims at restoring health to a sick soul. Rhetoric as practiced by the Sophists perverts justice by suggesting that actual justice has been achieved when, in fact, only persuasion about justice has occurred.

What is Derrida's goal in "deconstruction"? How do his goals differ from those of Habermas as discussed in Chapter Nine?

• Jacques Derrida advanced a wide-ranging and novel analysis of the hidden operations of language and discourse. • Derrida held that language could not escape the built-in biases of the cultural history that produced it. • He sought to reveal the underlying assumptions and irrationalities of the language of political discourse. • One goal of his writing is to enlighten his readers to the mechanisms by which language entraps and coerces us, to the concealed power within symbols to dictate thought. • Derrida's work of destabilizing discourse by dissecting its underlying structures of meaning and implication has been called deconstruction. • In many ways, Derrida's thinking represents a counterpoint to that of Jurgen Habermas and, on a larger scale, a counterpoint to the western, rational tradition in philosophy generally. • Habermas is pursuing the modernist project of establishing the supremacy of rationality, while Derrida is sometimes called post-modern in his tendency to undermine the foundations of western rationalism. • While Habermas looks to stabilize discourse by outlining conditions under which it can proceed rationally and with relative freedom from ideological coercion, Derrida looks to destabilize or "deconstruct" discourse by challenging traditional assumptions concerning language and meaning.

Why was Bakhtin drawn to the novels of Dostoevsky?

• Mikhail Bakhtin's work considered the difficult question of which writers and philosophies represent the "correct view" of the human condition. • He argued that language use is inherently social, dialogic and ideological. • From Bakhtin's perspective, multiple "voices" or positions constitute the social world. • And while multiple voices or ideologies are always present, not all voices are valued equally. • Dostoevsky's works reflected these qualities.

1. What do Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca mean by their concept of the "universal audience," and why is it important to their theory of argument?

• Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca define the universal audience as "the whole of mankind, or at least, of all normal, adult persons." • The universal audience tests the reasonableness of arguments in a manner transcending local and personal biases. The universal audience is important in the effort to fashion reasonable arguments for particular audiences without bowing to local prejudices. • Despite a local audience's response to an argument, writers and speakers must try also to imagine how any normal, rational individual would respond to it. • Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca seek in the universal audience an audience of reasonable people available at all times to all rhetors, and not subject to the limitations and biases of any particular audience. • In the universal audience, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca reveal their conviction that a rational and morally informed rhetor must possess a vision of the reasonable that transcends a particular social group or geographical location. • The reasonable individual seeks a standard which transcends an audience made up of her friends, or even of her opponents. • Argumentation which wins the assent of the universal audience must reach a very high standard of rationality.

What were Plato's main objections in Gorgias to rhetoric as practiced by the Sophists?

• Plato's general argument in Gorgias is that rhetoric as practiced by the Sophists does not embody an adequate conception of justice. • This is a dangerous and deceptive activity for the individual and the state, because the Sophists misled their hearers on the most important issue—justice. • When a false view of justice was embraced, injustice would prevail.

According to your reading of chapter 5, what were the five parts of a speech that Quintilian taught to his students? Explain each

• Quintilian taught his students to think of judicial speeches as divided into five parts, an approach common to other Roman rhetorics. • The first part, the exordium, was an introduction designed to dispose the audience to listen to the speech. • The second part, the narratio, was a statement of the facts essential to understanding the case, and intended to reveal the essential nature of the subject about which they were to render a decision. • The third part of the judicial speech was the proof or confirmatio, which was a section designed to offer evidences in support of claims advanced during the narratio. • Fourth came the confutatio or the refutation in which counter-arguments were answered. • Finally the peroratio or conclusion was presented, a section in which the orator demonstrated again the full strength of the case presented.

3. What is the significance of the concept of the vita activa to Renaissance rhetoric?

• Renaissance rhetoricians were greatly interested in the active life of civic involvement, or the vita activa. • Vico, for instance, found in rhetoric both a rich source for speculative thinking, and the key to practical living. • Rhetoric was central to this active life, particularly rhetoric understood on the Ciceronian model of "the union of wisdom and eloquence." • As Brian Vickers points out, rhetoric "taught one the essential powers of analysis as well as of presentation that assisted toward the solution of the practical problems facing any city or nation." • The vita activa was contrasted to the life of contemplation, of which many rhetoricians were suspicious. Rhetoric applied reason to the solution of the practical problems of human life, and thus made social life possible.

Plato defined rhetoric at one point as "the art of influencing the soul through words," while his student Aristotle defined the same art as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." Identify and explain the common concerns and the major differences of Plato and Aristotle regarding the art of rhetoric. Any examples?

• Rhetoric and dialectic represent two complementary and often similar arts of reasoning to probable conclusions on a wide range of topics. • In fact, Aristotle asserted that "rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic." • Rhetoric is similar to dialectic in that it employs commonly held opinions as starting points for argument, and in that it is not limited to a specific class of questions. • However, rhetoric develops proofs of a type not found in dialectic—proofs from character and emotion—and it is useful in resolving practical issues of public significance, like those which arise in the political and judicial arenas. The typical form of rhetoric is the speech, and its typical argument is the enthymeme. • In addition, the audience for rhetoric is usually larger and not specially trained in reasoning, as contrasted with the single skillful interlocutor or small group of trained advocates that would be the typical audience for dialectic. • Rhetoric is usually directed toward resolving a specific issue such as, "Is Cleanthes guilty of robbing Chaerophon?" • Dialectic, on the other hand, addresses general questions such as, "Is it better to suffer injustice, or to commit injustice?"

1. What was the status of rhetorical studies in Renaissance education?

• Rhetoric's influence was felt most strongly in the arena of education during the Renaissance. • More than 2,500 different books on rhetoric appeared in Europe between the late 14th and early eighteenth centuries. • Don Abbott calls rhetoric "the Renaissance subject" of study. • Rhetoric was dominant in the Renaissance curriculum. • Skill in rhetoric was the mark of the educated person. • Renaissance education's preoccupation with rhetoric was encouraged by a rising European interest in classical languages, particularly Greek. • Classical treatments of rhetoric provided the basis not just for rhetorical studies, but even for personal conduct. • The popularization of interest in rhetoric was assisted in the sixteenth century by the appearance of rhetorical treatises in vernacular languages, particularly English. • Thus, education in rhetoric became a possibility for anyone who could read.

6. Why does Sally Gearhart find traditional rhetoric to be a form of violence?

• Sally Miller Gearhart argued that the history of rhetorical theory is a history of male rhetorical theory and practice, and as such says little if anything about women's understanding of or practice of critical thought and persuasion. • Gearhart claims that "any intent to persuade is an act of violence." • Thus rhetoric, to the degree that it seeks persuasion, is violence. • Rhetoric does not mind its own business, but rather minds the business of other people. • In this office as meddler into the affairs of others, rhetoric is aggressive, violent. • For Gearhart, the tradition of rhetoric is based on what she terms "the conversion model." • That is, the practitioner of traditional rhetoric seeks to convert others to his or her point of view. • For Gearhart, to persuade—to convert—is to attempt to force one's views on another person, an activity she takes to be inherently violent. • Conquest-oriented rhetoric is not unlike rape: when I convert another to my views, I conquer the other under the justification that the conquest is actually good for the conquered, and is, in fact, what the conquered wanted.

3. What particular social developments in Britain alarmed Thomas Sheridan? What was his proposed solution? What negative effects did Thomas Sheridan associate with the decline in British eloquence?

• Sheridan was particularly concerned with the poor quality of delivery in British public speaking, especially preaching. • Delivery was a particular concern of Sheridan's, for it was intimately connected with convincing an audience of the urgency and truthfulness of one's message. Sheridan and other elocutionists emphasized delivery over the other traditional elements in the rhetorical art, such as invention or arrangement. • Thomas Sheridan sought to provide students with a guide to proper and effective public speaking, as well as the reform of education in Britain to correct the neglect of elocution or rhetorical delivery. • Sheridan argued that poor preaching and speaking were actually threatening the health of religion, constitutional government, and morality.

7. What do Foss and Griffin mean by the phrase "invitational rhetoric"?

• Sonja Foss and Cindy Griffin have outlined what they term an invitational rhetoric, one that does not require or assume intent to persuade on the part of a source. • These authors argue that an invitational view of rhetoric offers a solution to the maleinfluenced model centered on persuasion. • An invitational rhetoric is founded on "an invitation to understanding as a means to create a relationship rooted in equality, immanent value, and self-determination." • Rhetoric, understood in this way, seeks not to persuade, but rather to invite audience members "to enter the rhetor's world, and see it as the rhetor does."

Who was Hermagoras of Temnos, and why was he significant to Roman rhetoric?

• The Greeks were the source of topical systems. • Hermagoras of Temnos, a Greek rhetorician of the second century B.C., was particularly important in this regard. • He classified judicial arguments according to what he called "issues," identifying three types: (1) conjectural (2) legal and (3) juridical. • Hermagoras also developed a famous method for analyzing arguments. • He divided arguments into a "thesis" and a "hypothesis." The thesis was a general premise in an argument, the equivalent of the first claim or "major premise" of a syllogism. • The hypothesis was a conclusion drawn from the thesis combined with a particular premise applying the thesis to a given case.

2. Identify some of the defining characteristics of the Italian Humanist movement.

• The Italian Humanists were responsible for a resurgence of interest in the languages and texts of classical antiquity during the Renaissance period. • A characteristic of Italian Humanism, then, was a return to the original texts of classical antiquity. • The Humanists wished to read classical texts for their true meanings, and not for the meanings that had been attributed to them during centuries of Christian dominance in Europe. • The Italian Humanists retrieved to view many important concepts of classical rhetoric and developed methods of textual criticism for studying ancient documents. • They collected early manuscripts and sought to reconstruct authentic texts. • Italian Humanism began as part of the effort to educate leading families of Florence in the intricacies of civic government. • This education was Ciceronian in impulse and highly practical in conception. • This is because rhetoric was viewed as essential to the work of government. • Crucial to the day-to-day management of Florentine civic life were the attorneys and notaries responsible for negotiating, recording, and communicating the many agreements that made the city function. • An interest in and study of human will and emotions also marked Humanism. • Some Humanists sought a common source of both classical philosophy and Christianity. • Italian Humanism also exhibited an interest in the "humanizing" potential of speech, or rhetoric, both for the individual and for the society. • For the individual, speech was elevating. • But, human dialogue also shapes cultures and societies, and brings into existence human civilizations. • Finally, Italian Humanists also revived interest in history, emphasizing the history of secular developments such as politics and war.

Why was the concept of a clash of views important to the Sophists

• The Sophists developed a view of truth as relative to places and cultures. • They doubted that there could be an absolute truth. • The Sophist Gorgias adhered to a radically sceptical view that even questioned whether knowledge was possible. • Sophists believed in the relative nature of truth, and held that "truth" emerges from the clash of arguments. • Some Sophists built their view of justice on the notion of agreement or convention [nomos].

What was the Sophists' view of truth?

• The Sophists developed a view of truth as relative to places and cultures. • They doubted that there could be an absolute truth. • The Sophist Gorgias adhered to a radically sceptical view that even questioned whether knowledge was possible. • They claimed they could teach arete, which had various meaning including virtue and the ability to manage one's personal affairs in an intelligent manner. • Some also claimed that they would teach their students to make the worse case appear the better. • Our political system legitimates the most persuasive ideas—those that win the assent of the majority—rather than transcendent ideals. • Courtroom oratory also seems oriented toward persuasion as a means to truth, a sophistic notion. • Lobbying practices seem oriented to bringing an advantage to special-interest groups rather than building laws on the basis of the best ideas about governance.

Sophist introduced Educational revolution to Athenian Society

• The Sophists offered a kind of advanced education to anyone capable of paying their high fees. • They did not select their students based on family connections or social status. • Offering rhetorical training strictly on the basis of ability to pay allowed a much wider range of Athenians access to education, and in the process threatened some members of the aristocracy. • Sophists were highly controversial in Athens. • They professed to teach virtue, which many Greeks doubted could be taught. • The sophists taught for pay, which was frowned upon. • They also were often itinerants, traveling from place to place looking for work.

9. Who were the jian shi in ancient China?

• The jian shi were traveling rhetoricians who advised rulers regarding a variety of matters. • Their persuasion took place privately rather than publicly.

5. In what different ways are the natural and social sciences presented as rhetorical by writers discussed in this chapter?

• The natural and human sciences are understood as rhetorical in a variety of ways. • Scientific writers must adapt discourse to audiences, must persuade those audiences, and frequently engage in a variety of discursive strategies to achieve their goal of persuasion. • Scientists, in having their findings accepted, face a rhetorical problem that demands and receives a rhetorical solution. • John Campbell's work on Darwin, for example, illustrates the power of a rhetorical approach to scientific dilemmas. • Campbell shows us a famous and highly influential scientist operating as a skilled and highly successful rhetorician. • After reading Campbell's accounts, it is difficult to see Darwin simply as a scientist presenting simple facts. • Campbell helps us to see that science itself is inherently rhetorical. • Recently the idea that science is not rhetorical has been widely challenged. • Some scientists acknowledge the degree to which rhetorical influences shape science itself. • Rhetoricians have extended the analysis to other disciplines which were also considered to operate outside the realm of the rhetorical, including, as we have seen, to economics, psychology, anthropology, and biology. • There is more to the pursuit of scientific truth than simply conducting experiments and publishing results. • Science, it appears, is as rhetorical as are other human pursuits.

Aristotle claimed rhetoric involved the study of three artistic proofs, and that rhetoric could be divided into three general categories according to the settings in which it occurred and the issues that it addressed.

• The three artistic proofs, or proofs taught specifically by the art of rhetoric, are: • (1) logical reasoning (logos). Logos refers to proofs available in the words, arguments, or logic of a speech. • (2) the names and causes of various human emotions (pathos). Pathos is the psychology of emotion, or "putting the audience in the right frame of mind." Pathos is more than emotional appeals; it is an interest in emotion's ability to affect the judgment of audiences. • (3) human character and goodness (ethos). Ethos refers to the persuasive potential of the speaker's own character or credibility. The components of ethos are phronesis (practical sense), arete (virtue), and eunoia (goodwill). • Thus, like these other arts, rhetoric has its own subject matter: these three means of persuasion. • It was the largely the study of arguments. • This proof develops from what the speaker says in the course of a speech, and is not imported on the basis of prior reputation with the audience.

Which classical rhetorician had the greatest influence on the shape of rhetorical theory and practice in the Middle Ages? Which work in particular was the most influential? What three sectors of life did this person's work influence the most?

• The works of Cicero were the best-known classical sources to medieval Europeans, and his works on rhetoric, especially De Inventione, provided the foundation for the vast majority of medieval rhetorical treatises and practices. • Ciceronian rhetoric in the Middle Ages shaped education, civic administration, private life, and Church practice in a variety of ways.

What is Dialectic?

• Unlike in rhetoric, where the speaker is addressing a large audience, dialectic is a one on one interactive session wherein the speaker tries to convince the listener or at least convince him to accept his logical or philosophical argument through a series of questions and answers. • The deliberation is reasonable and is limited to one speaker and one listener. • It is more personal in nature and is a form of interrupted discourse. • There are vigorous arguments, objections and counter arguments and objections leading to the arrival at a universal truth. What makes rhetoric different from dialectic? • As opposed to rhetoric which is a unilateral process, wherein one party engages in a lengthy and impassioned speech to bring others to consent to his way of thinking or to accept truth as he envisages it, dialectic is a bilateral process wherein two people or parties, engage in a philosophical argument to reach a consensus of truth through dialogue and debate, refuting and rebutting each other's propositions. • Rhetoric is also referred to as a practical art, which uses bombastic language, ornamental words and cynical sophistication. • Dialectic is more sober, practical and persuasive technique of argument, which is deliberative and logical. • Dialectic influences one person at a time whereas; rhetoric has in its power to sway large audiences to mindless submission. • Great speakers have used rhetoric to influence masses over periods of time. • Rhetoric is usually delivered in public spaces like assemblies, stadiums, political rallies and other large gatherings. • The audience is usually so swayed by the words of the speaker that they stop thinking for themselves and are transported to the utopia promised by the speaker, transported to a future time and space which promises the sky. • Dialectic, however, is more of a private place dispensation and has very few people listening in and participating in the deliberation. • The speaker has much less power to convince the listener as he is constantly stopped by questions and arguments against his proposition. • Rhetoric is a one way street, whereas dialectic is a two way street. • What this means is that rhetoric proceeds in a flow and speech is continuous, while dialectic is fractured frequently by questions and answers. • Rhetoric is more applicable in matters of the state or public, but dialectic can apply to any common matter. • Rhetoric assumes that the audience has limited intelligence and will accept any bombastic discourse. Dialectic thrives on two way intelligent argument. • Dialectic is argumentative and rhetoric is non- argumentative. • In conclusion, one could accept Aristotle's view that rhetoric and dialectic are closely related and resemble each other. • They both accept certain premises but are not bound down by the principles of specific form. • Both are concerned with both sides of the argument through the theory of deduction and induction.

6. What was the opinion of Valla regarding the relationship between rhetoric and philosophy?

• Valla held that rhetoric, not philosophy, was the proper basis for education. • His views had enormous influence on educational practices in their day and throughout the Renaissance. • Valla's vast study of ancient sources was guided in large measure by his intense interest in rhetoric. • Valla was a vigorous advocate of oratory. In his view, oratory was the master of philosophy. • Valla argued that orators were much more straightforward and forceful in their treatment of important political and academic questions than were philosophers. • Orators employing rhetoric were active in civic life working for the good of the society, while philosophers debated meaningless questions in their universities. • One consequence of the subordination of philosophy to rhetoric was that Valla also came to subordinate the ethical disputations of philosophers to the moral sense of ordinary people. • Moral truth, for Valla, was found in "common sense," and rhetoric had a role in shaping and perpetuating the moral precepts of common sense.

1. By what means did Vico think the mind ordered the world and made civilization possible? What, according to Vico, was the human capacity for ingenium?

• Vico posited that human thinking developed according to four rhetorical tropes. • The first of these was metaphor, or a comparison of things not apparently similar. Early poets, for instance, compared objects to people, and thus anthropomorphised nature by attributing to inanimate objects human qualities such as emotion. • The other tropes important to the development of human thought were metonym (the substitution of the part for the whole), synecdoche (wherein the whole object represents the part), and irony (where indirect statement carries meaning). • Vico held that rhetoric was essential to all of the arts, and all human ways of making sense of the world. • By means of language, humans have imposed order on a fundamentally disordered nature. • The "humanization of nature" takes place, not through rational or inferential thought, but rather through ingenium, or, the innate human capacity to grasp similarities or relationships. • The person of practical judgment must be able to discover similarities or analogies between unrelated things. • This ability allows human beings to make sense of the world around them, which in turn allowed the initiation of civilization. • Vico held that this innate human capacity for recognizing or grasping similarities among different objects was central to the linguistic nature of thought. • Analogic thinking allowed insights which were crucial to the ordering and humanizing of the world. • Thinking based on ingenium is more rhetorical than logical; it results in insights rather than in deductions. • It is therefore actually productive of new knowledge, and not merely of reformulations of things already known.

2. What were some of the social forces that compelled British people to seek education in rhetoric during the eighteenth century?

• Wilbur Samuel Howell writes that rhetoric was viewed in the eighteenth century as the means of transmitting knowledge from the learned to the general populace. • British education in rhetoric was pursued during the eighteenth century with various goals in view, and in response to pressing social changes. • First, rising scepticism in Britain caused writers in the Churches of England and Scotland to press rhetoric into the service of Christian apologetic, preaching, and writing. • Second, writing and reading of English prose began to assume a new prominence during the century as British culture shifted increasingly from oral to written discourse, and as nationalism elevated the English language to a new level of prominence in Britain. • This new emphasis on English prose added to the demand for instruction in rhetoric. • Third, English was displacing Latin as the language of scholarship, which allowed access to learning to a vastly increased number of British subjects. • An important component of education typically was some study of rhetoric. • Fourth, urbanization was bringing people from the English country-side, from Scotland, and from Ireland to urban centers such as London. • These new city-dwellers sought to eliminate their rustic accents which limited personal advancement. • They sought education in proper diction, which was an element of rhetorical education. • Fifth, closely related to this phenomenon was the desire of many younger Britons to advance socially. • Though class distinctions remained rather rigid in eighteenthcentury Britain, the society was relatively open for an individual's social advancement when compared to other European societies of the time. • Personal advancement depended on personal improvement, and no improvement was more important than that of one's speech. • Improving one's speech required some instruction in rhetoric. • Sixth, an increasing number of professions--such as those in law, politics, and religion--demanded skill as a public speaker. • Again, demand for instruction in rhetoric grew in response to this demand. • Finally, famous English writers of the day such as Richard Steele, Joseph Addison and Jonathan Swift had written critically of the quality of both speaking and writing in England. Such criticism lent some urgency to the search for instruction in proper and effective management of language, which meant instruction in rhetoric.

Why did Bakhtin consider that discourse is always ideological and social?

• For Bakhtin, all language is inherently ideological in at least two ways. • First, language does not merely reflect, but actually constructs our view of the world. • As a result, speaking and writing are never value-free. • Second, to speak is to articulate a position, to give voice to a system of beliefs. Language is inherently social for two reasons. • First, speech is fashioned from preexisting, historically bound linguistic material. • Speech itself is the product of prior social processes. • Second, we negotiate the meaning of every word we utter with the person to whom we speak. Thus, discourse always performs a social or relational function.

8. What is unusual in the Greek tradition of rhetoric when compared to other rhetorical traditions?

• George Kennedy points out that the Greek tradition of rhetoric is unusually competitive, seeking victory over opponents. • He does not find this sort of competitive orientation to be present in the rhetorical practices of other ancient cultures. • Kennedy finds other rhetorical traditions to be more oriented toward seeking agreement, and thus less contentious than the Western rhetorical tradition.

What are six characteristics of rhetoric as a type of discourse? 2. What are the four resources of symbols discussed in Chapter One as assisting the goal of persuasion? 3. Rhetoric as an art performs several social functions. List the functions performed by the art of rhetoric. 4. What are the three types of power associated with rhetoric as discussed in Chapter One? Briefly describe each. 5. According to Richard Enos, what three functions of language had Homer already identified in the ninth century BCE? Identify and briefly describe each function of language. 6. The text makes the point that the Sophists were not the first people to practice rhetoric. If this is the case, what were the Greek Sophists the first to do with rhetoric? 7. When were the first Sophists active in Greece? 8. Name two Sophists discussed in Chapter Two, and provide one contribution or interest of each. 9. Briefly describe the interests and influence of the Sophist Gorgias. 10. Why was the Sophist Gorgias so interested in style and the sounds of words? 11. Briefly describe the contributions of the Sophist Protagoras to an understanding of rhetoric. 12. Briefly describe the teachings, interests, and influence of Isocrates. 13. Who was Aspasia, and which great Athenian orator was likely influenced by her. 14. Plato's dialogues Gorgias and Phaedrus are discussed in Chapter Three. Briefly describe the view of rhetoric advanced by the character Socrates in each dialogue. 15. Briefly overview the positions regarding rhetoric advanced by Socrates, Gorgias,Polus, and Callicles in Plato's dialogue Gorgias. How does each speaker characterize rhetoric and its goals? 16. In Gorgias, what sort of rhetoric is under attack by Plato? What, apparently, is Plato's main concern about the personal and social consequences of this kind of rhetoric? 17. Briefly explain Plato's distinction between a true art (techne) and a sham art in Gorgias. Provide an example of a true art and its sham or counterfeit from the dialogue to illustrate your answer. 18. Briefly explain why Plato means by equating rhetoric with "cookery" in Gorgias? 19. What does it mean to say that Plato believed in the complexity of the soul? Briefly, how does this belief influence the view of rhetoric and its goal as advanced in his dialogue, Phaedrus? 20. For Aristotle, how are rhetoric and dialectic similar, and how are they different? 21. Identity and briefly present the four reasons Aristotle found rhetoric useful. 22. Briefly describe Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. 23. Provide a brief overview of the distinguishing characteristics of deliberative, epideictic, and forensic oratory, and the settings in which each occurs, as discussed by Aristotle in Rhetoric? 24. Briefly describe each of the three artistic proofs of rhetoric as described by Aristotle. 25. Explain Aristotle's distinction between special and universal topics or lines of argument as discussed by Aristotle in Rhetoric. 26. Comment briefly but specifically on the relationship between education and rhetoric in Rome. 27. What were Cicero's his five canons of rhetoric as discussed in De Inventione? Briefly describe each. 28. List and briefly describe the four basic types of issues that characterize Cicero's stasis system as discussed in Book I of De Inventione. 29. Cicero discussed the loci of judicial argument under which two broad headings in De Inventione? Provide an example of one question about which arguments might be advanced under each heading. 30. Eloquence by itself, according to Cicero, was little more than a "ridiculous swirl of words." With what must eloquence be joined to avoid this fate? What was required of an orator to ensure that these two things were joined? 31. What were, for Cicero, the three basic functions of oratory identified in works such as Brutus and Orator? For Cicero, who was the "complete orator" (perfectus orator), and what role did this individual play in society? Based on his "cardinal rules of humor," what did Cicero apparently believe about the relationship of the rhetor and the audience? How did Roman and Greek conceptions of the citizen differ? Briefly describe what was for Quintilian the relationship between oratory and good citizenship. 32. What are the five parts of a judicial speech as described in works such as Cicero's De Inventione and the Rhetorica ad Herennium? Identify and briefly describe each part. 33. What was the difference between a definite and an indefinite question in Quintilian's system? 34. Identify and briefly describe what for Longinus were the sources of great writing. 35. Identify two defining characteristics of the Second Sophistic. 36. Comment on the contribution of Martianus Capella's The Marriage of Philology and 37. Mercury to medieval thinking about education in general, and education in rhetoric in particular. Which classical rhetorical theorist had the most important influence on the presentation of rhetoric in Capella? 38. St. Augustine held that rhetoric assisted Christian teachers in two ways, which he termed the modus inveniendi and modus proferendi. Briefly, what are the two functions of rhetoric Augustine identified by these terms? 39. What is the relationship between maxims and differentia in Boethius' De Differentiis Topicis? Provide the English names for the three rhetorical arts that developed in Europe during the period 1100 to 1300. 40. What particular persuasive function did Robert Basevorn assert that the art of preaching ought to perform? 41. What specific functions did the art of letter writing perform in medieval European culture? 42. What did Geoffrey of Vinsauf have to say about the place of planning in writing poetry, and what famous metaphor did he develop to illustrate his point? 43. A theory of audience is central to the rhetorical theory of Chaim Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca in their The New Rhetoric. Briefly describe the role played by any three of the audiences they discuss, focusing on the part played by each audience in ensuring that discourse is rational. 44. What do Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca mean by the "universal audience"? What function does this idea have in their theory? 45. Describe Jurgen Habermas' proposal for achieving a rational society free from ideological domination. 46. Describe some of the ways in which the social and natural sciences are rhetorical, according to authors discussed in Chapter Nine. 47. Provide one example of how Charles Darwin acted as a rhetorician in his advocacy of evolution, according to John Campbell. 48. Provide the names of, and briefly define, the components of Kenneth Burke's dramatistic pentad. What is his pentad advanced as a means of explaining or discussing? 49. Define Kenneth Burke's notion of form, and briefly describe any three types of form identified by Burke. 50. Provide and briefly define the three essential components of Lloyd Bitzer's "rhetorical situation." Relate these components to Bitzer's notion of a "fitting response." 51. Describe the quality did Mikhail Bakhtin find intriguing in the novels of Dostoevsky? What name did Bakhtin give this quality? 52. Some literary critics have argued that the author should remain invisible in the work of fiction. What is Wayne Booth's position on this possibility? What does be mean by the term "the rhetoric of fiction"? 53. What qualities does Andrea Lunsford believe define the new digital literacy? 54. Much of Michel Foucault's work explores the relationships among discourse, knowledge, and power. Briefly, how are these three components related for Foucault? 55. What was Foucault seeking through his "archaeology of knowledge"? How does the concept of episteme figure into his archaeological studies? 56. What does Derrida mean by saying that meanings are unstable? How is this notion related to his practice of deconstruction? 57. Briefly overview the feminist criticism of the western rhetorical tradition. Why has this tradition ignored women? What are the specific results of this historical development? 58. Briefly explain what Sally Miller Gearhart means by claiming that rhetoric as it has been taught and practiced is a form of violence? 59. What do Foss and Griffin mean by the phrase "invitational rhetoric"? How would an invitational rhetoric differ from a traditional rhetoric? 60. What striking difference between the western rhetorical tradition and the rhetorical traditions of other cultures has George Kennedy noticed in his study of comparative rhetoric?

1. Planned, adapted to audience, shaped by human motives, responsive to a situation, persuasion seeking, concerned with contingent issues 2. Arguments, appeals, arrangement, aesthetics 3. Ideas are tested, advocacy is assisted, power is distributed, facts are discovered, knowledge is shaped, communities are built 4. Personal power- provides a way to success and advancement through sharpening our expressive skills. Psychological power- the power to shape thought. Political power- a matter of who gets to speak, where they are allowed to speak, and in what subjects 5. Heuristic- the capacity for discovery. Eristic- languages capacity tu captivate, motivate, or injure. Protreptic- languages ability to persuade others as they think Number 6. When the sohpists appeared on the horizon of the hellenic city states, they found themselves in the midst of an enormous cultural change: from aristocracy to democracy. Athenian democracy was a remarkable political innovation for the first time in recorded history. All native free born males were considered equals with equal rights to debate and determine state policy. 7. Middle of the 5th century BCE until the end of the 4th century 8. Gorgias: was famous for his 3 part formulation of philosophy a. nothing exist b. if it did, we could not know c. if we could know, we would not be able to communicate it to anyone else Protagoras: developed the philosophy underlying rhetorical practices (also see dissoi logoi) 9. Gorgias was a master of persuasion. Believed in the magical powers of rhetoric and viewed rhetoric as deception 10. He was invested in words and sounds because he believed that if you can manipulate them you can captivate 11. Protagros- Developed philosophy under rhetorical practices. Said man is the measure of all things. Best known for traching a practical approach to reasoning about political as well as personal questions. Trained students to manage an estate and founded off contradictory claims/anitlogos (counterarguements) 12. Isocrates-Rival of Plato. Writer. Native Atheninan. Not Public Speaker. Wanted to Prepare Effective Leaders. Speechmaking as a way to further culture. Did not claim to tech arete. 13. Female Rhetorician of the Fifth Century. Socrates was inlfuenced by her. 14. Socrates is not satisfied with the assertion that rhetoric is only concerned with words. Said Gorgias doesn't understand justice. (See Chapter 3 Definitions) 15. Polus sees it as the noblest of arts and a path to wealth and fame. Callicles believes in natural justice (that the strong survive). Defines morality as following pleasure and desire. Socrates says Callicles is a slave to his own desires. 17. Plato said make up is a sham art because they flatter people into believing false health 18. It's a reference to prepraing pleasing foods that make one feel satisfied (but it's Temporary) 19. What does it mean to say that Plato believed in the complexity of the soul? Briefly, how does this belief influence the view of rhetoric and its goal as advanced in his dialogue, Phaedrus? He argued that good speech with others would create good moods and thus create a more effective city-state and have good virtue. In Phaedrus, he discusses that the human soul should become a wisdom-lover so that society will be one the same page and that harmony, virtue, truth, health, and justice will occur. 20. For Aristotle, how are rhetoric and dialectic similar, and how are they different? For Aristotle rhetoric was the faculty of discovering all available means of persuasion in any setting. Dialect on the other hand was a method of reasoning from common opinions, directed by established principles of reasoning to probable conclusions. They are similar in that each: -deals with questions that concern everyone -deals with questions that do not belong to a specific science or art -can reason on either side of a case -starts with endoxa (common opinions) The two differ in that the main purpose of rhetoric involves defending an idea or yourself while the main purpose of dialectic is testing an argument. Dialectic was practiced by trained experts in reasoning while rhetoric could be used by ordinary people. Dialectic was delivered via questions and answers to a small audience while rhetoric was delivered as a speech to a large audience. And finally dialectic dealt with general questions addressed via arguments (syllogism) while rhetoric addressed specific questions that used proofs of arguments (enthymeme), character, and emotion. 21. Four reasons Aristole found rhetoric useful: 1. It helps assist advocacy. True ideas require the advocacy of capable speakes and writers. 2. It helps with audience adaptation. It connects our case to others experiences, values and beliefs. 3. It teaches one to think out the pros and cons of any issue. 4. Its helps defend oneself 22. Briefly describe Aristotle concepts of the enthymeme. Aristotle calls enthymeme "a sort of syllogism". Enthymeme is a rhetorical argument that is shared by the speaker and audience. It depends on pervious arguments about belief, values , and or a preference. Enthymeme" literally means "held in the mind," and it has one reason that both the speaker and the audience hold in common. 23. Provide a brief overview of the distinguishing characteristics of deliberative, epideictic, and forensic oratory, and the settings in which each occurs, as discussed by Aristotle in Rhetoric? Deliberative oratory: questions related to the judiciary rhetoric that would affect the entire city. Decision-making on a large scale from the government that affects its people. Epideictic Oratory: public ceremonies or funerals commemorating someone of importance. This would happen for a war hero. Forensic Oratory: reconstruction of the past so that it may aid in deliberative oratory. Finding out evidence to help the court decide justice. 24. Briefly describe each of the three artistic proofs of rhetoric as described by Aristotle. Ethos- Human character, refers to speaker's credibility, Phronesis (practical sense), arête (virtue), eunoia (goodwill). Pathos- Emotion, Audience and their frame of mind, also the how emotion can affect the audiences judgement. Logos- Logic, refers to proofs in words arguments and speech. 25. Explain Aristotle's distinction between special and universal topics or lines of argument as discussed by Aristotle in rhetoric. -Special topics (eidei topoi): lines of argument that were specific to only one rhetorical situation -Universal (common) topics: common strategies that could be used for a variety of speaking and debate topics. (pages 81-82) 26. Comment briefly but specifically on the relationship between education and rhetoric in Rome. -Unlike Greek education that relied much on written texts, Roman education fixated on oral education. How you spoke and memory were very important to be successful. Speech and debate was also important to master as this was how they were examined. They wanted to produce effective public speakers that had great style and diction. (pages 92-93). 27. What are Cicero's five cannons of rhetoric as discussed in De Inventione? Briefly describe each. 1. Invention (inventio): how someone discovers or validates arguments. 2. Disposito: the distribution of arguments and creating the right order of the speech 3. Expression (elocutio): having persuasive and proper language that enhances your speech. 4. Memory (memoria): having a mental grasp of words and phrases so that you can used them at any time during a debate or speech to enhance it. Memorizing speeches also should that you were knowledgeable on the subject. 28. The four basic types of issues in Ciceros stasis system are Fact, Definition, Quality and Procedure. A brief description of each issue would follow: Fact - Evidence regarded as indisputable by the audience. Definition - A description for the evidence, words, or terms layed out in discourse. Quality - How well or how poorly the discourse is presented and how the audience reacts to the discourse. Procedure - How the discourse is presented and the sequence of the argument. 29. Loci or "location systems" began as memory devices and evolved into intentional methods. Because Roman orators spoke from memory, often for a long time, training the memory was crucial. A rhetoric would associate an argument in a speech with a place in a familiar building, outing each argument, literally in its place. Recalling the arguments, then, involved a mental stroll through the building, retrieving, arguments along the way", one question: if these rectors based their arguments off of memory, how did they train their brains to memorize everything? 30. Cicero believed that eloquence was nothing without wisdom through intense education. An orator must acquire the understanding of law, politics, domestic and foreign economics, military affairs, international issues, philosophy, and an appreciation of poetry. He says that you will rarely find a finished orator. (Pgs. 99-100) 31. The three basic functions ions according to Cicero are to teach to entertain and to persuade. The complete orator to Cicero was a leader who had a perfect balance of these three and used them to guide society. In regards to humor a rhetor is required to adjust his humor to the audience at hand to be appropriate. Roman and Greek conceptions of the citizen differ in the manner that Romans held citizens as subjects whereas Greeks held theirs in more of an equality manner. Quintillians relationship between oratory and good citizen is as such, that one doesn't need to aggression to allow your voice to be heard but that a more passive approach will work. 32. Invention: Speaker decides subject matter of speech, analyzes the audience, analyzes location; finds the best materials to persuade, gets initial ideas to get speech off the ground Arrangement: How to arrange and organize parts for best possible moment of impact; done ahead of time Style: Speaker decides on most appealing words/language used, clear and appropriate to occasion, audience, subject matter Memory: How to remember and deliver the speech, make sure material is memorable for the audience Delivery: Make language natural, varied and appropriate; use voice and nonverbal gestures to convey ideas and emotions 33. Indefinite question: A question that does not involve a person, place or thing. A question about taking a stance. Definite: A question directly involving a person, place or thing. Indefinite Example: Should Men marry? Definite Example: Should David get married? 34. On the Sublime is concerned with the emotive power of language. Longinus' theory of language's potency is organized around a concept he terms "the sublime," a measure of the degree of emotional impact that literature has on readers. Longinus identified five sources of great writing. First, "vigor of mental conception." Second, "strong and inspired emotion." Third, the "adequate fashioning of figures (both of speech and of thought)." Fourth, "nobility of diction," including the appropriate choice of words and "the use of figurative and artistic language." Fifth, dignified and distinguished word arrangement. 35. Two defining characteristics of the Second sophistic I found were oratory expression and engaged audience. During the Second Sophistic, speech and oral expression were transforming into a more modern experience. Not only was it a form of entertainment, but a very important education tool, especially to preserve "culture, language, literature, rhetoric and religion." Orators were becoming more skilled in public discourse which in turn created an audience that was more engaged, and willing to pay more to pay to listen. 36.) Martianus Capella's contributed The Seven Liberal Arts to education and rhetorical education. The Seven Liberal Arts were divided into the Trivium ("the three roads") and the Quadrivium ("the four roads"). The Trivium consisted of: Grammar Rhetoric Logic The Quadrivium consisted of: Arithmetic -- Number in itself Geometry -- Number in space Music, Harmonics, or Tuning Theory -- Number in time Astronomy or Cosmology -- Number in space and time 37.) Ciceronian had the most important influence on Capella's presentation of rhetoric. 39. Preaching, Letter Writing, and Poetry 42. Geoffrey of Vinsaum's metaphor about building a house 44. What do Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca mean by the "universal audience"? What function does this idea have in their theory? Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca's concept of the "universal audience" means that an argument has to be broad enough to encompass a larger audience, "the whole of mankind, or at least, of all normal, adult persons", as opposed to catering views and ideas towards individuals or small groups. They believed that an argument could be judged by the number of people it can appeal to and convince. The stronger an argument, the more people will accept it, therefore making it more acceptable to the universal audience 45. Describe Jurgen Habermas' proposal for achieving a rational society free from ideological domination. Habermas sought to identify the conditions of a just and rational society. His ultimate goal was the liberation of the individual in an egalitarian discourse community. He affirmed that "critical rationality consists in the unflinching examination of our most cherished and comforting assumptions Habermas found the interactive process of critical argumentation a key to overcoming the ideological domination that obtains when a society is no longer rational. He called such critical discourse communicative action. To act together, agreeing on how to act through 3 commitments - in performing a speech act a speaker represents: a state of affairs, establishes an intersubjective relation with a hearer, and expresses her intention. 47. According to Campbell, one example that Darwin acted as a rhetorician in his advocacy of evolution was the notion of natural selection (Survival of the fittest). Evolution is predicated on the certain premature death from starvation of many members of a given species. Darwin was convinced that his theory that biological life is not headed anywhere in particular and is not "progressing" it just happens and is not the work of a creating God. This posed a rhetorical problem because both the general public and scientific community are not persuaded of this theory. Darwin's evolution theory remains only as intellectual curiosity. 49.) Burke defines form as "an arousing and fulfillment of desires." - Form helps one to understand an underlying structure of appeals in any act of persuasion that has been adapted to an audience (pg. 214). 50. Burke's 4 types of form (pg.214-215) Progressive form (sub categorized into syllogistic and qualitative form) Syllogistic form - "the form of a perfectly conducted argument, advancing step by step." Qualitative form - "one incident in a plot prepares us for some other incident of plot." Conventional form - Forms that are used so often that they become conventional forms. "Thus, we expect introductions at the beginnings of speeches, emotional stories toward the end of a lengthy appeal, and illustrations following the introduction of a general claim." Repetitive form - "the consistent maintaining of a principle under new guises." Minor or incidental form - occurs any time we encounter such devices as "metaphor, paradox, disclosure, reversal" or any number of other recognizable approaches to securing or illustrating a point. Three essential components of Lloyd Bitzer's rhetorical situation: 1. The Exigence-- an imperfection marked by urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle. The exigence must be capable of modification by discourse 2. The Audience--Those persons who are capable of being influenced by discourse and being mediators of change 3. The Constraints-- Any factors that set a practical limit for a rhetorician during the inventional process Bitzer imagines a process in which a rhetor assesses the elements of the audience, the exigence, and the constraints. Understanding and using these elements can improve a rhetorical situation and can compose a response 53: What qualities does Andrea Lunsford believe define the new digital literacy? Audience-adapted, persuasive, responsive, and planned "We are witnessing in digital literacy a return to traditional rhetorical concerns- discourse as audience-adapted, persuasive, responsive, and planned." (page 224 54. What is Derrida's goal in "deconstruction"? How do his goals differ from those of Habermas as discussed in Chapter Nine? Derrida has three goals in developing the deconstructive approach "To reveal the hidden mechanism at work influencing meaning, to demonstrate the concealed power of symbols to shape thinking and lastly to underline the fact that no one escapes these elusive qualities of language" on page 235.Habermas goals differed from Derridas because Habermas "had been completing the modernist project of establishing the supremacy of rationality while Derrida is postmodern in his tendency to undermined the foundations of Western rationalism" according to the text. Habermas wanted to stabilize discourse by outlining conditions under which it can proceed rationally and with relative freedom from ideological coercion, Derrida wishes to destabilize or deconstruct discourse by challenging traditional assumptions concerning language and meaning. Derrida said that deconstruction was a process, an activity of reading irreducible to a concept or method. Derrida also only believes that deconstruction is only a process of reading" all of this is from the text on page 237. 57: The feminist criticism of the western rhetorical tradition is that they are primarily male in nature. Often times the female aspect of rhetoric got overlooked and under-acknowledged. Feminist rhetorician's wanted to be involved and included in the conversation. In westen cultures they looked at the actual person providing the rhetoric as a defining factor to whether or not the information was important, not solely the message. But in other cultures, it was the message that mattered most. This western ideology was birthed based upon the history of women being looked down on in comparison to men. In this time period women just weren't taken as seriously. Because of this, it wasn't until later that female rhetorician's were discovered and acknowledged. New ideas and information has been discovered just by looking at the female viewpoints of rhetoric and not just males. This historical development hindered the process of discovery and ideas. 58- Briefly explain what Sally Miller Gearhart means by claiming that rhetoric as it has been taught and practiced is a form of violence Gearheart thought that the act of trying to convert others to one's own views is an act of violence. "...oratory was a kind of battle using words rather than swords, one in which one man sought to defeat another by a skill that drew applause rather than blood." (pg. 241) 59:What do Foss and Griffin mean by the phrase "invitational rhetoric"? How would invitational rhetoric differ from a traditional rhetoric? Rhetoric is usually practiced when people use figures of speech to try to influence or persuade their audience or readers. However, Foss and Griffin believe that this does not always have to be the case. They believe in invitational rhetoric which is basically when someone is not trying to persuade their audience like traditional rhetoric is doing but rather to have the audience see things from their point of view therefore inviting them to see things differently

Please explain why the Middle-Ages are considered a period of fragmentation in rhetorical theory? In your answer explain how Plato would interpret this fragmentation. What would he say about it? How would the Sophists approach it? What would they say about it?

• During the Middle Ages, European scholars did not have many ancient rhetorical works available to them. • They often worked from partial texts, or even from individual sentences or brief sections of classical works known as sententiae. • In addition, medieval Europeans knew very little about Greek rhetorical theory, and only a few works of Roman rhetoric. • Two works exercised extraordinary influence: Cicero's De Inventione and the anonymous Rhetorica ad Herennium. • With all of these limitations in place, medieval rhetoric failed to understand classical rhetoric as a complete tradition developing within a distinct cultural context.

4. What is the ultimate goal of Habermas' theorizing? What is "communicative action"?

• Habermas sought to identify the conditions of a just and rational society. • His ultimate goal was the liberation of the individual in an egalitarian discourse community. • Habermas found the interactive process of critical argumentation a key to overcoming the ideological domination that obtains when a society is no longer rational. • He called such critical discourse communicative action.

According to Cicero, of what must speakers be wary when using humor?

• Orators must maintain dignity in their use of humor, which means that the audience's views must be respected. • Cicero notes that humor should not detract from an orator's dignity by attacking things that ought not to be laughed at. • There are limits to what is laughable, meaning that some things one ought not to make fun of. • Such items include wickedness and real human suffering. • The rhetor using humor must be careful not to offend popular sensibilities. Cicero adds that the orator must not become a buffoon or a mere mimic.

What are the three types of souls Plato discusses in Phaedrus?

• Plato held that the human soul is complex, consisting of three parts. • Plato distinguished the soul's three parts by their characteristic loves. • One part loves wisdom, a second loves nobility and honor, and a third part loves appetites or lusts. • Individuals are characterized and categorized according to the type of love that dominates in their souls.

6. What, for you, is the significance of style in speaking and writing? Is it important to clear communication? Is it an element in persuasion? If style is important to persuasion, should it be?

• Students might be prompted to think about some of their own responses to style. • Responses to speakers such as televangelists, for instance, is often as much a matter of style as of content. • Even our response to certain kinds of music is more a response to style than to a particular message. • The question of the relationship between style and clarity can be explored, as well as that between style and persuasion. • Have students suggest how style might affect persuasion. • Are style and credibility, for example, linked? • Can style affect perceptions of expertise or competence?

Why is Plato concerned about the difference between mere belief and true knowledge, particularly regarding the issue of justice?

• The Sophists' rhetoric, according to Plato, aimed only at persuasion about justice through the manipulation of public opinion (doxa) or "mere belief" (pistis), whereas an adequate view of justice must be grounded in true knowledge (episteme), and aim at the well-being of the individual and of the country. • According to Plato, the rhetorician "is not a teacher of law courts and other public gatherings as to what is right or wrong, but merely a creator of beliefs . . . ." (455) • When people act on mere beliefs about justice, they will commit injustices.

Appeals

Symbolic methods that aim either to elicit an emotion or to engage the audience's loyalties or commitments

Six Characteristics of rhetorical discourse

Planned, Adapted to an Audience, Reveals Human Emotions, Responsive, Seeks Persuasion

Logos, Pathos, Ethos

Logic, Emotional, Trust

After reading about the Sophists, do you think they deserve the bad reputation they had with many of their contemporaries? Be specific, use examples.

• Some students view the Sophists as matter-of-fact pragmatists who have received bad reviews from idealists. • Students might be encouraged to think about the ethical implications that always attend the practice and the teaching of rhetorical skills.

What three criteria must a pursuit satisfy in order to be considered a techne by Plato?

• A techne was a true art. In order to achieve this status, a practice had to involve knowledge of a class of objects. In addition, the practitioner of a techne should be able to give an account of the art, or explain how it achieves its goals. • A techne should also achieve a good result on a regular basis. (p. 59)

Aristotle calls the enthymema or enthymeme "a sort of syllogism." Explain Aristotle's understanding of the enthymeme. What distinguishes an enthymeme from other sorts of arguments, such as the syllogism of dialectic. Any examples?

• Aristotle calls the enthymema or enthymeme "a sort of syllogism." • A syllogism is adeductive argument moving from a general premise to a specific and necessary conclusion. Rhetoric is constructed of arguments involving premises shared by the speaker and audience. • That is, an enthymeme depends on a previous agreement about a belief, a value, or preference. • "Enthymeme" literally means "held in the mind," and enthymemes have at least one reason or claim which both the speaker and members of the audience believe or hold in common. So clear is the agreement on the shared claim that it might not even be stated in the speech itself. Thus, the enthymeme is constructed or completed by rhetor and audience at the same time. • Rhetoric in any settings is characterized by enthymemes.

Beliefs, practices, and personal qualities that characterized the Sophists

• The Greek Sophists were probably the first thinkers to present a systematic art of rhetoric. • Sophists were also orators, educators, entertainers and advocates. • Their principal occupations were teaching rhetoric, pleading court cases, and writing speeches for others. • The Sophists taught their students to argue either side of a case. • They thus practiced the method of dialectic. • The Sophists had a reputation for persuading by clever arguments and stylistic techniques. • Many Greeks viewed them with suspicion.

3. What did Foucault mean by an "archaeology of knowledge"?

• Foucault described his work as exploring archives, which he defined as the rules which, at a particular time and in a given society "define the limits and forms of the sayable." • He understood this work as similar to that of the archaeologist digging through the strata revealing the physical or material life of earlier societies. • Foucault sought the symbolic or linguistic lives of earlier societies.

What is meant by the "rhetoric of display"?

• Rhetorical analysis focused on visual or representational rather than language-based rhetoric.

What threat did the Sophists pose to traditional Greek society?

• The Sophists believed in a relative understanding of truth and of culture. • Thus, they challenged that notion that Greek culture was in any way superior to other cultures, or that there were absolute truths as some philosophers taught. • They also introduced questionable practices such as teaching for pay. • Finally, they made advanced education available to anyone capable of paying their high fees, thus threatening the traditional system whereby the aristocracy controlled education.

What is Wayne Booth's position on the possibility of an author of fiction being "invisible"?

• Wayne Booth in The Rhetoric of Fiction examines the relationship between author and narrator, and between authorial intent and textual content. • Booth notes that some works of fiction pretend to an authorial objectivity. • That is, author's pretend not to be present in the voices of their characters. • However, Booth affirms that the rhetoric of fiction is unavoidable, meaning that "the author's judgment is always present, always evident to anyone who knows how to look for it . . . ." • Booth questioned whether a writer could adopt a value-neutral stance in writing. • An author cannot achieve neutrality about values. • A work's author is always present, never invisible.

What were the qualities and skills that Longinus suggested helped an author to achieve the quality of sublimity?

• On the Sublime is concerned with the emotive power of language. • Longinus' theory of language's potency is organized around a concept he terms "the sublime," a measure of the degree of emotional impact that literature has on readers. • Longinus identified five sources of great writing. • First, "vigor of mental conception." • Second, "strong and inspired emotion." • Third, the "adequate fashioning of figures (both of speech and of thought)." • Fourth, "nobility of diction," including the appropriate choice of words and "the use of figurative and artistic language." • Fifth, dignified and distinguished word arrangement.

What members of contemporary society, in your estimation, most resemble the Sophists?

• Students typically will mention attorneys and politicians. • But Sophists also were ghostwriters, educators, and had some of the abilities of salespeople or even entertainers.

4. Respond to the idea advocated by the Italian Humanists that somehow speech is itself the means by which human beings create civilization. Is this account too simple? Are there factors other than speech that could be said to be the basis for human civilization?

• Ask students to contribute to a list of abilities, mental and physical, needed for a group of people to develop a society, culture, or civilization. • At what points is speech, particularly persuasive or narrative speech, crucial? • Could a society be founded without the ability to organize the natural world into manageable categories, without the capacity to persuade individuals to work cooperatively toward a common goal, or without common values conveyed and perhaps developed through speech?

3. Into what two categories do Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca divide the starting points of argumentation? What specific sources of agreement are placed under each heading?

• Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca divide the starting points of argumentation into the two categories of "the real" and "the preferable." • Under the first heading they place well established facts, widely accepted truths, and uncontested commitments called presumptions. • Under the category of "the preferable" they place commonly held values, values arranged into hierarchies, and lines of argument concerning the preferable.

Contingent Issues

Rhetoric is Employed to resolve practical questions about matters that confront everyone and about which there are no definite or unavoidable answers

Six Social Functions of the art of rhetoric

Tests Ideas, Assists Advocacy, Distributes Power, Discovers Facts, Shapes Knowledge, Builds Community

Rhetoric Ethical Guidelines

Uphold Honesty, Avoid Misleading Language, Use Supportive Evidence, Do not omit data, Do not Plagiarize, Uphold Fairness, Avoid Bias, Avoid Derogatory Terms/Gender Bias/Racism