ISC 360 Chapter 4, ISC 360 Chapter 5, ISC 360 Chapter 2, SAD Chapter 2, Chapter 1 Review Questions, Chapter 2 Review Questions, Chapter 3 Review Questions, Chapter 4 Review Questions, Chapter 5 Review Questions, MIS 306 Ch 2 Practice, MIS 306 Chapter...
List three techniques to reduce conflict.
-Clearly define the roles on the project, hold team members accountable for their assigned tasks, develop detailed operating procedures and make sure the team members understand them, have each team member commit to the project charter.
Throwaway prototyping is BEST characterized as:
A method for exploring design alternatives
Extreme Programming (XP) is BEST characterized as:
A method for stressing customer satisfaction
What is the difference between a methodology and a work plan? How are the two terms related?
A methodology provides a standard, formalized list of steps and deliverables for the SDLC. Work plans include the specific steps, tasks, and deliverables that will be needed for a specific project. Methodologies form the basis for creating work plans; the project manager can select the parts of the methodology that apply to the specific project, and use that in defining the appropriate steps and tasks.
Explain what is meant by a nonfunctional requirement. What are the primary types of nonfunctional requirements? Give two examples of each.
A nonfunctional requirement refers to behavioral properties that the system must exhibit. Types of nonfunctional requirements include: Operational, Performance, Security, and Cultural and Political. Student examples will vary.
Define what is meant by a process in a process model. How should the process be named? What information about a process should be stored in the CASE repository?
A process represents actions that are performed for some specific business reason. A process should be named using a verb phrase; information regarding a process to be stored in the CASE repository includes: • Label (name) • Type (process) • Description (what it is) • Process Number • Process Description (Structured English) • Notes
Describe a "risky" project in terms of technical feasibility. Describe a project that would NOT be considered "risky."
A project that would be technically risky would be one that is large in scale, utilizes technology that we have little or no experience with, and is for a business area that is new and unfamiliar to the organization. A project that would not be considered technically risky would be one that is small in scale, uses technology that is well-understood, and is for a business area that is very familiar to the users and developers.
Process
Activity for a function that's performed for some specific business reason Verb and noun
Explain the following: actor, use case, subject boundary, relationship
Actor - anyone/anything that interacts with the system Use Case - how the actor interacts with the system for a certain task Subject boundary - limit of the system Relationship - how users and use cases are related to one another
Discuss the considerations that should be made when determining who to include in interviews and/or JAD sessions.
First, identify the information that is needed, and then identify the people who can provide that information. Second, consider the political ramifications of including or excluding people. All key stakeholders must be included in the information gathering process.
Describe the differences between a technical lead and a functional lead. How are they similar?
Functional lead - Manages analysts Technical lead - Manages programmers and technical staff Similar in that they are both team leads, different in what type of skills/staff they manage
Distinguish between logical process models and physical process models.
Logical process models describe processes without suggesting how they are constructed. Physical process models provide information that is needed to ultimately build the system.
Describe the best way to validate the content of use cases.
Role-playing can be useful in confirming the validity of the use case. If the users execute the steps of the use cases using the written steps of the use cases as a "script" for actions to take, they will be able to find errors or confirm the correctness of the use cases.
Describe the major elements and issues with prototyping
Prototyping collapses analysis, design, and implementation into one phase, and this phase is cycled through several times until the system meets user needs. A "rough" version of the system is developed early and rapidly, and user feedback is solicited. Based on user comments, the system is modified and refined repeatedly. Ultimately, the system will be refined to the point where the users accept it and it can be put into production. Prototyping does provide rapid delivery of a system to the users, and user involvement in determining refinements helps assure a good fit with business needs. The haste to get "something" to the users quickly, however, may lead to poor initial specification of the prototype. Subsequently, substantial revisions may be needed to correct for inadequate initial analysis.
What are the different types of visibility? How would they be denoted on a class diagram?
Public (+) - not hidden from any other class Protected (#) - hidden from all other classes except its immediate sublcasses Private (-) - hidden from all other classes
Bob is selecting a systems analysis and design methodology. What might be the first step?
Researching the organizations standards and policies for 'approved' methodologies
Describe a risky project in terms of technical feasibility. Describe a project that would NOT be considered risky.
Risky: - large project - uses unfamiliar tech - hard to integrate with current tech Not Risky: - small project - uses familiar tech - easy to integrate with current tech
What is the difference between tangible value and intangible value? Give examples of each.
Tangible value - can be easily measured and quantified Intangible value - cannot be easily measured or quantified
What is the difference between intangible value and tangible value? Give three examples of each.
Tangible value represents the system benefits that are quantifiable and measurable. Intangible value represents benefits that are real, but are difficult to quantify and measure. Examples of tangible benefits might be increased sales, reduced operating costs, and reduced interest costs. Examples of intangible value might include increased customer satisfaction, improved decision making, improved problem recognition.
Describe three technical skills and three interpersonal skills that are very important to have on any project.
Technical Skills: - Programming - Understanding of technology at hand - Internet/networking Interpersonal Skills: - Verbal and written communication - Team management - Leadership
Describe the three dimensions of feasibility analysis.
Technical feasibility looks at the capability of the organization to successfully develop the proposed system. Included in this assessment are the project size, the types of technologies to be used in the project, and the amount of prior experience with that technology and the business application. Economic feasibility addresses the economic justification of the project. Here, we attempt to determine if the value of the project's benefits justifies investing in the project's estimated costs. Organizational feasibility evaluates whether the system is likely to be accepted and used by the organization. Included in this assessment will be the strength of the sponsor's and management's support for the project and the enthusiasm or resistance of the users for the project.
The V-model pays more explicit attention to ___________:
Testing
Explain the relationship between a DFD level 0 diagram and a DFD level 1 diagram(s).
The DFD level 0 diagram depicts only the major high-level processes in the system. Each process is then decomposed into a more detailed DFD level 1 diagram. Typically a set of DFD diagrams for a system will include at least one DFD level 1 diagram for each process shown on the context level diagram.
A team of developers and customers are in close communication, with frequent communications, simplicity, feedback and courage. This would best describe:
The Extreme Programming methodology
The main difference between the Parallel Development Methodology and the Iterative Development Methodology is that:
The Parallel Methodology will have sub-projects and the Iterative Methodology will have various releases
What process do we use to estimate systems development based on use cases?
The Unified Process
Describe a strategy for using the various requirements elicitation techniques is a project.
The different requirements elicitation techniques all have strengths and weaknesses, and the astute analyst will use a combination of techniques in any project. The analyst should select the techniques based on the type of requirements being sought, the breadth and depth of information needed, the degree to information needs to be integrated, the need for user involvement, and the cost of the technique. Interviews and JAD sessions are the most productive information gathering methods; however, these techniques require the most skilled analysts to conduct.
Describe the primary roles involved in JAD sessions. What is the major contribution made by the person(s) fulfilling each role?
The facilitator is responsible for conducting the session. He/she is generally knowledgeable about IS issues, JAD facilitation, and group behavior management. The facilitator is responsible for guiding the group through the planned activities on the JAD agenda. The facilitator must keep the group on track and try to prevent it from digressing in unproductive directions. The facilitator also helps foster communication among the group members and assists them through the analysis techniques that are being used. Finally, the facilitator records the group's ideas on a public display area, organizes the information, and assists the group in working with the information. The scribe merely records information as the session proceeds, perhaps using CASE tools.
How does an essential use case differ from a real use case?
Essential use case - gives only the minimum info needed Real use case- gives more detailed info and a specific set of steps
Decomposed
Every process in the level 0 diagram are split into its own level 1
What is an evolutionary WBS? How does it address the problems associated with a conventional WBS?
Evolutionary WBS - WBs which allows the development of an iterative workplan They address problems of traditional WBS because they: 1. Are standard across all projects 2. Are created in an incremental and iterative manner 3. Enable the comparison of current projects to earlier projects
Describe two special issues that may be important to list on a system request.
Examples of special issues that may be important to include are: environmental factors that should be considered (e.g., new governmental reporting requirements); competitive factors (e.g., IS-enabled systems introduced or anticipated by competitors); externally imposed deadlines that cannot be altered (e.g., completion by the start of the next fiscal year); mandated technologies.
How do you create use cases?
With UML, they are depicted as ovals
Interpersonal skills for a project manager might be important when:
Working with a highly controversial project that may have political implications
What is an iterative workplan?
Workplan where, as each iteration through the development process is completed, additional iterations and tasks are added
Although a Gantt chart provides more detailed information about a project, a PERT/CPM chart offers a rapid overview that graphically displays the timing, duration, and progress of each task.
answer = False
Because of the limited range of input and interaction among participants, few companies believe that a JAD group produces the best definition of a new system.
answer = False
Compared with traditional methods, the entire RAD process is expanded and, as a result, the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much later.
answer = False
Gantt charts are an ideal tool for controlling a complex project because they provide plenty of detailed information.
answer = False
If it will take one person 20 days to perform a particular task, it is true that two people could complete the same task in 10 days or that 10 people could perform the task in two days.
answer = False
In addition to helping to gather and analyze facts, many programs also perform fact-finding for systems analysts.
answer = False
In most systems analysis tasks, time and people are interchangeable.
answer = False
Often, two or more concurrent tasks depend on a single prior task, which is called a successor task.
answer = False
PERT/CPM and Gantt charts are mutually exclusive techniques.
answer = False
The main objective of all RAD approaches is to extend development time and expense by excluding users from every phase of systems development.
answer = False
Using a WBS allows you to manage a project as one large task.
answer = False
Using prior experience to make time and cost estimates works best for large projects.
answer = False
When several tasks can take place at the same time, each is called a sequential task.
answer = False
When tasks must be completed one after another, they are called concurrent tasks.
answer = False
When two or more concurrent tasks depend on a single prior task, each of the concurrent tasks is called a predecessor task.
answer = False
____ is open-source software that is supported by a community of users and developers.
answer = Gantt Project
____ refers to the combination of hardware, software, and services that people use to manage, communicate, and share information.
answer = Information technology
____ are especially important to a systems analyst who must work with people at all organizational levels, balance conflicting needs of users, and communicate effectively.
answer = Interpersonal skills
Gantt Project can open files created with ____.
answer = Microsoft Project
GanttProject can open files created with ____.
answer = Microsoft Project
_____ is a full-featured program that holds the dominant share of the project management software market.
answer = Microsoft Project
____ provides vital protection and maintenance services for system software and hardware, including enterprise computing systems, networks, transaction processing systems, and corporate IT infrastructure
answer = Network administration
____ provides vital protection and maintenance services for system software and hardware, including enterprise computing systems, networks, transaction processing systems, and corporate IT infrastructure.
answer = Network administration
Whereas structured analysis treats processes and data as separate components, ____ combines data and the processes that act on the data into things called objects.
answer = O-O
A(n) ____ chart displays complex task patterns and relationships.
answer = PERT/CPM
Many project managers find ____ charts more helpful for scheduling, monitoring, and controlling projects.
answer = PERT/CPM
Microsoft has developed a method for measuring a system's total costs and benefits, called ____, which is a framework to help IT professionals analyze and optimize IT investments.
answer = REJ
Structured analysis is a traditional systems development technique that uses a series of phases, called the ____, to plan, analyze, design, implement, and support an information system.
answer = SDLC
The Apptivo ____ is free of charge with unlimited duration.
answer = Standard Plan
____ is a typical example of a system requirement for the input category.
answer = Student grades must be entered on machine-scannable forms prepared by the instructor
____ software controls the flow of data, provides data security, and manages network operations.
answer = System
In addition to direct costs, systems developers must identify and document indirect expenses that contribute to the ____.
answer = TCO
____ is a typical example of a system requirement for the output category.
answer = The contact management system must generate a daily reminder list for all sales reps
____ is a typical example of a system requirement for the process category.
answer = The equipment rental system must not execute new rental transactions for customers who have overdue tapes
____ is a typical example of a system requirement for the performance category.
answer = The student records system must produce class lists within five hours after the end of registration
____ is a typical example of a system requirement for the control category.
answer = The system must maintain separate levels of security for users and the system administrator
A project manager, or project leader, usually is a senior systems analyst or an IT department manager if the project is large.
answer = True
Because use cases depict a system through the eyes of a user, common business language can be used to describe the transactions.
answer = True
Each activity within the systems analysis phase has an end product and one or more milestones.
answer = True
Generally, systems analysts review the work of other systems analysts, and programmers review the work of other programmers, as a form of peer review, in structured walk-throughs.
answer = True
IT professionals recognize that successful systems must be user-oriented, and users need to be involved, formally or informally, at every stage of systems development.
answer = True
If any task along the critical path falls behind schedule, the entire project is delayed.
answer = True
If you do not have previous experience to measure a project in a given environment, you could design a prototype or pilot system to gain technical and cost estimating experience.
answer = True
In a PERT/CPM chart, each rectangular box, called a task box, has five sections that contain important information about a task.
answer = True
In any project, large or small, tasks depend on each other and must be performed in a sequence.
answer = True
Project management software can highlight the series of tasks that form the critical path.
answer = True
Project status meetings give project managers an opportunity to seek input and conduct brainstorming sessions.
answer = True
System developers can initiate a formal project as early as the preliminary investigation stage, or later on, as analysis, design, and implementation activities occur.
answer = True
System requirements fall into five general categories: outputs, inputs, processes, performance, and controls.
answer = True
System requirements serve as benchmarks to measure the overall acceptability of a finished system.
answer = True
Tasks that are not on the critical path cannot be ignored.
answer = True
The ____ is a widely used method of visualizing and documenting software systems design.
answer = UML
In a use case diagram, the user becomes a(n) ____, with a specific role that describes how he or she interacts with a system.
answer = actor
The ____ method of developing systems stresses team interaction and reflects a set of community-based values
answer = agile/adaptive
The ____ method of developing systems stresses team interaction and reflects a set of community-based values.
answer = agile/adaptive
The newest development techniques are called ____, which attempt to develop systems incrementally.
answer = agile/adaptive methods
The ____ group typically provides leadership and overall guidance, but the systems themselves are developed by teams consisting of users, managers, and IT staff members.
answer = application development
PERT/CPM is called a(n) ____ technique, because it analyzes a large, complex project as a series of individual tasks.
answer = bottom-up
A ____, or requirements model, describes the information that a system must provide.
answer = business model
In object-oriented analysis, an object is a member of a(n) ____, which is a collection of similar objects.
answer = class
In an interview, ____ limit or restrict the response.
answer = closed-ended questions
When several tasks can start at the same time, each is called a(n) ____ task.
answer = concurrent
A ____ might involve maximums for one or more resources.
answer = constraint
A ____ path includes all tasks that are vital to the project schedule
answer = critical
A ____ path includes all tasks that are vital to the project schedule.
answer = critical
Which of the following are metrics of a successful project ____
answer = delivery of a product that satisfies users
Which of the following are metrics of a successful project ____.
answer = delivery of a product that satisfies users
A _____ cannot be started until one or more other tasks are completed.
answer = dependent task
In a typical company organizational model, top managers ____.
answer = develop long-range plans, called strategic plans, which define the company's overall mission and goals
In a(n) ____, team members prepare to lunge at each other to achieve their objectives.
answer = dodge
Examples of company-wide applications, called ____, include order processing systems, payroll systems, and company communications networks.
answer = enterprise applications
The first step in creating a WBS is to ____.
answer = identify all tasks
The first step in the creation of a PERT/CPM chart is to ____.
answer = identify all the project tasks
A project manager's planning _____.
answer = includes identifying project tasks and estimating completion times and costs
For a project manager, reporting _____.
answer = includes informing management, users, and the project team about the progress of the project
In a(n) ____ structure, which usually is based on interpersonal relationships, some people have more influence or knowledge than appears on an organization chart.
answer = informal
Which of the following is a general category of system requirements?
answer = inputs
A project manager's scheduling function _____.
answer = involves staffing, which includes selecting the project team and assigning specific tasks to team members
Supporters of neutral locations for interviews believe that it ____.
answer = keeps interruptions to a minimum so people can concentrate fully
In object-oriented design, built-in processes called ____ can change an object's properties.
answer = methods
in object-oriented design, built-in processes called ____ can change an object's properties.
answer = methods
In addition to tasks, every project has ____, which are reference points used to monitor progress and manage the project.
answer = milestones
When maintaining schedules, if enough ____ and frequent checkpoints exist, problems will be detected rapidly.
answer = milestones
A event is a recognizable reference point that you can use to ____.
answer = monitor progress
Greater user involvement in the system development process usually results in ____.
answer = more satisfied users
The ____ method of developing systems produces code that is modular and reusable
answer = object-oriented analysis
The ____ method of developing systems produces code that is modular and reusable.
answer = object-oriented analysis
In an interview, ____ encourage spontaneous and unstructured responses.
answer = open-ended questions
Two or more concurrent tasks often depend on a single prior task, which is called a(n) ____ task.
answer = predecessor
A(n) ____ shows the data that flows in and out of system processes
answer = process model
A(n) ____ shows the data that flows in and out of system processes.
answer = process model
Because it focuses on processes that transform data into useful information, structured analysis is called a(n) ____ technique.
answer = process-centered
A risk management plan includes a review of ____.
answer = project scope
RAD relies heavily on ____
answer = prototyping
RAD relies heavily on ____.
answer = prototyping
Business support systems ____
answer = provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company
Business support systems ____.
answer = provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company
In an interview, ____ are questions that ask a person to evaluate something by providing limited answers to specific responses or on a numeric scale.
answer = range-of-response questions
One of the main activities in the systems analysis phase is ____ modeling, which involves fact-finding to describe the current system and identification requirements for the new system.
answer = requirements
For a project manager, monitoring _____.
answer = requires guiding, supervising, and coordinating the project team's workload
A ____ is an event that could affect a project negatively.
answer = risk
The term ____ refers to a system's ability to handle increased business volume and transactions in the future
answer = scalability
To evaluate ____, a systems analyst needs information about projected future volume for all outputs, inputs, and processes.
answer = scalability
A(n) ____ diagram shows the timing of interactions between objects as they occur.
answer = sequence
Agile methods typically use a(n) ____model, which represents a series of iterations based on user feedback.
answer = spiral
In a PERT/CPM chart, each task has which of the following ____.
answer = start day/date
Effective project reporting requires ____.
answer = strong communication skills
The ____ method of developing systems is well-suited to project management tools and techniques
answer = structured analysis
The ____ method of developing systems is well-suited to project management tools and techniques.
answer = structured analysis
When two or more concurrent tasks depend on a single prior task, the concurrent tasks are called ____ tasks.
answer = successor
If an interviewee gives only short or incomplete responses to open-ended questions, a systems analyst should do which of the following ____.
answer = switch to closed-ended questions
The ____ phase of the SDLC includes four main activities: requirements modeling, data and process modeling, object modeling, and consideration of development strategies.
answer = systems analysis
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the purpose of the ____ is to build a logical model of the new system.
answer = systems analysis phase
A(n) ____ investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates, and maintains a company's information systems.
answer = systems analyst
The primary advantage of RAD is that ____.
answer = systems can be developed more quickly with significant cost savings
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the purpose of the ____ is to create a physical model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system
answer = systems design phase
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the purpose of the ____ is to create a physical model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system.
answer = systems design phase
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, during the ____, the new system is constructed.
answer = systems implementation phase
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, the ____ usually begins with a formal request to the IT department, called a systems request, which describes problems or desired changes in an information system or a business process.
answer = systems planning phase
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, during the ____, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system
answer = systems support and security phase
In the model of the SDLC shown in the accompanying figure, during the ____, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system.
answer = systems support and security phase
A ____ is a UML technique that visually represents the interaction between users and an information system.
answer = use case diagram
Project managers always must be aware of the ____ path, so they can monitor the vital tasks and keep the project on track.
answer = vital
Most risk identifications include a brief description of ____.
answer = who would be responsible for responding to a given risk
Although a Gantt chart provides more detailed information about a project, a PERT/CPM chart offers a rapid overview that graphically displays the timing, duration, and progress of each task.
answer =False
The first step in creating a WBS is to ____.
answer =identify all tasks
For a project manager, reporting _____.
answer =includes informing management, users, and the project team about the progress of the project
A event is a recognizable reference point that you can use to ____.
answer =monitor progress
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has been developed.
answer =operational
Project managers always must be aware of the ____ path, so they can monitor the vital tasks and keep the project on track.
answer =vital
A company's mission statement is unrelated to its major goals, shorter-term objectives, and day-to-day business operations.
answer= False
As a project progresses, conditions never change.
answer= False
Data entry controls should be excessive without being effective
answer= False
Economic activity has little influence on corporate information management.
answer= False
Management leadership and information technology are unconnected, and no significant changes have occurred in either area.
answer= False
Most large companies rely on one person to evaluate systems requests instead of a committee.
answer= False
Systems requests seldom are aimed at improving service to customers or users within a company.
answer= False
.Electronic data interchange (EDI) enables ____ inventory systems, which rely on computer-to-computer data exchange to minimize unnecessary inventory.
answer= JIT
Strategic planning starts with a ____ that reflects the firm's vision, purpose, and values.
answer= Mission Statement
____ limitations result when a system that was designed for a specific hardware configuration becomes obsolete when new hardware is introduced.
answer= Performance
During strategic planning, top managers ask a series of questions that is called a ____ analysis because it examines a company's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
answer= SWOT
As users rely more heavily on information systems to perform their jobs, they are likely to request even more IT services and support.
answer= True
Competition drives many information systems decisions.
answer= True
If only one person has the necessary IT skills and experience to evaluate systems requests, that person should consult closely with users and managers throughout the company to ensure that business and operational needs are considered carefully.
answer= True
IT Departments today ____
answer= are more team-oriented
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has been developed.
answer= operational
Systems development typically starts with a ____.
answer= systems request, followed by a preliminary investigation, which includes a feasibility study
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which refers to the practical resources needed to develop, purchase, install, or operate the system
answer= technical
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which refers to the practical resources needed to develop, purchase, install, or operate the system.
answer= technical
When assessing schedule feasibility, a systems analyst must consider the interaction between time and costs.
answer= true
A(n) ____ is an example of an intangible benefit.
answer= user-friendly system that improves employee job satisfaction
Many companies implement ____ systems that integrate all customer-related events and transactions.
answer=CRM
___ components can provide automated response to sales inquiries, Web-based order processing, and online inventory tracking.
answer=Customer relationship management (CRM)
____ components can provide automated response to sales inquiries, Web-based order processing, and online inventory tracking.
answer=Customer relationship management (CRM)
A company's mission statement is unrelated to its major goals, shorter-term objectives, and day-to-day business operations.
answer=False
A strategic plan that stresses technology tends to create an unfavorable climate for IT projects that extends throughout an organization.
answer=False
As a project progresses, conditions never change.
answer=False
Data entry controls should be excessive without being effective.
answer=False
Even if users have difficulty with a new system, it still will produce the expected benefits.
answer=False
Information systems that interact with customers usually receive low priority.
answer=False
Management leadership and information technology are unconnected, and no significant changes have occurred in either area.
answer=False
Most large companies rely on one person to evaluate systems requests instead of a committee
answer=False
Most large companies rely on one person to evaluate systems requests instead of a committee.
answer=False
Electronic data interchange (EDI) enables ____ inventory systems, which rely on computer-to-computer data exchange to minimize unnecessary inventory.
answer=JIT
Strategic planning starts with a ____ that reflects the firm's vision, purpose, and values.
answer=Mission Statement
____ limitations result when a system that was designed for a specific hardware configuration becomes obsolete when new hardware is introduced.
answer=Performance
During strategic planning, top managers ask a series of questions that is called a ____ analysis because it examines a company's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
answer=SWOT
.____ planning is the process of identifying long-term organizational goals, strategies, and resources.
answer=Strategic
____ planning is the process of identifying long-term organizational goals, strategies, and resources.
answer=Strategic
The estimated costs of a proposed system usually are considered the ____, which includes ongoing support and maintenance costs, as well as acquisition costs
answer=TCO
The estimated costs of a proposed system usually are considered the ____, which includes ongoing support and maintenance costs, as well as acquisition costs.
answer=TCO
As users rely more heavily on information systems to perform their jobs, they are likely to request even more IT services and support.
answer=True
Competition drives many information systems decisions.
answer=True
If only one person has the necessary IT skills and experience to evaluate systems requests, that person should consult closely with users and managers throughout the company to ensure that business and operational needs are considered carefully.
answer=True
Internal and external factors affect every business decision that a company makes, and IT systems are no exception.
answer=True
IT Departments today ____
answer=are more team-oriented
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which means that the projected benefits of the proposed system outweigh the estimated costs
answer=economic
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which means that the projected benefits of the proposed system outweigh the estimated costs.
answer=economic
Most large companies rely on one person to evaluate systems requests instead of a committee.
answer=false
A systems request form should ____.
answer=have clear instructions
Hardware-based security controls include ____.
answer=none of the above
When evaluating systems requests, which of the following is an advantage of a systems review committee
answer=one person's bias is less likely to affect the decisions
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has been developed.
answer=operational
A feasibility study includes tests for ____ feasibility, which refers to the practical resources needed to develop, purchase, install, or operate the system.
answer=technical
A(n) ____ is an example of an intangible benefit
answer=user-friendly system that improves employee job satisfaction
A(n) ____ is an example of an intangible benefit.
answer=user-friendly system that improves employee job satisfaction
A(n) ____ is an example of an intangible benefit.
answer=user-friendly system that improves employee job satisfaction .
In a(n) ____, team members prepare to lunge at each other to achieve their objectives.
dodge
Micah is a fairly new project manager. During the planning phase, he estimated that the project would cost $50,000 and take 20 weeks. According to the margin of error guidelines for well-done estimates, that could range from:
$0 and $100,000 ¨C and between 15 and 25 weeks
Create a list of potential risks that could affect the outcome of a project.
- Scope creep - Poor design - Overly optimistic estimates
Some companies hire consulting firms to develop the initial project plans and manage the project, but use their own analysts and programmers to develop the system. Why do you think some companies do this?
-A company may not have skilled project managers available on its in-house staff. Project management requires a unique set of skills, and consulting firms may develop project management capabilities because of the many projects undertaken. It may also be useful to have an 'outsider' serving as project manager, since he or she may be better able to assess the project objectively and resist scope creep more effectively than an in-house employee.
What is the difference between a methodology and a work plan?
-A methodology provides a standard, formalized list of steps and deliverables for the SDLC. Work plans include the specific steps, tasks, and deliverables that will be needed for a specific project.
What belongs in the electronic project binder? How is the electronic project binder organized?
-All project deliverables, all internal communication, and all project documentation should be placed in the project binder. -The sections of the project binder should follow the phases of the life cycle, and each deliverable produced during the project should be placed in its appropriate place.
Describe how projects are selected in organizations.
-An organization must first look at the project portfolio to find projects that should be considered. Then, the approval committee will meet to carefully examine the costs, expected benefits, risks, and strategic alignment of each project. Depending on where the company is financially, they will pick a project that best fits their current situation. The chosen project should aim to maximize value to the organization. It should also have a high potential return-on-investment and a positive feasibility analysis.
What are the best ways to motivate a team? What are worst ways?
-Best ways include recognition, achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and the chance to learn new skills. -Worst ways include setting unrealistic deadlines, failing to recognize good effort, accepting low quality output, rewarding all team members monetarily regardless of work quality, failing to include team members in important project decisions, and providing poor working conditions.
Describe three types of standards, and provide examples of each.
-Coding standards define the content and structures that are to be used in programs. Example: On average, every program should include one line of comments for every five lines of code. -Procedural standards define processes that are to be followed by all team members. Example: Record actual task progress in the work plan every Monday morning by 10 AM. -User Interface Design standards create a common understanding of the appearance and functioning of the screens the end users see. Example: Labels will appear in boldface text, left-justified, and followed by a colon.
Describe three technical skills and three interpersonal skills that would be very important to have on any project.
-Desirable technical skills might include programming experience in the chosen programming language, experience in configuring the hardware and communications technology platform correctly, and experience in utilizing the file/database environment effectively. -Desirable interpersonal skills might include interviewing skills, negotiation skills, and conflict resolution skills.
Describe the major elements and issues with waterfall development?
-Each phase is sequential, no overlap between phases. -After first phase, documentation is forwarded to the next phase -Difficult to move backward Disadvantages: -Poor communication mechanism. Can lead to skipping over the requirement documentation. -Expensive implementation program is required if the requirement is missed by user. -If not carefully designed, deadlines are not met on time.
Compare and contrast extreme programming and throwaway prototyping.
-Extreme Programming (XP) is founded on four core values which provide a foundation on which XP developers use to create any system. The four core values are Communication, Simplicity, Feedback and Courage. -Throwaway prototyping-based methodologies balance the benefits of well thought out analysis and design phases with the advantages of using prototypes to refine key issues before a system is built. Each of these issues is examined by analyzing, designing, and building a design prototype.
What is timeboxing , and why is it used?
-In essence, timeboxing is a constraint used by teams to help focus on value. One important timebox that Agile promotes is the project itself. Contrary to Agile mythology, Agile teams prefer to have a timeboxed project since it offers a fixed schedule and a fixed team size.
Name two ways to identify the tasks that need to be accomplished over the course of a project.
-One way to identify tasks is to follow a top-down approach, defining high level tasks first, and then breaking those tasks down into subtasks. -A second way is to follow a methodology, which will provide a standard list of tasks for the SDLC. This standard task list can be modified as needed for the specific project.
Describe the major elements and issues with system prototyping.
-Planning, Analysis, Design is executed concurrently and results are delivered to the user. -Once developed, user feedback is needed. -Based on feedback, phases are reanalyzed, redesigned, and re-implemented with added features for 2nd prototype -This is repeated until it meets the user requirements. Disadvantages: -Does not have a careful, methodical analysis in advanced to make correct design and implementation decisions. -Inadequate understanding of the system requirement because of the limited fundamental design.
Describe how project portfolio management is used by IT departments.
-Portfolio management helps an organization achieve its strategic goals by: -providing needed resources -selecting the right projects -prioritizing work to be done . -Portfolio management balances conflicting demands between programs and projects, allocates resources based on organizational priorities and capacity, and manages so as to achieve the benefits identified.
Describe the major elements and issues with iterative development?
-Project is divided into a number of versions which are then sequentially performed. -Mini Waterfall Development for each Sequence. -The first version is implemented and its results are used as feedback to the next version in the process. Disadvantages: -Repetition of work until the desired versions are completed -User has to work with systems that are incomplete.
What is scope creep, and how can it be managed?
-Refers to the addition of new requirements to the project after the initial project scope was defined and "frozen." -Can be managed by doing the best possible job in determining the project requirements at the outset.
Describe the major elements and issues with throwaway prototyping.
-Requirements of the information are gathered from the user analysis phase. -Technical issues, such as requirements, may not be understood. -Uses design prototype to solve user suggested issues before the application is built. -Design prototype is a model of the system, and its not a working system -Enters into the design and implementation phase after resolving the issues -Design prototype is thrown away after it enters into design and implementation. Disadvantages: -It takes longer time to complete the system -Focuses on development of the alternatives for the design of system so less focus on the development of actual system.
Describe the factors that the project manager must evaluate when a project falls behind schedule.
-The first is having a process to uncover issues, determine their impact on the project, examine alternatives, and bring in people to make the best decision under the circumstances. This is all part of the project management procedures that should be defined and agreed to ahead of time. These procedures ensure that issues are recognized and resolved as quickly as possible. -One important thing that all project managers discover is that having a process to resolve issues doesn't mean you'll successfully resolve every one. Sometimes, there are great alternatives to issues and your job is to help discover the best one. In other instances, there is no good resolution to a major problem. On occasion, your final choice is to pick the solution that causes the least harm or is the best among poor choices. Still, your issues resolution process and your problem-solving techniques will allow you to determine what options are available so that you at least understand the repercussions.
What is an association class?
A class that is formed when a relationship itself has associated properties
Why do many projects end up having unreasonable deadlines? How should a project manager react to unreasonable demands.
-The project manager may make assumptions that the specific project will be safe from scheduling problems because they have carefully estimated and planned the project up front. However, the most common cause of scheduling issues results from something called "scope creep". This refers to uncontrolled changes or continuous growth in a project's timeline. A deadline that may have seemed reasonable in the planning process may end up being unreasonable because of this factor. -If a client has come to a project manager with an unreasonable deadline, he/she must develop accurate and realistic time estimates for the project, and use these to convince the client that his/her timelines can't be achieved in their requested time deadline.
What are the trade-offs that project managers must manage?
-The project manager must trade off system size, development time, and project cost.
Describe the differences between a technical lead and a functional lead? How are they similar?
-The technical lead is typically a project team member who supervises the programmers and more technically-oriented project staff. The functional lead is a team member who oversees the systems and business analysts on the team. -Both positions report to the project manager, and are responsible for managing, controlling, and coordinating the work of their assigned team members.
Create a list of potential risks that could affect the outcome of a project.
-There are several things that can cause risk including: -weak personnel -scope creep -poor design -overly optimistic estimates
What is the difference between upper CASE and lower CASE?
-Upper CASE refers to diagramming and other tools that are commonly used during the Analysis phase of the SDLC -Lower CASE refers to diagramming and prototyping tools and code generators that are used primarily to support the Design phase of the SDLC.
Describe the major elements and issues with agile development.
-Used to streamline the software development life cycle -Used for face-to-face communication -Involves the simple and iterative application development in which every iteration includes planning, requirement analysis, testing, coding, design, and documentation Disadvantages: -Complex nature and technologies are not so reliable -Schedule visibility is not up to mark. -It is dependent on the cohesive, stable experience of the team -Works well with small projects but the success gets reduced in large projects.
Describe the major elements and issues with parallel development.
-Variant of waterfall (several waterfalls at once) -Reduces time and effort. -Sub projects are integrated once complete. Disadvantages: -If subprojects are not independent, changes in one may affect another. -Combining a sub-project is challenging.
Describe the major elements and issues with the V-model.
-Variant of waterfall - development after waterfall approach each phase is completed before the next is begun. -Focuses a lot more on testing - as requirements are specified and components are designed, testing for those elements is also defined Disadvantages: -Suffers from the rigidity of the waterfall development process -Not a good choice for a project that is dynamic in nature
Give three examples of derived attributes that may exist on a class diagram. How would they be denoted on the class diagram?
1. Age... /age 2. Total... /total 3. Quantity... /quantity
Name two ways to identify the tasks that need to be accomplished over the course of the project.
1. Conventional WBS 2. Evolutionary WBS
What are the trade-offs that project managers must manage?
1. Functionality of the system 2. Time to complete the project 3. Cost of the project
What are the steps for assessing economic feasibility? Describe each step.
1. Identifying costs and benefits - List tangible costs and benefits 2. Assessing values to costs and benefits - Assign dollar values to costs and benefits 3. Determining cash flow - Project costs and benefits over a period of time (3-5 years) 4. Determining Net Present Value (NPV) - Calculate future costs, measured in today's standards 5. Determining Return on Investment (ROI) - Calculate how much money the organization will receive 6. Determining the break-even point - Find the first year where benefits outweigh costs 7. Graphing the break-even point - Plot yearly costs/benefits on a line graph
What are the different types of control nodes?
1. Initial 2. Final-activity 3. Final-flow 4. Decision 5. Merge 6. Fork 7. Join
Outline suggestions to make observation a useful, reliable information gathering technique.
1. Keep a low profile 2. Do not interrupt employees at work 3. Do not influence those being observed 4. Keep in mind that what you observe may not be normal day-to-day behavior 5. Gather clues from working environment
List three techniques to reduce conflict.
1. Make team aware of organizational importance of their project 2. Clearly define plans for the project 3. Develop a schedule ahead of time
What are the major elements of an overview use case?
1. Name 2. ID number 3. Primary actor 4. Type 5. Description 6. Relationships
How do you create use-case diagrams?
1. Place and draw use cases 2. Place and draw actors 3. Draw subject boundary 4. Add associations
What are the different roles played during a walkthrough? What are their purposes?
1. Presenter - represents the walkthrough team 2. Scribe - takes minutes during the walkthrough 3. Maintenance oracle - raises issues regarding maintenance 4. Person who called/set up the walkthrough
Discuss three stakeholders that would be relevant for most projects.
1. Project Champion - high-level executive, non-IS. Usually the project sponsor. 2. System User - someone who will use the system once it has been installed 3. Organization management - management who supports the project
Give three examples of business needs for a system.
1. Support a new marketing campaign 2. Reach out to a new market sector 3. Improve supplier interactions
Describe two special issues that may be important to list on a system request.
1. System needed by January 2015 2. Top-level security clearance required by team
Describe the three techniques for feasibility analysis.
1. Technical Feasibility - asks "can we build it?" from a technical standpoint 2. Economic Feasibility - asks "should we build it?" from a monetary standpoint 3. Organizational Feasibility - asks "if we build it, will they come?" meaning, will a business need be addressed
What are the problems associated with conventional WBSs?
1. Too focused on the DESIGN of the info system being developed 2. Too many levels or too few levels of detail in early development 3. Difficult to compare across projects (since they are project-specific)
System prototyping is BEST characterized as:
A 'quick and dirty' system
Explain the relationship between a DFD context diagram and the DFD level 0 diagram.
A context level diagram is a high-level view of the entire system represented as one process symbol. Data flows going into and out of the system and the external entities that interact with the system are the only other element of the system shown on this type of diagram. A level 0 diagram is the first view of the internal processes of the business system. These processes are shown from fairly high level, with subsequent diagrams depicting increasing levels of detail. The level 0 diagram shows the same data flows and entities as the context, as well as data stores associated with the system.
Define what is meant by a data flow in a process model. How should the data flow be named? What information about a data flow should be stored in the CASE repository?
A data flow represents a single piece of data or a set of logically-related data items that move to or from processes. A data flow should be named using a noun; information regarding a data flow to be stored in the CASE repository includes: • Label (name) • Type (flow) • Description • Alias • Composition (description of data elements) • Notes
Define what is meant by a data store in a process model. How should the data store be named? What information about a data store should be stored in the CASE repository?
A data store represents a set of data that is stored together - the data store holds the data. A data store should be named using a noun; information regarding a data store to be stored in the CASE repository includes: • Label (name) • Type (store) • Description • Alias • Composition (description of data elements) • Notes
Explain what is meant by a functional requirement. What are two types of functional requirements? Give two examples of each.
A functional requirement relates directly to a process the system has to perform (process-oriented) or information it needs to contain (information-oriented). Student examples will vary.
Balancing
A key principle in creating DFD sets - ensuring that all information presented in a DFD at one level is accurately represented in the next-level DFD
What is the value of producing a requirements definition and having the project sponsor and key users review and approve it?
A requirements definition effectively describes the scope of the project. Project sponsors and key users need to review the requirements definition to ensure that it encompasses the key features of the new system. At this point, any discrepancies and misunderstandings can be addressed.
What is meant by a DFD semantic error? Provide an example.
A semantics error is an error of meaning in the data flow diagram, in which the model does not accurately represent the business process being modeled. One example of a semantic error is one in which the data inputs to a process do not correspond to the type of information in the output data flow (see following DFD excerpt).
Parallel methodology is BEST characterized as:
A series of versions
What is the distinction between a temporal trigger and an external trigger? Give two examples for each.
A temporal trigger is based upon the passage of time. Examples are time to pay a bill; library book is due. External triggers are things outside the system to which the system must respond. Examples are a customer placing an order; customer payment is received.
How do use cases relate to the requirements stated in the requirements determination?
A use case describes in more detail the key elements of the requirements definition. Use cases will provide more detail on the processes by which the system is to meet those requirements and the data the system needs to capture and store.
What is a use-case point? For what is it used?
A way of estimating the time required to build a system, using use cases
____ software controls the flow of data, provides data security, and manages network operations.
ANSWER = System
A(n) ____ investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates, and maintains a company's information systems.
ANSWER = systems analyst
Describe aggregation and generalization associations. Give examples of each. How is each type of association depicted on a class diagram?
Aggregation association - used when classes actually comprise other classes. Shown as lines with non-filled diamonds on the end. Generalization association - shows that one class inherits from another class. Shown as lines with non-filled triangles on the end.
Describe the major elements and issues with agile development.
Agile development is a methodology in which the SDLC is streamlined. Much of the modeling and documentation is eliminated and the emphasis is placed on simple, iterative development in which each iteration is a small project on its own, complete with planning, requirements analysis, design, coding, and testing. Agile development is dependent upon a team that is highly motivated, cohesive, stable, and experienced. This type of development works best with small projects. If the project is not small, or the teams do not work well, then the likelihood of success is reduced.
What belongs in the project binder? How is the project binder organized?
All project deliverables, all internal communication, and all project documentation should be placed in the project binder. The sections of the project binder should follow the phases of the life cycle, and each deliverable produced during the project should be placed in its appropriate place
Why would one use a decision tree and/or a decision table in a process description?
Alternate methods of describing a process are a decision tree and a decision table. A decision tree is useful in that it aids in understanding decision logic pertaining to nodes (questions) and branches (answers). A decision table aids in understanding the actions (business policies) that based on a condition or a set of conditions.
Suppose your goal is to create a set of DFDs. How would you begin an interview with a knowledgeable user? How would you begin a JAD session?
Although my goal is to create a set of DFDs, it is best to begin by creating a set of use cases. Therefore, I would begin my interviews or the JAD session by working with the users to identify the major events that are handled by the system and to complete the use cases for those events. After I had a complete and verified set of use cases, then I could work on structuring the information from them into a set of DFDs for the system.
Explain how an expected value can be calculated for a cost or benefit. When would this be done?
An expected value consists of a combining set of possible outcomes along with the associated probability of each outcome. For example, the Production department may estimate possible increases in costs for parts based on economic indicators. They estimate that there is a 40% chance the costs will increase to $300,000, a 25% chance the costs will increase to $400,000 and a 35% chance the costs will increase to $350,000. Overall the expected value of the rise in costs would be estimated to be $342,500 = ($300,000 * .40) + ($400,000 * .25) + ($350,000 * .35). Estimating the expected value of a cost or benefit would be done when assigning costs and benefits when determining economic feasibility.
Define what is meant by an external entity in a process model. How should the external entity be named? What information about an external entity should be stored in the CASE repository?
An external entity is something that is outside the scope of our system, but interacts with it. An external entity may be a person, organization, or another system that supplies information to the system and/or receives information from the system. An external entity should be named using a noun; information regarding an external entity to be stored in the CASE repository includes: • Label (name) • Type (entity) • Description • Alias • Notes
Describe how projects are selected in organizations.
An organization will base the selection of a project on an evaluation not only of the project's costs and expected benefits, but also the technical and organizational risks that have been identified for the project. Both the systems request and feasibility analysis can provide that type of information.
____ enable a systems analyst to identify a problem, evaluate the key elements, and develop a useful solution.
Analytical skills
Layout
Arrangement of processes, data flows, data stores, and external entities within a DFD
Contrast the following sets of terms: attribute, superclass, subclass, concrete class, abstract class
Attribute - piece of information that is relevant to describing a class Superclass - class containing basic attributes and operations to be used in several sublcasses Subclass - class that inherits the attributes and operations of its superclass Concrete class - class used to create objects Abstract class - class that does not actually exist in the system (just useful abstractions)
Describe the four steps of business process management. Why do companies adopt BPM as a management strategy?
BPM is a methodology used by organizations to continuously improve end-to-end business processes. It follows a cycle of systematically creating, assessing, and altering said processes. The four steps of BPM are: Step 1: defining and mapping the steps in a business process, Step 2: creating ways to improve on steps in the process that add value, Step 3: finding ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process that don't add value, and Step 4: creating or adjusting electronic workflows to match the improved process maps. By studying and improving their underlying business processes, organizations can achieve several important benefits, including: enhanced process agility, improved process alignment, and increased process efficiencies.
Explain the process of balancing a set of DFDs.
Balancing involves assuring that all the information from a higher-level diagram is appropriately represented on the next level, or 'child' diagram. The child diagram shows more detail, but must show all the inflows and outflows to and from the parent process on the higher level diagram.
How can informal benchmarking contribute to requirements determination?
Benchmarking in general refers to studying how other organizations perform a business process in order to learn how your organization can do something better. Informal benchmarking consists of managers and analysts observing other organizations by taking a customer perspective with the business processes. Informal benchmarking is quite effective with web-based processes as requirements determination based on any of the three requirements (business, user, or functional) can be ascertained in part.
What are the best ways to motivate a team? What are the worst ways?
Best: - "20% time rule" - employees should spend 20% of time on an idea they believe in - Small awards given peer to peer (rather than manager to employee) - The team should be referred to as "we," not "they" - Open door policy Worst: - Monetary awards or bonuses
Compare and contrast the Gantt chart with the network diagram.
Both are graphical depictions of work breakdown structures. Gantt charts are bar charts, and network diagrams are flowcharts
Is the primary purpose of requirements determination to discover facts or to discover opinions? Explain your answer.
Both are valuable. An opinion is a statement about an issue or situation that may or may not be supported by fact. If it is stated "Most of our collections are on-time," this is an opinion that can be confirmed or denied by doing an actual measurement of on-time collections. This information is factual, and may provide the basis for the opinion expressed. Alternatively, the opinion may be a misstatement of actual fact, and may suggest an area where there is misunderstanding of the true situation.
What are the major roles on a project team?
Business analyst - emphasis on the business issues addressed by the system: value of new system; identification of problems and opportunities; revision of business processes and policies. Systems analyst - emphasis on IS issues of the system: how IT can be used to support business processes; design of new business process and IS; and enforcement of IS standards. Infrastructure analyst - technical issues associated with integrating new system components to existing technical infrastructure. Change management analyst - emphasis on facilitating organizational adaptation to new system. Helping to identify and overcome resistance to change and assuring adequate training and documentation of new system. Project manager - ensuring that progress is made on the project; time schedules and budgets are met; supervision of project team; and manage relations with project sponsor and users.
List three techniques to reduce conflict
Clearly define the roles on the project, hold team members accountable for their assigned tasks, develop detailed operating procedures and make sure the team members understand them, have each team member commit to the project charter.
George P. Burdell is coordinating a project. Which would he probably use to avoid conflicts?
Clearly defining plans for the project Develop a project charter Look at other projects and priorities and see how that might impact the project Communicate the business value to the team
Describe three types of standards, and provide examples of each.
Coding standards define the content and structures that are to be used in programs. An example would be that all programs are to be written following structured programming guidelines. Procedural standards define processes that are to be followed by all team members. An example would be required attendance at a weekly team progress meeting, and required honest progress reporting at that meeting. User interface design standards create a common understanding of the appearance and functioning of the screens the end users see. An example would be to create a standard group of icons that are used consistently on all screens.
Data store
Collection of data that is stored in some way (determined later when creating the physical model) Noun Identification number and decription
Extreme programming requires a great deal of discipline and it is recommended for:
Considerable onsite user involvement
Describe constructor, query, and update operations.
Constructor - creates a new instance of a class Query - makes information about an object's state available Update - changes the value of an object's attribute(s)
What is the difference between a control flow and an object flow?
Control flow - models the paths of execution Object flow - models the paths of objects
Iteration
Cornerstone of good DFD design
What is CRUD?
Create, Read, Update, Delete
Extreme programming emphasizes:
Customer satisfaction teamwork Communication as a core value Simplicity as a core value
Describe three technical skills and three interpersonal skills that would be very important to have on any project.
Desirable technical skills might include programming experience in the chosen programming language, experience in configuring the hardware and communications technology platform correctly, and experience in utilizing the file/database environment effectively. Desirable interpersonal skills might include interviewing skills, negotiation skills, and conflict resolution skills.
How does a detail use case differ from an overview use case?
Detail use case - documents all the information needed for the use case Overview use case - gives a high-level overview of use case requirements
Level 0 diagram or level 0 DFD
Diagram that shows all the major processes at the first level of numbering (1 to 3), data stores, external entities, and data flows among them Show all major high-level processes of the system and how they relate to each other and to stored data
Decision trees
Display decision logic (IF statements) as a set of nodes (questions) and branches (answers)
Why is document analysis useful? What insights into the organization can it provide?
Document analysis focuses on existing documentation of the current system, forms and reports that are a part of the current system, plus any personal forms, reports, or files that have been developed informally by the end users. By studying this material the analysts can gain insight into the existing system, how it is used, and possibly also aspects of the system that are not being used.
Describe three types of standards and provide examples of each.
Documentation standards: - Date and project name should be in header on all documents Coding standards: - Proper indentation should be used (code should look "clean") Procedural standards: - Hold meeting at same time every Friday
Compare and contrast duration analysis and activity-based costing. What role do these activities play as analysis strategies?
Duration analysis requires a detailed examination of the amount of time it takes to perform each process in the as-is system, while activity-based analysis examines the cost of each major process or step in the as-is system. Recalling the triangle with the corners of functionality, time, and money, one can draw a conclusion that utilizing these two analysis tools is beneficial to the strategies employed.
Distinguish between business, user, and functional requirements.
During a systems development project, requirements will be created that describe what the business needs, these are referred to as business requirements. Requirements that are created that describe what the user needs are called user requirements, and those requirements that describe what the software should do are functional requirements.
Syntax error
Error in the structure of the DFDs and whether the DFDs follow the rules of the DFD language Like grammatical errors
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: unclear requirements; very familiar technologies; not all that complex; reasonably reliable; a short time schedule and the schedule visibility is somewhat important?
Extreme Programming
Compare and contrast extreme programming and throwaway prototyping.
Extreme programming uses continuous testing, simple coding performed by pairs of developers, and close interactions with end users. System functionality grows over time iteratively after a very superficial planning phase. Code is thoroughly tested as it is added to the system. By practicing discipline and keeping the development team small and focused, extreme programming can create good results very quickly. Throwaway prototyping focuses more on experimentation during the design phase. The prototypes are intended to clarify technical issues before the 'real' system is built. The prototypes will be discarded and do not become the final system.
A(n) ____ is a top-down representation of a function or a process.
FDD
Using a(n) ____, an analyst can show business functions and break them down into lower-level functions and processes.
FDD
What does "gradual refinement" mean in the context of SDLC?
Generally, the clarity of understanding and the depth of detail of the new system are gradually refined during the phases of the SDLC. Initially, the requirements are only vaguely understood. This understanding is improved during the Analysis phase. Further detail is developed during Design, and then is fully expressed during Implementation.
Process model
Graphical way of representing how a business system should operate Illustrates the process or activities that are performed and how data move among them Can be used to document the current system or the new system, whether computerized or not
What are the key factors in selecting a methodology?
How well are user requirements understood? How familiar are the systems developers with the technology being employed? How complex is the system? How essential is system reliability? How demanding is the time frame/project schedule? How visible is the project schedule? (see FIGURE 2-9)
Describe the hurricane model.
Hurricane model - way of estimating cost, time, and function of an IS using forecasts
Kumar is the project manager for a revised transaction processing system. Which of the following most likely would be considered in developing a work plan?
Identifying tasks that need to be completed Estimating the time that will be needed on tasks Creating a dependency chart Key milestones that need to be met
Should a use case be prepared for every item on the event-response list? Why or why not?
Initially, every event on the event-list should be translated into a use case. This results in a tentative set of use cases. Use case development can be viewed as an iterative process, and further analysis may allow the developer to discard or add use cases to the set.
____ are especially important to a systems analyst who must work with people at all organizational levels, balance conflicting needs of users, and communicate effectively.
Interpersonal skills
Why is business process modeling important?
It describes the activities that make up a business process
What role does iteration play in developing use cases?
It is best to develop the major use cases and their basic information first so that no major events are forgotten. Then, the inputs and outputs are added and the detailed steps are outlined. As the inputs and outputs associated with each step are identified, more details may be identified. It is not practical to try and get every detail right the first time through the use case, so we cycle through the steps iteratively until the use case is complete.
Some companies hire consulting firms to develop the initial project plans and manage the project, but use their own analysts and programmers to develop the system. Why do you think some companies do this?
It is possible that a company does not have skilled project managers available on its in-house staff. Project management requires a unique set of skills, and consulting firms may develop project management capabilities because of the many projects undertaken. It may also be useful to have an 'outsider' serving as project manager, since he or she may be better able to assess the project objectively and resist scope creep more effectively than an in-house employee.
What is the purpose of a fork node?
It splits the behavior of a business process into multiple flows
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: somewhat unclear requirements; somewhat unfamiliar technologies; that is complex; reasonably reliable; a short time schedule and high schedule visibility?
Iterative
Which of the following might result in version 1; version 2 (etc.) of a system?
Iterative Development
Rapid Application Development is a collection of methodologies that include:
Iterative Development System Prototyping Throwaway Prototyping
Describe the major elements and issues with iterative development
Iterative development is characterized by multiple versions of the overall project. The initial version contains the most important and fundamental requirements. This version can be accomplished with a mini-waterfall process. Once the version is complete, feedback is solicited as to the appropriateness of the system. The project then goes into the next version of the project, incorporating feedback that was received. The benefit to this is that an abbreviated version is quickly available for review. The disadvantage to iterative development is that the early versions are abbreviated. Customers must understand that each version will have additional functionality until the final version is delivered.
What are the key elements of a system proposal?
Key elements of a System Proposal include: detailed requirements definition, use cases, process models, data models, a revised feasibility analysis and a work plan.
Suppose a process on a DFD is numbered 4.3.2. What level diagram contains this process? What is the process's parent process?
Level 2 diagram contains the process numbered 4.3.2 Parent process is 4.3
Semantic error
Meaning of the DFDs and whether they accurately describe the business process being modeled
Discuss several ways to verify the correctness of a process model.
Model correctness can be verified by having the users validate it in a walkthrough, or through role-playing. Analysts should also check that the decomposition of diagrams goes to the same level of detail (not necessarily the same number of levels). Analysts should also check for consistency in terminology throughout the model.
Logical process model
Model that describes processes, without suggesting how they are conducted
Which is a true statement about IT projects?
Most IS departments face a demand for IT projects that far exceeds their ability to do them.
Why is a process model typically composed of a set of DFDs? What is meant by decomposition of a business process?
Most business processes are too complex to depict using one diagram. Consequently, business processes are typically depicted with a set of DFDs, with the first diagram (Context Level) showing a summary of the system, and subsequent DFDs showing processes within that system. Decomposition is a method for breaking down a business process into smaller, logical processes.
Describe the multiplicity of a relationship between two classes.
Multiplicity refers to how an instance of an object can be associated with other instances
How are mutually exclusive data flows (i.e., alternative routes thorough a process) depicted in DFDs?
Mutually exclusive data flows (alternatives) are all shown on the data flow diagram. Nothing is shown on the diagram to indicate these are alternatives. The information in the written process description will document the fact that the data flows are mutually exclusive.
Explain net present value and return on investment for a cost-benefit analysis.
NPV - The present value of FUTURE benefit minus the present value of FUTURE costs. ROI - The amount of revenue that results from the investment.
"Interviews should always be conducted as structured interviews." Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
No one interview type will be appropriate for every interview and each type of interview has a purpose. Structured interviews are interviews that are planned to gather very specific, detailed information. These interviews use more closed-ended questions that zero in on specific information and facts. These interviews will be conducted later in the information gathering process, when the analyst has learned enough about the business process in order to formulate more specific, detailed questions. Unstructured interviews are interviews that are planned to include broad, far-ranging questions. Often open-ended questions are used to gather information. These interviews are most likely to be used early in the information gathering process, when few details are known, and the analyst is trying to understand the basic business process and the As-Is system.
List two intangible benefits. Describe how these benefits can be quantified.
One example of an intangible benefit is reduced response time to address customer requests. Estimating the increase in the number of customers that could be served and the average revenue gained per customer could approximate the value of this benefit. So, if we currently have 1000 customers, the average revenue per customer is $100, and by reducing our response time we can increase the number of customers served by 30%, then our benefit will be $30,000 (300 add'l customers @ $100). A second example of an intangible benefit is improved customer satisfaction. Determining how much repeat business we lose from dissatisfied customers could approximate the value of this benefit. The amount of repeat business lost could be determined through customer satisfaction surveys or marketing research. Assume we currently have 1000 customers, each customer brings in average revenue of $100, and we currently lose the repeat business of 10% of our customers due to dissatisfaction. If an improvement in customer satisfaction resulted in losing only 5% of repeat business, then the value of that benefit would be $5,000 (50 customers retained @$100).
DFD fragment
One part of a DFD that eventually will be combined with other DFD fragments to form a DFD diagram Each use case is a fragment
Describe two ways to handle a situation in which there are a large number of use cases.
One possibility for the large number is that the use cases are not defined at the right level of detail. If the use cases are too 'small' we do not need to bother to create a use case, but simply use the information in the requirements definition itself to build the process and data models. If there really are more than eight or nine major use cases, the use cases are grouped together into packages of related use cases. These packages are then treated as the major processes for the top level of the process model with the use cases appearing on lower levels. The packages could also be treated as separate systems and modeled as separate systems.
Name two ways to identify the tasks that need to be accomplished over the course of a project.
One way to identify tasks is to follow a top-down approach, defining high level tasks first, and then breaking those tasks down into subtasks. A second way is to follow a methodology, which will provide a standard list of tasks for the SDLC. This standard task list can be modified as needed for the specific project.
Which is suggested for IT development projects?
Projects need to be prioritized Projects need to be carefully selected Projects need to be carefully managed Projects need to return value to the business
Compare and contrast outcome analysis, technology analysis, and activity elimination. What general contribution do these strategies play in determining requirements?
Outcome analysis focuses on understanding the fundamental outcomes that provide value to customers. Technology analysis starts by having the analysts and managers develop a list of important and interesting technologies. Activity elimination is just that, the analysts and managers work together to identify how the organization could eliminate each and every activity in the business process. There is common ground among these strategies, as a new technology could eliminate an activity and increase business value to the customer. These strategies focus on users (outcome analysis), functional needs (technology analysis), and what the business needs (activity elimination).
What are some classic planning mistakes?
Overly optimistic schedule Failing to monitor the schedule Failing to update the schedule Omitting key requirements
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: clear requirements; very familiar technologies; not all that complex; reasonably reliable; a short time schedule and the schedule visibility is not important?
Parallel
Describe the major elements and issues with parallel development.
Parallel development modifies the SDLC by altering the design and implementation phases. In parallel development, general design of the entire system is performed; then, the project is divided into sub-projects, each of which is designed in detail and implemented. Work on the sub-projects occurs simultaneously in an effort to reduce the time between analysis and delivery of the system. After all sub-projects are complete, the pieces are integrated into the final delivered system. The total time to deliver the system can be reduced using parallel development as compared to waterfall development. However, there can be significant challenges in integrating the sub-projects since design decisions made in one sub-project may affect other sub-projects if they are not completely independent.
External entity
Person, organization, organization unit, or system that is external to the system, but interacts with it (customer, clearinghouse, government organization, accounting system) Corresponds to the primary actor
Compare and contrast phases, steps, techniques, and deliverables.
Phases are broad groupings of activities performed in the process of developing an information system. Generally, we define four phases: planning, analysis, design, and implementation. Within each phase, the required activities or tasks are outlined as a series of steps that guide the work to be performed. Steps are accomplished by applying the appropriate techniques, or ways to carry out the tasks. Deliverables are the understanding and/or specific materials that are produced that represent the accomplishment of a step.
Physical model
Physical details are defined during the design phase when these logical models are refined Provides information that's needed ultimately to build the system
Viewpoint
Point of view (from dealership or customer) for naming purposes
Describe how project portfolio management is used by IT departments.
Portfolio management is the process of determining the mix of project types that will maximize benefit to the organization, while minimizing risks and costs to the organization. Included in portfolio management is the process by which an organization assesses how potential projects fit into the existing projects currently underway. Ideally, the organizational project portfolio consists of both high and low risk projects, large and small projects, etc.
What is a process model? What is a data flow model? Are the two related? If so, how?
Process models are used to document and organize the information obtained during the analysis phase of a systems development project. Data flow diagramming is a popular technique that is used in process modeling today. Data flow diagrams document the business processes and the data that passes among them.
Parents
Processes in the level 0 diagram 1, 2,
Children
Processes in the level 1 diagram 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
Discuss the reasons why question design for questionnaires is so difficult.
Questions on questionnaires need to be very carefully stated in order to avoid misunderstanding by the recipient. If a question during an interview or a JAD session is misunderstood, the misunderstanding can be immediately detected and the question clarified. A poorly worded question on a questionnaire may confuse the recipient, causing him/her to answer with incorrect information, or may antagonize the recipient, causing him/her to forego completing the questionnaire.
RAD is an acronym for:
Rapid Application Development
What is an object node?
Representation of an object that is connected to a set of object flows
What are the best ways to motivate a team? What are the worst ways?
Research has shown that technically-oriented people are motivated by recognition, achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and the chance to learn new skills. The worst ways to motivate technical staff include setting unrealistic deadlines, failing to recognize good effort, accepting low quality output, rewarding all team members monetarily regardless of work quality, failing to include team members in important project decisions, and providing poor working conditions
Discuss root cause analysis as an analysis strategy. What are the strengths and limitations of this technique?
Root cause analysis focuses on problems first rather than solutions. A list of problems with the current system is generated. The list is prioritized and then rather than look for solutions the analyst generates a list of all possible root causes for the problem. Ultimately the process reveals the true root cause or causes of the problem and the right solution can be designed. Root cause analysis allows the analysts to not jump to conclusions about a solution to a problem without gaining a deep understanding of what the root problem is. A limitation of this strategy is that the organization has to allow sufficient time for the process to work well.
What are project characteristics that will affect the methodology selection decision?
Schedule Visabiltiy User requirements clarity Complexity of the system System Reliability
Which is the most common reason for schedule and cost overruns?
Scope creep
What is scope creep, and how can it be managed?
Scope creep - when new requirements are added to the project after the original project scope was already defined It can be managed with iterative and incremental development
What is scope creep, and how can it be managed?
Scope creep refers to the addition of new requirements to the project after the initial project scope was defined and "frozen." Scope creep can be managed by doing the best possible job in determining the project requirements at the outset. Intensive meetings with users and prototyping are very beneficial in clarifying requirements early in the project. If a requirement is identified after the project begins, the consequences of adding it to the project should be carefully analyzed and presented to the users so that the impact of adding the requirements is understood (i.e., no free lunch). It may be possible to defer a requirement as a future enhancement to the system so that the current project scope is not increased.
Suggestions for motivation might include:
Setting realistic deadlines Recognize and reward good efforts Reward those with outstanding quality and effort Having a good working environment
Level 1 diagram
Shows how processes operate in greater detail 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2
Data flow
Single fact, such as quantity available, or a logical collection of several facts (new chemical request) Sometimes called a data element Noun
What factors are used to determine project size?
Some factors that can be used to determine project size include: the number of people on the project team, the expected time to complete the project, the breadth/scope of the project, the number of distinct features to be included in the system, the degree of integration required between the system and existing systems.
What is stakeholder analysis? Discuss three stakeholders that would be relevant for most projects.
Stakeholder analysis is a systematic process that identifies all parties that will be affected by a new information system, and attempts to estimate the consequences of the project for each stakeholder group. A major goal of stakeholder analysis is to ensure that the consequences of a new system are considered for all parties that will be affected by the system. The most common stakeholders to consider for most systems projects are the system champion, the system users, and the organization's management. The system champion is the person or group who initiates the project and provides support for it. The users are the individuals who will work with the system once it is implemented. The organization management commits resources to the project and has an interest in seeing those resources be used to improve the functioning of the organization.
What is stakeholder analysis?
Stakeholder analysis is an overview of stakeholders - any person, group, or organization who can afffect, or be affected by, the new system
A critical success factor in project management is to:
Start with a realistic assessment of the work that needs to be done
Describe the principal steps in the analysis phase. What are some major deliverables?
Step 1 - Analysis Strategy: based on the nature of the project, the project team will formulate the approach that will be used to develop the requirements for the new system. The strategy usually includes the following steps: Step 2 - Analyze the current system: gather information from the project sponsor and users of the current system regarding its strengths and weaknesses. Use the problems identified to formulate objectives for the new system. Step 3 - Create new system concept: based on the gathered information, develop a general concept of the new system, including functions and capabilities it will have. Step 4 - Modeling activities: express ideas for the new system's processing and data requirements with process models and data models. Step 5: Prepare and present system proposal: assemble the analysis results, system concept, process model and data model into a proposal for the new system. Project sponsor and/or approval committee will determine if system has enough merit to continue development. The primary deliverable for the analysis phase is the system proposal, which combines the information generated during this phase into a document that expresses the initial conceptual design for the new system and the basis for the design decisions.
Describe the principal steps in the implementation phase. What are some major deliverables?
Step 1 - Build the system: programs are written and tested, and various infrastructure components are installed. Testing is conducted to verify system performance. Step 2 - Train the users: develop and conduct training programs so that end users are thoroughly familiar with the new system's functions and work procedures. Step 3 - Convert to the new system: transition from the old system and procedures to the new system and procedures. Step 4 - Support the new system: evaluate the development process for lessons learned from this project, and establish methods for identifying and implementing change to the new system as needed. The primary deliverables for the Implementation phase includes the completed and documented programs, users manuals and procedures manuals, training materials, and plans for system support.
Give an example of a closed-ended question, an open-ended question, and a probing question. When would each type question be used?
Student examples will vary. Closed-ended questions are used when the interviewer is looking for specific, precise information. Open-ended questions are used to gather a broader, rich information set. Open-ended questions can help the interviewer learn why things are the way they are, and also give the interviewee the chance to add ideas or issues that the interviewer did not anticipate. Probing questions are used whenever the interviewer is not satisfied with his/her understanding of the interviewee's answer, and needs more explanation before moving on to another topic.
Describe the principal steps in the design phase. What are some major deliverables?
Step 1 - Design Strategy: based on the nature of the project, the project team will determine the appropriate means of developing the system (in-house custom development, purchase of pre-written software, or outsourcing development to a 3rd party. Following this, the steps below outline the various design tasks that must be performed: Step 2 - Design the system architecture: describe the basic hardware, software, and networking that will be used in the new system. Step 3 - Design the user interface: the overall structure of the system, the user's navigation through the system; the inputs and outputs of the system, and the appearance of the screens are designed. Step 4 - Design the database and/or files: develop specifications for the data storage structures that will be implemented for the new system. Step 5 - Design the programs: develop plans and outlines for each program that will be written to implement the functions and capabilities of the new system. The primary deliverable for the design phase is the system specification, which combines all the design specifications mentioned above. The system specification is the basis for the construction work that will be performed by the programmers.
Describe the principal steps in the planning phase. What are some major deliverables?
Step 1 - Project Initiation: the project sponsor works with the IS department to develop a preliminary assessment of the project's feasibility. It is important to make an initial evaluation of the project's value (is it worth doing; is it technically possible for us; will it be used?). The system request and the results of the feasibility analysis are usually presented to management for approval. If the project is accepted, we move to: Step 2 - Project Management: the project work plan is created, project staffing is determined, and project management controls and procedures are established. These elements comprise the project plan. The deliverables in the planning phase include the feasibility analysis and the project plan.
Identify three typical syntax errors commonly found in DFDs.
Students may list any of the syntax errors found in Figure 5-11.
Why do we outline the major steps performed in the use case?
Steps are outlined in order to determine the sequence of events that must occur to complete the use case. An outline of the sequence of events aids in ensuring that all steps are included.
Agile development is a group of programming-centric methodologies that focus on:
Streamlining the SDLC
Compare and contrast Structured Design methodologies in general to RAD methodologies in general.
Structured Design Methodologies: - Fairly formal, step-by-step approaches - Project moves through phases in systematic way - Emphasis on development of paper-based specifications RAD Methodologies: - Quick creation of limited-capability version or model of system - Focus on refining preliminary system or model, not fully describing it on paper
Explain the use of structured English in process descriptions.
Structured English is one method of describing a process. Typically, short sentences are used to describe the elements or steps in the process
Compare and contrast structured design methodologies in general to rapid application design (RAD) methodologies in general.
Structured design methodologies are usually fairly formal, step-by-step approaches to systems development. The project moves through the phases in a systematic way. The emphasis in most of these methodologies is development of paper-based specifications for the new system prior to implementation. RAD methodologies, on the other hand, tend to emphasize quick creation of a limited-capability version of the system or a model of the system. These methodologies focus on refining this preliminary system or model rather than trying to fully describe it on paper prior to implementation
What are the purposes of the system request and feasibility analysis? How are they used in the project selection process?
System request - describe business reasons for building a system (the value it will provide) Feasibility analysis - help understand the opportunities and limitations associated with a project
What the MAIN difference between systems prototyping and throwaway prototyping?
Systems prototyping works with users to quickly develop a simplified working version of the proposed system; while throwaway prototyping focuses more on exploring design alternatives
Describe the major elements and issues with the V-model.
The V-Model of development follows a waterfall approach in that each phase is completed before the next is begun. The V-Model differs in that during each phase of development not only are requirements specified and components designed, but the testing of those components is also defined. This allows for a well-defined testing plan which can improve the overall quality of the system. As with waterfall development, the V-Model of development is rigid, and may not be a good choice for a project that is dynamic in nature.
What is the purpose of an approval committee? Who is usually on this committee?
The approval committee generally serves as the decision making body regarding investments in information systems projects. This committee generally has a broad organizational representation and therefore can avoid allocating resources that will serve only narrow organizational interests. The approval committee commonly has project oversight responsibilities as well; monitoring project performance after the project has been accepted. The composition of the approval committee will vary from organization to organization, but generally consists of high-level managers from throughout the organization. The committee is often chaired by the CIO.
Describe the elements of the use case's basic information section.
The basic information section includes use case name, number, a brief description, and the trigger for the use case.
What is the break-even point for the project? How is it calculated?
The break-even point is a point in time where benefits outweigh costs. (Yearly NPV - Cumulative NPV) / Yearly NPV
What is the break-even point for the project? How is it calculated?
The break-even point is the point in time when the project has generated enough cash flow to recapture its cost. The year in which the project breaks even is the first year in which the cumulative NPV is a positive number. The exact point during that year at which break even occurs is calculated by: (Yearly NPV (for first positive year) - Cumulative NPV at that year) / Yearly NPV (for the first positive year)
Discuss how the analyst knows how to stop decomposing the process model into more and more levels of detail.
The complexity of an overall system or business process that is being modeled sets the boundary conditions for knowing what is the "ideal" level of decomposition for any specific system or process. Processes are typically decomposed into lower-level DFDs when the additional decomposition helps to explain the complexity of the process; experts suggest that each DFD page have at least three, but not more than seven to nine, processes. A good rule of thumb is to consider a process decomposition complete when the process in question can be explained on one sheet of paper (e.g., structured English, Pseudocode), or with one process description model (decision table/tree)
Describe the five major steps in conducting JAD sessions.
The five major steps to conducting JAD sessions are: • Selecting participants - determine who should be included and why they should be included (what contribution will they make to the project?). • Design the JAD session - plan the activities and techniques that will be incorporated into the JAD session in order to accomplish the session goals. • Prepare for the JAD session - review related material; review JAD plan; inform participants about the process and the contributions they'll be expected to make. • Conduct the JAD session - establish rapport with the participants; define session ground rules; follow session plan and have facilitator conduct various activities and techniques; record information. • Prepare post-JAD report - summarize the session in a post-JAD report.
Discuss the appropriate way to set up and conduct interviews to elicit requirements.
The most commonly used requirement elicitation technique is interviews. People at different levels of the organization will have different viewpoints on the system, so it is important to include both management and staff to gain high-level and low-level perspectives. When the interview process is conducted the first goal is to build rapport with the interviewee so that he or she trusts you and is willing to tell you the whole truth. The interviewer needs to be unbiased and independent seeker of information. The interview should start with an explanation of why the interviewee and interviewer are there and why they were chosen. It is critical that all information be accurately recorded. The best approach is to take careful notes, write down everything the interviewee says, regardless of relevancy. The information may prove to be relevant at a later time, remember, be unbiased. As the interview draws to a close make sure that there is time available for the interviewee to ask questions or provide information that they think is important but perhaps had not been covered in the interview. The five major steps to conducting interviews are: • Selecting interviewees - determine who should be interviewed, why they should be interviewed (what contribution will they make to the project?), and develop a schedule for conducting the interviews. • Design the interview questions - depending on who is being interviewed and the type of information desired, the analyst needs to design the interview session with the appropriate structure and question type. • Prepare for the interview - review related material; review interview plan; review interview questions and plan for any anticipated problem areas; inform interviewee about interview agenda. • Conduct the interview - establish rapport with the interviewee; explain purpose of interview; ask interview questions; record information from interviewee. • Prepare post-interview report - summarize the interview in an interview report.
Discuss problem analysis as an analysis strategy. What are the strengths and limitations of this technique?
The most straightforward (and possibly most used) strategy for analysis is problem analysis. The biggest strength of problem analysis is that the users and managers are personally involved in the process of identifying problems with the as-is system and then to offer suggestions on how to solve the problems for the to-be system. A common limitation of this strategy is that it tends to solve problems rather than capitalize on opportunities. Improvements tend to be small but do increase system efficiencies. On the negative side they seldom increase business value.
Explain the net present value and return on investment for a cost-benefit analysis. Why would these calculations be used?
The net present value (NPV) method compares the present values of the project's cash inflows and outflows. If the present value of the benefits (inflows) is equal to or greater than the present value of the costs (outflows), then the project is considered economically justifiable. NPV has the advantage of including a required rate of return in the calculation, so the NPV figure captures the costs associated with tying up money in the project. NPV also explicitly considers the timing of the cash flows throughout the system life. The return on investment (ROI) method simply compares the total net cash flows from the project with the total outflows in aggregate. While this ROI number gives some sense of how much money the project generates in comparison to its total cost, it omits any consideration of the timing of the cash flows and the time value of money. The ROI method, while simple to compute, is flawed in many ways and should not be used as the only economic indicator of a project's merit.
Which would generally be taken into consideration for project portfolio management in an organization?
The number of large projects The number of tactical projects The number of high risk projects The number of strategic projects
Describe the major phases in the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
The planning phase focuses on determining if there is justification to build an information system and developing a plan to accomplish the development project. The analysis phase is focused on understanding the existing situation and determining the needs and requirements expected from the new system. The design phase refines the system requirements (from analysis) and develops specifications for how the new system will fulfill those requirements. The implementation phase involves constructing (or installing) the new system, testing, converting, training, and providing support for the new system.
Why is it important to state the priority level for a use case?
The priority level of a use case identifies the relative significance of the use case in the overall system. Use cases are classified as high, medium, or low. This classification allows for immediate identification of essential use cases.
What are the trade-offs that project managers must manage?
The project manager must trade off system size, development time, and project cost. A larger project will require more time and money; while a short time frame may require more money or reduced project size. Since most projects have time and/or money constraints, the project manager must strike a balance between size, time, and cost in order to define an achievable project.
Describe the roles of the project sponsor and the approval committee.
The project sponsor is the individual or department responsible for initiating a systems request. Typically during the Planning phase the project sponsor works with the IT department to conduct a feasibility analysis. The approval committee (or steering committee) then evaluates the systems request along with the results of the feasibility study to determine whether or not to approve the request.
What is the purpose of developing use cases during systems analysis?
The purpose of a use case is to illustrate the activities that are performed by the users of the system, and is often thought of as an external or functional view of a business process. Use cases are developed during systems analysis activities to help the analysts better understand the situation and simplify later modeling steps in the analysis phase.
What is the purpose of an event-response list in the process of developing use cases?
The purpose of an event-response list is to provide an intermediate step between the requirements definition and use cases. Building an event-response list allows for a review of the requirements definition and associated actions.
What is the purpose of stating the primary actor for the use case?
The purpose of stating the primary actor is to identify the external entity that initiates the event to which the system responds. The primary actor may be a user, or a system event, or another system.
What is the purpose of the input and outputs section of the use case?
The purpose of the inputs and outputs section is to list all inputs and associated sources, and outputs and associated destinations for the proposed system.
What are the purposes of the system request and the feasibility analysis? How are they used in the project selection process?
The purpose of the system request is to initiate a systems project. The system request pulls together preliminary ideas on the reason for the system and its expected value to the organization. The feasibility analysis represents a more detailed investigation into the proposed system outlined in the system request. The system analyst and the project sponsor work together to more fully develop the objectives of the system and to understand its potential costs and benefits to the organization. The system request and the feasibility analysis are the key inputs used by the approval committee in determining if the proposed system has enough merit to move into the analysis phase.
Describe the differences between a technical lead and a functional lead? How are they similar?
The technical lead is typically a project team member who supervises the programmers and more technically-oriented project staff. The functional lead is a team member who oversees the systems and business analysts on the team. Both positions report to the project manager, and are responsible for managing, controlling, and coordinating the work of their assigned team members.
What is the meaning of analysis? What is the purpose of the analysis phase of the SDLC?
The term analysis can be defined as: breaking a whole into its parts with the intent of understanding the parts' nature, function, and interrelationships. The analysis phase takes the general ideas in the system request and refines them into a detailed understanding of what the new system needs to do.
Compare and contrast BPA, BPI, and BPR. Which is most risky? Which has the greatest potential?
The three techniques applied within BPM for business processes are that of Automation (BPA), Improvement (BPI), and Reengineering (BPR). It is entirely possible that all three of these techniques could be used on the same project depending on the scope and impact the planned change will have on the steps of BPM. As a rule, when technology is applied to a process to enhance agility and provide more ability for change the project would be a BPA. When a process incorporates industry "best practices" or perhaps finds ways to eliminate or consolidate steps in the process it would be termed BPI. The BPR technique changes the fundamental way in which the organization operates. In effect, BPR makes major changes to take advantage of new ideas and new technology. BPR is considered to contain the most amount of risk of the three techniques due to the significant organizational and operational changes that result. The answers can certainly vary with regard to greatest potential. In many cases it will be a "hybrid" blend of all three that could hold the most potential for the organization.
What are the key factors in selecting a methodology?
There are several factors that influence the choice of a methodology: - Clarity of the user requirements - Familiarity with the base technology - System complexity - Need for system reliability - Time pressures & - Need to see progress on the time schedule.
Compare and contrast the role of a systems analyst, business analyst, and infrastructure analyst.
These three roles emphasize different perspectives on the system. The business analyst represents the sponsor/users interests, while the systems analyst knows how to apply IS to support business needs. Together, the systems analyst and the business analyst can design a system that conforms to the IS standards while adding value to the business. The infrastructure analyst has more technical knowledge and provides the team with technical constraints, or identifies infrastructure changes that the new system will require.
What is the purpose of an approval committee?
They review the system request and determine whether to investigate the proposal or not
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: unclear user requirements; unfamiliar technologies; very complex; must be reliable; a short to medium time schedule and the schedule visibility is somewhat important?
Throwaway Prototyping
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: unclear user requirements; unfamiliar technologies; somewhat complex; needs to be reliable; time is not an issue and the schedule visibility is somewhat important?
Throwaway prototyping
Garrett has been told by management that his project MUST be completed on time. His best estimates are more than two weeks after the absolute deadline. Which technique could he use to get a functional system on time?
Timeboxing
What is timeboxing, and why is it used?
Timeboxing - method where meeting a deadline is placed above delivering functionality It is used in situations where the company has little patience with projects that have long development times.
What is timeboxing and why is it used?
Timeboxing is a technique that is used to organize a project when time is a critical issue. With timeboxing, a fixed deadline is established, and the project team prioritizes the functionality of the system so that the essential features are delivered within the set deadline. If some features must be omitted given that time frame, they are postponed to a later version of the system. With this technique, the users are assured of getting a system with essential functionality by the project deadline, and other, less essential features and refinements are added in later system versions.
What are the steps for assessing economic feasibility? Describe each step.
To assess economic feasibility, one should: 1. Identify costs and benefits of the proposed system. List tangible costs and benefits, including one-time and recurring costs. 2. Assign values to the costs and benefits. Work with business users and IT professionals to quantify each of the costs and benefits. Try to estimate intangible costs and benefits as well. 3. Determine the cash flow of the project over the analysis period. Project the costs and benefit annually over the analysis period, usually 3-5 years. 4. Determine the project's net present value. Calculate the present value of each year's costs and benefits, using the appropriate required rate of return for the project. Subtract the cumulative PV of costs from the cumulative PV of benefits to determine the project's net present value. If it is a positive number, the project is considered acceptable. 5. Determine the project's return on investment. Use the ROI formula to calculate the return the organization will get on its investment in the project. ROI = (Total benefits - Total costs) / Total costs. 6. Calculate break-even point. Determine the point in time when the project has generated enough cash flow to recapture its cost. 7. Graph break-even point. Plot the yearly costs and benefits on a line graph. The point of intersection is the break-even point.
Why should the system request be created by a businessperson as opposed to an IS professional?
To ensure that a real business need is being addressed.
What is the purpose of an activity diagram?
To model a business process
Context diagram
Top-level DFD in every business process model, whether a manual system or a computerized system Shows the entire system in context with its environment
The science (or art) of project management is in making ___________ of size, time and cost.
Trade-offs
How can you make a DFD easier to understand? (Think first about how to make one difficult to understand).
Try to ensure that the processes are clearly named and that each process on a diagram is of about the same scale. It is confusing if some processes on a diagram are significantly more complex than others on the same diagram. Try to structure the flow through the processes from top to bottom, left to right, since that is the natural way most people read diagrams.
List two tangible benefits and two operational costs for a system. How would you determine the values that should be assigned to each item?
Two tangible benefits are: an increase in sales and a decrease in uncollectible accounts receivable. The best way to measure these benefits is to go to the business people who understand these areas and ask them for reasonable estimates. The sales and marketing managers and the accounts receivable managers will be in the best position to determine these values. Operational costs are the ongoing costs associated with the new system, and are fairly easy to determine objectively. One common operational cost is that of maintenance agreements for new hardware, which can be determined by contacting hardware vendors about the costs of their maintenance contracts. Another common operations cost is that of new employees that will be needed to run the new system. Salaries and benefits for new employees can be determined by checking local and regional salary and wage surveys for the type of employee needed.
Describe the factors a project manager must evaluate when a project falls behind schedule.
Typically a project falls behind schedule when one of the risk factors listed above are realized. At that point the manger should determine which of those risk factors, or which combination of those risk factors, is responsible for the project falling behind. Once identified, the issue can be addressed.
A system development project may be approached in one of two ways: as a single, monolithic project in which all requirements are considered at once or as a series of smaller projects focusing on smaller sets of requirements. Which approach seems to be more successful? Why do you suppose this is true?
Typically, breaking a large project into smaller manageable projects has a higher rate of success. One reason for this is that it is difficult to determine requirements for a 'monolithic' project, the scope is simply too large to conceptualize. Breaking it down into smaller component projects allows for ease of understanding of functionality and processes.
The ____ is a widely used method of visualizing and documenting software systems design.
UML
Why do many projects end up having unreasonable deadlines? How should a project manager react to unreasonable demands?
Unreasonable deadlines are often the consequence of trying to complete the project to accomplish some business goal rather than being based on a realistic assessment of how long the project will actually take to complete. For example, in the CD Selections case, the project sponsor wants the Internet Order System to be operational in time to sell CDs for holiday shopping. Too often such external factors are used to create target dates for project completion. The project manager must develop accurate and realistic time estimates for the project, and use these to convince the sponsor that his/her timelines can't be achieved. The project manager is setting the project team up to fail if he/she goes along with a time frame that is known to be unachievable. If the time deadline is immovable, then the project manager should employ timeboxing to negotiate a narrowed project scope that will be achievable in the time allotted.
What is the difference between upper CASE and lower CASE?
Upper CASE - Software that supports the analysis phase, generating diagrams Lower CASE - Software that supports the design phase, generating code and databases
What is the difference between upper CASE and lower CASE?
Upper CASE refers to diagramming and other tools that are commonly used during the Analysis phase of the SDLC. Lower CASE refers to diagramming and prototyping tools and code generators that are used primarily to support the Design phase of the SDLC. These two components of CASE products are targeted at different segments of the life cycle.
If the skills required by a project cannot be met by the available project team, which would probably be a reasonable solution for delivering business value?
Use a consultant Use a contract employee Train the project team (or some of the team) on the skills needed Mentor a team member (like sending a person to work on a similar project to acquire the necessary skills)
Creating use cases when working with users is a recent development in system analysis practice. Why is the trend today to employ use cases in user interviews or JAD sessions?
Users may be confused or intimidated by the symbols used in drawing DFDs. Most users can verbalize the content of a use case more easily than they can grasp drawing DFDs. Use cases are easier to start with than DFDs for most users.
Structured English
Uses short sentences to describe the work that a process performs
Why should the system request be created by a businessperson as opposed to an IS professional?
Usually, the system request originates with a businessperson because the need for the system or system improvement is recognized in the business unit. It is unlikely the IS professionals in the organization will be able to recognize all the business needs and opportunities for systems and improvements in the business units since they are not involved directly in those areas. Also, the businessperson will have a much better idea of the value of the proposed system or improvement, and therefore is in a better position to create a meaningful system request.
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: clear requirements; very familiar technologies; not all that complex; must be reliable; a somewhat longer schedule and the schedule visibility is not important?
V-model
What is a walkthrough? How does it relate to verification and validation?
Walkthrough - review of the different models and diagrams used for functional modeling It is used to verify/validate the accuracy and consistency of models
Which of the following methodologies is the historic standard, but is used less today because usually it takes the longest to complete all the SDLC steps?
Waterfall
Which of the following methodologies might be most appropriate if you have a system project with: clear requirements; very familiar technologies; not all that complex; reasonably reliable; a very long time schedule and the schedule visibility is not important?
Waterfall
Describe the major elements and issues with waterfall development.
Waterfall development follows the phases of the life cycle in sequence (planning, analysis, design, and implementation). Each phase is thoroughly documented and approval is required before proceeding to the subsequent phase. It is difficult, though not impossible, to go backwards in the SDLC under waterfall development. Waterfall development requires that the system requirements be precisely specified prior to implementation, and also often "freezes" those requirements during development. The high degree of effort devoted to specifying user requirements is a strength of waterfall development but specifying those requirements on paper is laborious and may lead to errors and omissions. "Freezing" the requirements during development helps assure that the system is developed according to specifications, but in a dynamic business environment, the system that is ultimately developed may bear little resemblance to what is actually needed at the time the project is completed. Therefore, extensive maintenance may be needed after implementation to revise the system to meet current conditions.
Create a list of potential risks that could affect the outcome of a project.
Weak personnel, scope creep, poor design decisions, overly optimistic project estimates.
Which phase in the SDLC is most important?
While each phase is important to the overall systems analysis, special attention must be given to the planning and analysis phase. The planning phase is intended to determine the feasibility of a project and to create a project plan. If the feasibility analysis is poorly done or misunderstood or the project is ill-planned, then the chance of success is extremely low. Similarly, if the analysis phase is shortened or omitted altogether, then the requirements of the system will not be fully defined and may result in either a system that does not address business needs or one that does not get completed due to continuous rework.
Describe the major elements and issues with throwaway prototyping.
While similar to prototyping, throwaway prototyping differs in that the analysis phase is not collapsed, but is developed in full. Once complete, any ambiguous features or challenging design issues may be addressed using a design prototype. A design prototype is created to enable users to understand the issues under consideration. Many design prototypes may be built to minimize the risk associated with the system by confirming that important issues are understood before the actual system is built. Throwaway prototyping can result in a longer time frame to delivery due to the fact that the prototypes are not necessarily used for the final design. However, this methodology creates an opportunity to address and resolve key issues that arise before getting to the development stage.
What are the six general skills all project team members should have?
[1] Technical skills (knowledge of how to employ technology in development system solutions). [2] Business skills (knowledge of how to apply IT to business problems to achieve a valuable solution). [3] Analytical skills (ability to solve complex problems). [4] Interpersonal skills (oral and written communication skills with both technical and non-technical audiences). [5] Management skills (ability to manage others and cope with an uncertain environment). [6] Ethical skills (ability to deal with others honestly and ethically).
What are the three basic steps of the analysis process? Is each step performed in every project? Why or why not?
[1] Understand the as-is system - study the existing system and processes and understand the strengths and weaknesses. [2] Identify improvement opportunities - look for the specific things that need to change. [3] Develop a system concept - create one or more target conceptualizations for the to-be system, including an outline of features and models of its basic design. The first step is sometimes skipped or done in a cursory fashion. This is because there may not be an existing system to study, the existing system may be irrelevant to the new system, or the methodology in use (particularly RAD and Agile Development) does not emphasize the existing system at all.
In a use case diagram, the user becomes a(n) ____, with a specific role that describes how he or she interacts with a system.
actor
The newest development techniques are called ____, which attempt to develop systems incrementally.
agile/adaptive methods
Most risk identifications include a brief description of ____.
anser = who would be responsible for responding to a given risk
Over 40 years ago, a concept called Moore's Law accurately predicted that computer processing power would double about every ____.
answer = 24 months
____ methods include the latest trends in software development.
answer = Agile/Adaptive
____ enable a systems analyst to identify a problem, evaluate the key elements, and develop a useful solution.
answer = Analytical skills
Which of the following is one of the main sectors of e-commerce?
answer = B2C
____ enabled computer-to-computer transfer of data between companies, usually over private telecommunications networks.
answer = EDI
A(n) ____ is a top-down representation of a function or a process.
answer = FDD
Using a(n) ____, an analyst can show business functions and break them down into lower-level functions and processes.
answer = FDD
A company's mission statement is unrelated to its major goals, shorter-term objectives, and day-to-day business operations.
answer = False
Which of the following would BEST describe 'system reliability'?
how correctly and consistently the system must behave (such as medical equipment or for games)
Which of the following would BEST describe 'system complexity'?
how intricate and difficult the system must be
A project manager's planning _____.
includes identifying project tasks and estimating completion times and costs
Greater user involvement in the system development process usually results in ____.
more satisfied users
Because it is linked to a specific development methodology, systems developers use JAD whenever group input and interaction is not desired.
nanswer = False
RAD relies heavily on ____.
prototyping
One of the main activities in the systems analysis phase is ____ modeling, which involves fact-finding to describe the current system and identification requirements for the new system.
requirements
For a project manager, monitoring _____.
requires guiding, supervising, and coordinating the project team's workload
The ____ phase of the SDLC includes four main activities: requirements modeling, data and process modeling, object modeling, and consideration of development strategies.
systems analysis
The primary advantage of RAD is that ____.
systems can be developed more quickly with significant cost savings
A ____ is a UML technique that visually represents the interaction between users and an information system.
use case diagram
Give three examples of business needs for a system.
• To maintain or improve the competitive position. • To perform a business function more efficiently. • To take advantage of a new business opportunity.