Khan academy 300 pg MCAT

Sound--auditory structure (part 2) (come back to this)

focus on cochlea and inner ear

substance-use disorders

drug causes serious degree of impairment of life functioning How do we know who has it? -look at someone's usage -using large amounts, stronger cravings, failing to cut back, -the presence of withdrawal -start feeling sick if not using -can lead to seizure and death

psychoactive drugs

drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory 4 types: Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, opiods

Dreaming

eyes moving rapidly under eyelids, and brain waves look like they are completely awake -REM dreams are memorable -NREM dreams are not Activity in prefrontal cortex is decreased,

Retina

filled w/ photo receptors -light converted from physical waveform to electrochemical impulse the brain can interpret -contains rods and cones and bipolar and ganglion cells

sleep walking/talking

genetic occurs during N3 harmless more often in children (b/c more N3)

bottom-up processing

stimulus influences our perception -inductive reasoning

Hypnosis

induced state of consciousness -hypnosis + medication -does not occur naturally

insomnia

persistent problems in falling or staying asleep -medications can help -treatments like psychological training - lifestyle changes can help (working out)

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism - In Group and Out Group

see above

Fovea

part of macula completely covered in cones

Visual Cues

allows us to perceptually organize by taking into account depth, form, motion, constancy

top-down processing

background knowledge influences our perception -deductive reasoning Ex:wheres waldo

macula

part of retina rich in cones

Upper motor neuron

(come back to this)

types of somatosensation

-Thermoception: temperature -mechanoception: pressure -nociception: pain -proprioception: position

How much is enough sleep?

7-8 hrs for adults 12 hrs for infants 10hrs for pre schoolers (3-5 yrs old) 9hrs for school age child (6-13 yrs old)

Memory

Again most is on cognitive psychology quizlet

posterior chamber of eye

Area behind the cilliary muscle which is filled with aqueous humor

stress management

Coping w/ Stress Perceived Control: many studies show lack of control associated w/ higher stress. -look for areas of life where you can take back control Optimism: decreases stress Social Support: best coping mechanism to stress. allows us to understand we are not alone in stress!

Structure of Nervous System

CNS: brain and Spinal chord -cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brainstem-(medulla, pons, midbrain), and cerebellum PNS: everything else, Cranial (12 pairs) and Spinal nerves (31 pairs)

Multitasking/divided attention

Task similarity: listening to radio while writing a paper -better to listen to classical music b/c harder to multitask w/ similar tasks Task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus -turn of radio at night in unfamiliar town/city to focus Practice: activities well practiced becomes automatic. -whether task is automatic or controlled depends on practice -controlled tasks are difficult once attention is divided in general multitasking is not as efficient as single task.

Encoding

again, in cognitive quizlet but will do things that i didnt' there

Operant Conditioning Shaping

"I want to learn to do a headstand" - emphasize learn. Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior is shaping. target behavior: behavior you wish to accomplish -you do this via training.

Social Perception - The Just World Hypothesis

"You got what you deserve". "you got what was coming to you". The "Just World Hypothesis" - Predictable result as a consequence for our actions. Noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished. -Ex: our college Tom does a noble-act (helps an old lady cross the road. We would expect a predictable appropriate consequence such as a reward. -Ex: Tom performs an evil act, he gets punished. NOT ALWAYS TRUE. -ex: we blame people in poverty for being poor b/c they deserve it. or victims in domestic abuse b/c they deserve it When just world hypothesis is threatened we say the world is not fair. we need to mentally make sense of things to keep just world hypothesis intact. -we use rational or irrational techniques Rational Techniques: 1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system Irrational Techniques: 1.Denial of situation: refuse to accept situation 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. -ex:If a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome(wasn't that bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim(I always thought she was a good human being but I now realize she probably isn't, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.) how do we explain behavior of people -attribution theory: internal vs external causes -JWH overemphasizes internal factors.

Globalization - Trade and Transnational Corporations

(Come back to this)

Endocrine system and influence on behaviour - Part 1 + 2

(come back to this, this is only one 300 pg document)

Kinaesthesia

- movement of the body ( more behavioral) -you can teach yourself how to move properly to complete a task -ex: hitting a baseball

Routes of drug entry

- oral: ingesting something. -slowest route takes about half an hour because it must go through GI tract - inhalaton: breathing, snorting, smoking. -goes straight to brain. more addictive than oral but less than injection - injection: most direct, goes right into vein. -effects within seconds. fastest. can be dangerous due to potential exposure of toxins and bacteria with infected needles - transdermal: drug absorbed through skin like nicotine patch. -released into bloodstream over several hours - intramuscular: needle stuck into muscle. -can happen slowly or quickly. (quick delivery = epipen, slow delivery = vaccines) fastest route of entry

Globalization theories (study this)

-Globalization:the sharing of culture, money and products between countries due to international trade and advancements in transportation and communication. -Not recent - ex. 1st century BCE Silk and Spice Trade Route in East Asia World Systems Theory: - importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. -Core: Western Europe and U.S; Strong Central Gov. -Periphery: Latin America and Africa: relatively weak government -Semi-Periphery: India and Brazil; middle ground Modernization theory: all countries follow similar path of development to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did Dependency theory: Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities. Periphery countries export resources to Core countries, and don't have means to develop Hyperglobalist Perspective seed it as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Don't agree if good or bad. Skeptical Perspective - critical, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits. Transformationalist Perspective - doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being designed. Outcome unknown.

Closer Look at the Stanford Prison Experiment

-Prisoners did not band together usually, pretty distrustful of each other. -And guards didn't encourage solidarity, tended to reward those they saw as good prisoners by giving better foods, etc. By giving privileges to some, broke solidarity of prisoners. -Some prisoners left b/c of emotional trauma, no one just walked out and left even though they could have. Why did guards act so poorly to prisoners? -The guards thought the prisoners were wimps, troublemakers, or faking distress. -Many thought their behavior was not too extreme and placed blame of behavior on prisoners. *None of the guards left the study and some were upset that the study ended early Experiment shows us: -The influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), NOT dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) -It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self). In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. -Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. -Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours Many problems w/ this experiment: -zimbardo played role as warden. by doing so it compromised his objectivity. he was so involved he passively allowed unethical behavior. -Scientific methodology, just overall bad experiment -where are IV, DV, control, small sample size. -if replicated, same result? can't tell b/c can't replicate -good example of demand characteristic. ' -could have been affected by selection bias (told participants they will be in prison for 2 weeks)

Freud's Psychosexual Development

-Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure - the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts. -Fixation was due to concept of libido - a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. -And when libido energy is fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development. -First 5 years of life are crucial in development of personality. Acronym- OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES Stages: Oral stage (0 to 1 yr): gratification obtained by putting objects into mouth, biting and sucking -Orally fixated adult likely exhibits excessive dependency. Anal stage (1-3yrs): libido centered on anus and gratification is gained through elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs. -Fixation leads to excessive orderliness or sloppiness in adults. Phallic or Oedipal Stage (3-5yrs): resolution of oedipal conflict of male and electra conflict for females. -boys see father as obstacle to mothers affection. -if fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism Latency: no libido, lasts until puberty is reached. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. -Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation. Genital: enter healthy heterosexual relationships.

Monocular Cues of Constancy

-Size constancy: one that appears larger b/c its closer; we still think it is the same size -shape constancy: objects have same shape despite receiving different sensory images: ex: opening a door means its shape changes but we still believe its a rectangle -Color constancy: we see objects having consistent color despite changes in lighting. we compare colors despite lighting to others in its vicinity;

Growth vs fixed mindset of intelligence

-Some people have a fixed mindset (intelligence is biologically set and unchanging), -Others have growth mindset (intelligence is changeable if you learn more). -Those with growth mindset accomplish more.

Reward pathway in the brain cont.

-VTA releases dopamine and receptors uptake dopamine - amygdala says this was enjoyable, hippocampus remembers and says let's do it again, and nucleus accumbens says let's take another bite. Prefrontal cortex focuses attention to it. -Dopamine goes up, Serotonin goes down -less likely to be satisfied/content Animal Model: -rat likes food -give rat food w/ substance that makes him sick -rat does not like the food; won't eat it -give addicted rat drug paired w/ substance that makes him sick -rat doesn't care; will still take drug.

Cognitive dissonance theory

-discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting cognition (ideas, believes, values) -these conflicting ideas are alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviors. Ex: Smoker says i smoke and now learns that smoking causes cancer. 4 things we do to reduce that discomfort. -Modify our cognition: smoker now says i really do not smoke that much -Trivialize: smoker might say evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer -Add: adding more cognition. I exercise so much smoking doesn't matter -Deny: smoker says there is no evidence smoking and cancer are linked. *People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions and words. As soon as our cognitions, attitudes and behaviors dont align, we have cognitive dissonance

Sound (audition) auditory structure (part 1)

-for us to hear we need -pressurized sound wave (a stimuli) -hair cell (receptor, located in cochlea) -Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure - known as sound waves - smaller wavelenght= higher frequency - higher wavelenghth= smaller frequency, but travels deeper into cochlea

Path of sound through the ear

1) Outer ear (pinna) 2) Auditory canal (imagine empty cans) 3) Eardrum-tympanic membrane 4) Bones of the middle ear (ear drum causes ossicles to vibrate- malleus,incus, stapes) 5) Oval window (stapes is attached to oval window, oval window vibrates and pushes fluid in cochlea 6) Cochlea: liquid 7) Basilar membrane ( fluid is pushed into here after cochlea,) 8) Hair cells (as cilia move back and forth in cochlea, electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain) 9) Auditory nerve 10) Thalamus 11) Auditory cortex (in the temporal lobe)

Behavioral effects of stress

2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid receptors are the hippocampus and frontal cortex One of major emotional responses of stress is depression (problem is anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors) -anterior cingulate stops responding to serotonin -learned helplessness:- you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life. Other effects: Anger: stress associated to increase vulnerability to heart disease -easily angered people had higher chance of heart disease than easy going people. Anxiety:centers on amygdala. -Amygdala - fears and phobias, fits in perfectly with response to stress. Perceive more things as fearful Addiction: when searching for coping mechanism bad option can lead to addiction (alcohol, nicotine, drugs)

Selective attention

2 types of cues: exogenous/external cues: don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order to capture our attention -driven by bottom up endogenous/internal cues: require internal knowledge to understand the cue and intention to follow it -driven by top down -cocktail effect: ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

3 phases by Hans Selye: 1. Alarm phase: stress kicks in, heart races 2. Resistance: fleeing, huddling, Temp elevated -bathed in cortisol 3. Exhaustion: - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness

Stigma can be studied by concentric circles

4 circles: first: self, 2nd: family: 3rd: society 4th: media Media: (outer circle), major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, etc. Social media is also huge component. -ex:mental illness, HIV/AIDS, Obesity, Substance use Society: - interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, health care, etc. -to stop societal stigma is via legislation and anti discrimination laws Family: family can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themselves Self:-core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society.

Stressors

4 major categories of stressor: Significant life change: death of loved one, marriage, loss of job Catastrophic events: wars, natural disaster Daily hassles: long store lines, losing keys Ambient Stressors: perceivable but hard to control; can negatively impact us w/out us being aware. - ex: pollution, noise

Sleep

4 types: each type oscillates at diff frequencies Beta: (12-30Hz) if awake to long, beta concentration too high; you experience increased stress/anxiety Alpha (8-13Hz): day dreaming, dissapears in drowsiness but reapears in rem sleep Theta (4-7): right after you fall asleep or when sleeping lightly delta (0.5-3Hz): deep sleep or coma

Gustation (come back to this)

5 main tastes (bitter, salty, sweet, sour and umami, ) consists of taste receptor cells in taste buds -taste contained in papillae Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly on the tongue. Taste buds can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back). -each taste bud has all 5 receptor cells -can taste all five tastes anywhere in tongue

Language

90% of people, language is in left hemisphere -2 main areas are broca's area & wernickle's area Aphasia: comunication disorder that causes problems w/ language like speaking, listening, reading and writing -broca's aphasia (non-fluent): when broca is damaged and people have trouble producing speech -wernickle's aphasia (fluent/receptive): difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences; as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense -Global aphasia: when both are damaged * 2 areas are connected by bundle of nerves arcuate fasciculus, also found in deaf people who know sign language. -Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication. **When this is damaged, conduction aphasia - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted.

Feminism Theory

A contemporary approach of looking at world from macroperspective, developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society. It examines women's social roles in education, family, and workforce. It looks beyond common male based perspective to focus on gender inequalities of society Women face discrimination, objectification, oppression (where women are treated unjustly and encouraged to occupy gender based social roles) and stereotyping. Different types of feminist theory: -1.Gender differences: expectations for gender are passed down from generation to generation. Examines how women's position in social situations differ from men - different values with femininity than men. Seen as soft, care, submissive. And different social roles, women stay home while men go to war. Objectified as sexual instruments. -2.Gender inequality: central to all behavior. Women subordination is viewed as inherent feature. Our society is a patriarchy - men are governing body as heads of families and communities. Married women have higher stress levels than married men/unmarried women, and have less influence in public sphere. Men occupy higher paying jobs. -Ex. Ben Barres began his life as women, and after sex change he noticed people thought his research was much better than his sister Barbara's. However, Barbara was the same person. -3. Gender oppression: Women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed and abused. Institution of family is especially beneficial to men. Family was split into 2 types of labor, domestic labor was done by women, while men worked outside home in labor. Without men working, family wouldn't survive. -Created educational and economic gap between men and women. -4. Structural Oppression: women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Direct parallel to conflict theory. Women like working class are exploited because of capital model, but not all women express oppression in same way. Linked to race, class, sexual orientation, age, and disability. Men are associated with mind, while women are associated with body. ***Feminist theory is not an attempt to replace men - different perspective on society to point out inequalities that exist between men and women due to institutions of society. Inequality is a central part of society. -Feminist theory focuses on different expectations, salary differences, gender inequalities that permeate everyday life

relapse

A falling back into an old illness or bad habit -encountering someone you associate w/ drug can make relapse more likely

Components of attitude

A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This concept is categorized into three separate components (ABC) A - Affective (feel/emotion) B - Behavioral (act/behave) C - Cognitive (Thought/Knowledge) Ex1: i love yoga b/c i get to meditate and i believe it helps me relax so i will go to class each week. -i love yoga (Affective) -meditate (behavioral) -believe it helps me relax (cognitive)

Stigma--Social and Self

A stigma is extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person. Typically, a culture (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability), deviant personal traits (drug addiction), or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group (being a "loose" woman in a traditional Latino subculture) Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - comes in 2 forms: 1. social stigma: and 2. self-stigma -Social stigma can be fueled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. Relationship between stigma and these is unclear. -Stigma against mental health is big problem - ex. stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) -Self-stigma is individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may feel rejected by society. -ex: someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression (negative mental health), and display behaviours that isolate themselves from society

Subculture vs. Counterculture

A subculture is culture of a meso-level sub community that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of society. -Smaller than a nation but unlike a microculture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan. -Meso-level = before micro and macro level. Medium sized groups. -Subcommunity = smaller community in larger one. --It's different in some way, but still share some things with larger society. A microculture can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school. Subcultures include ethnic groups like Mexicans or orthodox Jews, or groups like the elite upper class. -Can cause tension with dominant group. When laws of dominant society is violated, a counterculture results. Values differ greatly from larger society. -Ex. Mormons believe in polygamy. Polygamy = more than one spouse, polygyny = more than one wife -Ex. Amish reject mainstream ideas and have their own ideas, reject technology and consumerism.

3 types of Nerve fibers

A-Beta Fibers: fast, thick and covered in myelin -less resistance, high conductance A-Delta Fibers: smaller diameter, less myelin C fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated

group meetings

AA or NA; involve 12 step program for recovery Acceptance, surrender, active involvement in meetings

types of neurotransmitters

Amino acid neurotransmitters: GABA (CNS) + Glycine (PNS) [inhibitory] Peptide neurotransmitters: opiods (endorphin). Perception of pain Monoamine neurotransmitters (biogenetic amines): amino group and aromatic group connected by 2-carbon chain. Cognition/thinking/emotion/attention. Drugs -Subgroup: catecholamine's (benzene w/ 2 hydroxyl groups) Other neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (ANS) + motor neurons.

Attribution Theory Basic Covariation

Attribution theory: how we explain behaviors of others around us -explain behavior of others by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviors to factors about them -Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them -External (situational attribution) - environment *When we look at our own behavior, we put blame on external factors. Covariation Model: 3 cues of Kelley's covariation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people) When consistency is high, attribution is internal. -ex: Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. We put blame on them, not environment. Distinctiveness to situation, attribution is external -ex: Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive Consensus of people, attribution is external -ex: "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior,

classical conditioning use in therapy

Aversive Conditioning: Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. It works great with phobias. If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug). Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira Counterconditioning: Counterconditioning (also called stimulus substitution) is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. -substitute bad behavior w/ good behavior.

Functions of nervous system

Basic functions: motor, sensory, autonomic (reflexes) Higher functions: cognition, emotions, consciousnesses

Theories of Language and Cognition

Behaviorists- empiricist, believe language is just conditioned behavior. Nativists - rationalist, language must be innate. Materialist - look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write. Universalism: thought determines language completely Piaget: once children were able to think a certain way, they developed language to describe those thoughts Vygotsky: language and thought are both independent but converge through development -eventually learn to use them at same time for socialization Linguistic determinism: language has influence on thought -Weak Linguistic determinism (relativism): language influences thought -ex: reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy -Strong linguistic determinism (Sapir Whorfian hypothesis): Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world

Modern waves of studying the brain

Brain Structure: -CAT scan: Acronym: Xray of a CAT. -MRI Brain Function: -EEG - external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. -MEG (aka SQUIDS) - better resolution than EEG, but more rare because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. Can we combine brain structure and function? Yes -fMRI: same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active -active structures required oxygen! -PET: can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. -require swallowing radioactive tracer -Acronym: PETS like glucose

Psychoanalytic theory of personality (cont.)

Central to his theory is libido. Libido is natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. -When this energy is stuck/fixated at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects. -Fixation at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality. -Ex. someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up. Frued believed there were 3 parts of the mind; (imagine an iceberg) -Id: bottom of iceberg; unconscious part of mind that develops after birth and requires immediate gratification. -Ego: part of conscious and unconscious mind. it is involved in our perceptions, thoughts and judgments and seeks long term gratification -Superego: develops at age 4 and is our moral conscious. also part of conscious and unconscious mind. *Freud believed our mind was mostly unconscious (botom of iceberg) w/ little conscious (tip/top of iceberg.) Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified - when over-gratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures - ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict. -id on one shoulder, superego on other shoulder and ego in middle (mediator) -id and superego are in conflict for gratification. -ex:Freudian slip is example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don't give me any bills - meant any pills.

George Herbert Mead: The I and the Me

Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, but differed in how they thought this would happen. -Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity -Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead developed the idea of social behaviorism, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interaction-ism) -infants and children were not influenced by others in any way. They merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them.(egocentric) As we grow up we care about how others perceive us. Happens in 3 stages: -Preparatory stage: interaction through imitation (play with pots and pans when parents are cooking) -Play stage: - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. focused on role taking -Game stage: Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Also realize people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others perceive them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers). Game stage developed the "I" and the "Me" -Me: how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it, the social self, and the "I" is our response to the "me". -I:the response of the individual to the "me" aka attitudes of others *Me = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

5 Theories of Intelligence (come back to this)

Charles Spearman: one general intelligence LL Thurnstone: 7 factors of intelligence Howard Gardner: Robert Sternberg: 3 independent intelligence

Classical Conditioning: Neutral, Conditioned, and Unconditioned Stimuli and Responses

Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning does not involve change in behavior. ex: Guinea pig gets excited about carrot at first, but after time gets excited just at refrigerator door opening. Same with every other time refrigerator door opened. -Carrot is an unconditioned stimulus because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. -Triggers excitement in guinea pig, an unconditioned response. *Unconditioned means it's innate, and not learned. While conditioned means it's a learned behavior. -Right before guinea pig got carrot, heard refrigerator door - a neutral stimuli. Doesn't cause excitement on its own. Conditioning is produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus - pairing the two together. Occurs when neutral stimulus is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus). -Ex. guinea pig was conditioned to refrigerator door. **Refrigerator door becomes the conditioned stimuli, and elicits a conditioned response.

Auditory processing

Cochlea is responsible for differentiating b/w 2 different sounds -base drum has low frequency while bees have high frequency How does cochlea distinguish b/w sounds of varying frequencies? -Brain uses basilar tuning: there are varying hair cells in cochlea -hair cells at base (start) of cochlea = activated by high frequency sound -hair cells at apex (end) of cochlea= activated by low frequency sound

Twin studies

Compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins each raised in same household. -monozygotic=identical twins (share 100% dna) -dizygotic= fraternal twins (share 50% dna) both share 100% same environment -ex: eat same food, same time, same parents Regular siblings do not share 100% same environment -different friends and teachers at school. Ex: what causes schizophrenia -Nature: genetic component -Nurture: environment Goal is to isolate genes and environment -monozygotic vs dizygotic twins holds environment constant *If schizophrenia was caused by genes, expect to see different rates in identical vs. fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins. ** But if environmental, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn't matter if they were identical vs. fraternal. Problems w/ twin studies: identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal.

brainstem

Connects the brain (cerebrum) and spinal cord -including cranial nerves Consists of midbrain, pons (waking up & relaxing) and medulla oblangata(.regulates autonomic activity of heart/lung) *Neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation - big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions. -ex: important for alertness & motivation Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs attached to brainstem Acronym: Pavlovs Really F***ing Mad Pons, Reticular Formation, Medulla

Culture

Culture is way of life shared by group of individuals - the beliefs and values that bind a society together. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature. -Society is the way people organize themselves - bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time. -Culture = rules that guide way people live, and society = structure that provides organization for people. Society includes institutions, ex. family, education, politics, which all meet basic human needs. The hardware on a phone. Culture provides guidelines for living, ex. software or apps on a phone, constantly being updated. What makes society run.

Culture Lag and Culture Shock

Culture lag is the fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems. Common in societies because material culture changes rapidly, while non-material culture resists change. Material culture refers to physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food and houses, and non-material culture doesn't include physical objects, like ideas/beliefs/values, which resist change. -Examples: when cars first invented no laws to govern driving (no speed limits, lanes, etc). Very dangerous but laws soon written to fix problem. Or invention of computers and emails. Culture Shock - feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, and even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices. Ex. Moving countries or travels to another type of life (urban to rural). -In foreign places, business conducted differently, and food completely different. -As a result of culture shock may feel homesick, lonely, etc. -Sometimes see things frowned upon in own culture

Overview of Culture

Culture talks about rules and instructions within a society that teach them how to live. Refers to ideas and things passed from generation to the next - language, customs, etc. Varies as we travel around the globe. -Chinese and Spanish spoken all around the world -Many like meat and vegetables, while others eat tofu and grasshoppers. -Ways of greeting differ, ex. In Japan they bow, and depth of bow is defined by relative status. And in Europe men and women kiss on both cheeks. 4 main life: 1. All people share culture with others in their society, provides rules and expectations for carrying out daily rituals and interactions. 2. Culture is adaptive - it evolves over time. 3. Culture builds on itself - creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative, and societies build on existing cultures to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. 4. Culture is transmitted - from one generation to the next. We teach a way of life to the next generation. Humans are only mammals with culture to adapt to environment. *High Culture: associated w/ wealth and formality **Normative Culture: values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (ex: avoidance of crime) ***Popular Culture: patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade.

physical effects of stress

Damaging effects of stress on heart: -increase BP, blood vessels distend (they build up more muscle and become rigid). Can lead to hypertension and vascular disease and coronary artery disease. Damaging effects of stress on Metabolism: -during stress our body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. -if stress is psychosocial, no need for all this glucose. leads to diabetes or heart disease Damaging effects of stress on our Reproductive system: -reproduction is huge energy expense for women, so it gets shut down for women. -for men, impotence/Erectile dysfunction is also a concern Damaging effects of stress on our immune system: -acute stress: causes inflammation; over use of immune system. can attack our own body -chronic stress: makes you more susceptible to illness. b/c stop activating immune response

Decay

Decay- when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't recall it anymore -connections become weaker over time -Ebbinghaus was first person to look at decay. found he was forgetting things fast, but after initial stage it leveled out Relearning: just because you can't retrieve information doesn't mean its gone -takes less time to grasp info the second time (savings)

Alzheimer's Disease and Korsakoff syndrome

Dementia: decline of memory and other cognitive function to the point it interferes w/ normal life -results from excessive damage to brain tissue -ex: from strokes Alzheimer's disease: neurons die off overtime, as neurons die, cerebral cortex shrinks -early symptoms: memory loss, attention, semantic memory and abstract thinking -late symptoms: greater memory loss, emotional stability and loss of bodily functions Korsakoff's syndrome: caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. -damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage called Wernicke's encephalopathy -main issue is severe memory loss and confabulation Retrograde amnesia: can't remember old info anterograde amnesia: can't make new memories

Diffusion

Diffusion is the spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another, ex. Capitalism, democracy and religious beliefs. Even technology and software have made a difference in how people connect with others across the globe. Can occur in many ways. -Exploration, military conquest, missionary work, mass media, tourism, internet. -Ex. Food in America seen all around the world - McDonalds in Asia. Spanish is one of fastest growing languages. Or the ALS ice bucket challenge.

Dramaturgical Approach

Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience. Erving Goffman (1940) studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. 2 parts of dramaturgy: Both help us explain how humans behave in a social setting. -Front stage - when people are in a social setting. -Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to make friends. -Back stage - more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. -Ex: Ex; guy who said he loved baseball might come home and like watching cooking shows, cooking nice meals, hanging out with his cat.

Social Institutions - ex. Education, Family, Religion

Education - more than going to school, but there's a: -Hidden curriculum: we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers. -expectation of teachers affects how students learn -Sometimes limiting factor comes from outside classroom. Schools experience educational segregation and stratification, because we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation of education. Family - defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption. Small nuclear family is more emphasized in the US. -Different family values go with different social values of family and economy, - ex. rural families were production based, so large families. *Marriage - when people join together. Now, people can experience multiple marriages. Serial monogamous. Why divorce is more common, and creates tension. -Some families also contain violence, ex. in child abuse. Also abuses through neglect - children's basic needs aren't met. -Elder abuse also occurs when family isn't ready for responsibility of taking care of elders and expense of nursing homes. -Spouse abuse also common, and not only physical but also psychological. Women's shelters don't always get kids, while social stigma of men not getting abused keeps them quiet. Religion - how religious a person is can range from spiritual/private to being in an institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays, etc. -Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran. -Churches are established religious bodies in a larger society. -Sects tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish -Cults are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. -Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. -Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

Social Support

Emotional Support: affection, love, trust, caring. -involves listening and emphasizing; can include hugs Esteem Support: expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. can come from family and friends but also coaches, therapist. etc. Informational Support: sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online Tangible/Instrumental Support: financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs. Companionship support - the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity *Social support is major determinant of health and well-being. Can help us deal with stress. **People with low social support report more symptoms related to depression/anxiety, and alcohol and drug problems. Also higher risk of deaths from cancer and heart disease.

Three Components of Emotion and the Universal Emotions

Emotions are subjective experiences accompanied by physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes. All interrelated. Physiological: when surprised, HR increases, muscles tense, Temperature increases Cognitive: vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation. -ex: someone might enjoy surprise party or someone hates it. Behavioral:· emotions may bring about behaviors. -Emotions are temporary, and can be negative or positive. Also vary in intensity. They're involuntary. -Paul Ekman found 6 main emotions identified by everyone around the world - happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise. -Consistent expressions across culture. *Darwin hypothesized that ability understand and express emotion is innate ability that allowed for better chance of survival

managing stress

Exercise: regular exercise requires control Meditation: helps lower BP, HR, and cholesterol Religious beliefs/faith: generally healthy lifestyle and social support Cognitive flexibility: perspective change is huge in our perception of what is stressing us.

non-REM stage 1 sleep

First 3 Stages: non rapid eye movement (non REM) N1 stage: dominated by theta waves -hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there -tetris effect, if you been on boat all day, you might feel you are still in water, even when you are on land -hypnic jerks, muscle twitches

Conflict Theory

Focuses on inequalities of different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism. -19th century Europe was capitalist - rich upper class called bourgeoisie and poor lower class was proletariat and majority. Upper class had more power. Lower class depended on upper class, but upper class also depended on lower class for their labor. Significant inequality, which Marx believed led to change. Lower class united to create class consciousness. -The thesis was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor. Desire of working class to change was the antithesis. Thesis + antithesis can't exist peacefully. One side is leave things, other side is looking for change. -Struggle would lead to a compromise - a synthesis of the two by creating a new state. Would eventually become new thesis. Ludwig Gumplowicz expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others. Max Weber said he did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality. - Introduced: three independent factors Class/Status/Power The equal rights and women's suffrage movements were all conflicts that resolved in a new thesis. -The good of conflict theory: Conflict theory models drastic changes that occur in a society -Problems of conflict theory: doesn't explain the stability a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo.

Vygotsky Sociocultural Development

Focussed on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning. Babies have 4 elementary mental functions: -Attention, sensation, perception, and memory -Acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS *These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes - higher mental functions. -Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher. -higher mental function requires independent learning and thinking -ex: solving puzzle as a kid. first time child struggles parent/tutor helps out. kid then internalizes ideas and does it by himself. Development of higher mental functions (cognition) from elementary function (social interaction) -1. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) -2. Zone of Proximal Development: part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. -ex: puzzle example. not being able to solve puzzle to being able to solve puzzle -3. Language the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.

Animal Behavior: Foraging

Foraging: search for food in animal's environment. can't survive or reproduce w/out it -cost benefit analysis; cost (it takes time and energy). benefit (survival) 2 main foraging strategies: -solitary foraging: animal looks for food by itself -group foraging: animal looks for food in groups -can lead to competition within group if food is scarce. Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage

retrieval cues

Free recall: no cues in recalling -involves serial positioning effect Cued recall: having extra clues to remember words -pl___= planet Recognition: present two words; which is the one you heard - whats on the list? alex or jasmine?

Overview of Theories of Development

Freud: proposes psycho-sexual theory of development -believed early childhood was most important age which personality developed -5 stages, if completed successfully results in healthy personality. if issues aren't resolved at certain stage then fixation occurs Erickson: Psycho-social theory of development -personality development occurs through ones lifespan -early stage depends on overcoming conflict and success/failure at each stage effects overall functioning of theory. 8stages. Vygotsky: Sociocultural Cognitive development theory -Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning -child internalizes interaction w/ others Kohlberg-Moral development theory -moral reasoning, differences b/w right and wrong . -moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development. people pass through 3 stages (each w 2 stages). Freud and Ericks interested in how personality develops Vygotsky and Kohlberg interested in how cognition develops.

adaptive value of Behavioral Traits

Function of behavior is to keep homeostasis. · Behavior is coordinated internal and external response of organisms to their environment, aka adaptation. Ethology: observation of animal behaviors, called overt behaviors (observable, not obvious). Innate behavioral traits: genetically programmed behavior. present at birth. -inherited: encoded by DNA -intrinsic: present even if raised in isolation(peeing, pooping) -Sterotypic: performed same way each time -inflexible: not modified by experience -Consummate: fully developed at first performance. not developed by experience. -ex: nausea in pregnant women helps them avoid toxic foods in critical period of pregnancy. (its programmed in ) -3 main types of innate behaviors -Reflexes, orientation (kinesis-our change in speed and movement away from harmful stimilus) ,fixed action pattern (performed w/out interruption) Learned behavioral traits: -Non-inherited - acquired only through -observation/experience -Extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills -Permutable - changeable -Adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions -Progressive - improvement or refined practice over time Complex Behavioral Traits: -innate and learned; due to adaptation -insects learn to fly more efficient. starts off as innate.

Relating Social Theories to medicine (come back to this)

Functionalism: if we look at medicine from this point of view, when people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state. -Being sick is detrimental to well-being of society as a whole. Assumption is you're not supposed to participate in society when sick, affecting society on small scale. -Medicine stabilizes social system in emergency situations like earthquakes, etc. to provide medical assistance needed. -Day-to-day, it improves quality of life for aging population to allow them to contribute longer to society. Conflict Theory - Wealthier people can pay for best medical care, the poor can't afford the deductibles/insurance so they skip hospitals, and are sick for longer. -Unequal access to valuable resources in society (education, housing, jobs) leads to heath disparities and limited access to medical care. -Power struggle between different interest groups can affect health of individual, ex. Factories vs. people living nearby. Social Constructionism - we attach different meanings to different behaviors, and have preconceptions of different people (stereotypes) -We have preconceptions about different races, genders, and subcultures. Assumptions dangerous to medical profession - affect how you treat patient and their diagnosis. -There are stereotyped assumptions on both sides - patient may feel some symptoms aren't important enough to mention, or doctor makes false assumption based on how patient appears. -Can't declare characteristic of person based on circumstance, ex. people who don't work can still afford healthcare while those who work hard can't afford it. -Medicalization - patients/doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior. Symbolic Interactionism -Doctor-patient relationship, given meanings to lab coat/stethoscope can affect interaction. Important for realize the meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine, ex. Lab coat is sign of authority. -Changes in society - recently, medicalization of society, where everything has a medical fix. Standards of beauty have made many undergo unneeded plastic surgery, or have C-sections. Normal behaviours are being shown as illnesses. Ex. Depression. Feminist Theory - medicine is still a male-dominated field, heads of doctors and hospitals usually men, and disparity in jobs/salary between the two. Translates into a disparity in power. Rational Choice-Exchange Theories - what's purpose of medical system as a whole? Or is it a capitalist competition to earn the most money? -People run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger, may affect why people go to doctor or not. Some people avoid doctors if they don't think it will benefit them. -Self-interested behavior of people in charge will trickle down and affect patients Outside these theories - where you live can affect your health (food deserts), and nearly impossible to get nutrition a body needs from only these sources. Some neighborhoods have no gyms/playgrounds.

Functionalism

Functionalism: is a system of thinking based on emily Durkheim that look at society from large-scale perspective and how each part helps keep society stable. -It says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Ex. local businesses must adapt to new ways to cater to customers (in response to a disrupter such as amazon for example) Durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts -Institutions are structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc. -Social facts are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate (one person committing suicide has no effect of suicide on society) Society is dependent on structures that create it, like a biological cell is dependent on parts that make it up. -intended consequences of institutions are manifest functions, ex. businesses provide a service. School - educate people so they can get jobs. Laws - maintain social order. -unintended consequences: ex. schools expose students to social connections/new activities, and businesses connect people across society - latent functions, indirect effects of institutions. (unrecognized consequences) -Social dysfunction is process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society. Durkheim questioned how do societies stay together? -Small societies are held together by similarities, but only works for small ones...evolves into large society. (population growth in a small space...and people become specialized) -In large societies individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual independence. **In functionalism, a change to production/distribution/coordination will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society. Social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society. Institutions adapt only just enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdependence.

Evolutionary Game theory

Game theory is talked about in reference to decision making, but can also use it for evolution and animal behavior. -effect of decision effects overall group. not just one. Evolutionary Game Theory: tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. -Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. Helps us predict traits and evolutionary stable strategies/behaviors that persist in population once present. -Predicts the availability of resources and social behavior. Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players.

Classical Conditioning: Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination

Generalization: Ability of something similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response, and more similar they are the bigger the response -The guinea pig also responds (gets excited) to desk door opening because it sounds similar (but different) to the refrigerator door. Discrimination: when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others -ex: Guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer, which makes a sound that is different from refrigerator. Extinction: -If you open refrigerator door and don't get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react. Spontaneous Recovery: when old conditioned stimulus elicits response. -suddenly she hears refrigerator door open later, and makes a response. Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently and less strong.

Neurotransmitter anatomy

Glutamate: most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Reticular activation system (required for consciousness) has diffuse projection of glutamate to cerebral cortex GABA (brain) & Glycine (spinal cord): most common inhibitory NTs. Acetylcholine: nuclei in frontal lobe release it to cerebral cortex -allows you to contract muscles Histamine: from hypothalamus to cerebral cortex Norepinephrine: area in PONS called locus coeruleus sends it to cerebral cortex Serotonin: raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla release it -decreased levels = depression Dopamine: VTA and substania nigra - low levels = parkinson's disease - high levels= schizophrenia

Social Institutions - Government, Economy, Health and Medicine

Government - we give government the power and authority to manage the country. -Some governments take into account will of people, like democracy. [law making, choosing officials] -Others rule autonomously like dictatorships, no consent of citizens. [obedience to authority] -Communism - classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community. -Monarchy - government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead. Economy -Capitalism - private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand. -Socialism - motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands **Division of labor in government and economy is functionalist - everyone is required to have responsibility in society. -We value certain labors differently. Ex. Garbage men not as valued as athletes. We value jobs that require lots of specialization, rather than jobs essential in our society - creates inequalities because not everyone has access to those valued professions, due to limited education/resources. Healthcare and Medicine - medicine exists to keep people healthy. -Medicalization: Medicalization occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues, and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed. Ex. discovery of HIV. -Sick role - expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society. -Delivery of healthcare - massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind - those who populate working force. Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of $ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of preventative medicine. -Illness experience - process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person's self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness and STDs. How people experience disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care. -Social epidemiology looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease.

Gray and White matter

Gray contain most of neuron somas White contains myelinated axons In spinal cord, gray is on inside, white is on outside In brain, white on inside, gray on outise

Factors that influence conformity

Group size: more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. Unanimity: when opinions of the group is unanimous -we are not aware the effect a defector can have (someone who conform). Group status: why children go along w/ popular group. why we trust 4 doctors over 4 gardeners about our health. Group cohesion: if we feel no connection w/ group, we feel less need to go along w/ group Observed Behavior: whether we believe our behavior is observed. -ex: Because participant came in late. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, much less likely to conform. Public Response: if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. -Prior commitments: if we say something different earlier, we are less likely to say something different later. -Feelings of insecurity: more likely to follow judgement of others

Behavior and Genetics

Heredity: passing traits from parents to offspring We have approx. 20,000 genes Differences between children - temperament, not same as personality. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. And persistent as person ages. -ex: some babies are calm, some withdrawn and others irritable Personality, unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be constant over a person's lifetime.

Attitudes influence our behavior

How do our attitudes influence our behaviors? 4 theories: Theory of planned behavior: we consider the implications to our actions before we decide to behave. -intensions based on 3 things: our attitudes , subjective norms, & perceived behavior control (ex: i also have to work 40hrs this week on top of studying) Attitude to behavior process model (Attitude → Behavior) -an event triggers our attitude; then attitude + outside knowledge determines behavior -ex: tommy has attitude that junk food is bad b/c many of his relatives have had heart disease associated w/ poor eating habits. so he does not eat junk food. Prototype willingness model: behavior is a function of 6 things. past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in specific type of behavior, and models/prototyping. Elaboration likelihood model for persuasion(ELM): -more of a cognitive approach . Why or How? -1. Central rout of persuasion: depends on quality of the arguments by persuader. -2. Peripheral route of persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal cues -ex: status/attractiveness of persuader *People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (principle of aggregation), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self reflection.

Attribution Theory - Attribution Error and Culture

How do we understand behavior? We look at behavior as coming from two parts - a person's internal attributes, and secondly as being fueled by situation/external factors (ex. Weather, housing, finances) -If in middle, we are a neutral judge and see a combination as both. But often when we look at behavior of others, we are NOT neutral, we're more likely to attribute their behavior to their internal factors instead of considering complex external factors. -We term this the fundamental attribution error - over attribution of others behavior to internal causes. Fundamental attribution error can be problematic when looking at complex patients -ex. Obese patients who can't exercise because they are struggling with poverty Actor-observer bias: we are victims but others are willful actors. (we blame environment for our behavior but not others behaviors. ) Cultural component: the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies (NA and Europe), collectivist (Africa and Asia) -individualistic: success over attributed to internal and failure is over attributed to external -collective: success is attributed to external and failure is attributed to internal Self Serving Bias: preserving self esteem. -If we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on selfesteem because likely to do with things outside of our control

Social Influences

How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. Imitation: · a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and self. Andrew Meltzoff: questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. -A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. -suggests we are born w/ built in capacity to imitate others. -Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. Roles: · define what we do and who we are. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviors. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped. -Ex. Prison experiment Reference Groups: · the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors. Constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviors. Influences our social decisions. Culture and Socialization: important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasizes interaction between the people and culture in which we live. -everyone around us influence our social identity development

Similarity

How similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction. Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks. -One study showed person is more likely to trust/cooperate with photo of someone whose facial features are morphed with their own. -Also more likely to think individual is attractive when their facial features are morphed with their own. Similarity can help people stay together. Does it help them stay together? Research has shown yes. -Couples can also stay together due to perceived similarity - because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. Similarity bias: we will not befriend people different than us Projection bias: we assume others share same beliefs we do False consensus is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

social facilitation

How would presence of others effect your behavior? -people perform certain tasks better when in the presence of others. -the most dominant response will occur. one that would most likely occur Ex: presentation (in presence of others) -if you practice inside out, you perform well -if you haven't practiced well, you perform poorly Presence of others increases your arousal. *Presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed tasks. (This is known as Yerkes-Dodson Law)

Demographic Structure of Society - Immigration

Immigrants face severe challenges when arriving to a new country. People want to help them but are wary of their different cultures/customs of immigrants # of immigrants can put pressure on welfare capabilities of a country, as they tend to move to industrialized nations like NA, Middle East, and Europe/Asia. -Immigrants can be functional to receiving country by alleviating labor shortages and the sending/origin country by reducing population -However, immigration can be dysfunctional as well. Immigrants can be exploited by countries which are interested in maximizing their profits while being unconcerned about global, social, economic inequalities that results from profit seeking. Immigration itself can cause problems; -If too much immigration, area can't handle demand for social services -Too many skilled people may leave their home country. -Fear/dislike of immigrants a different race than host country. -People immigrate because of war, famine, or can't make a living in home country. Better jobs and education. -Transnational corporations take advantage of cheap labor to bring costs down. Every country has own policies, but often biased depending on where applicant is from. -In 1986 US passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act, forbade hiring of illegal immigrants. But extended amnesty and legal status to illegal immigrants already there. -since 9/11, more checkpoints for people wanting to move

Impression Management

Impression management - our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. There are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different role every time. -ex: football captain (gets people fired up), on weekends he volunteers at hospital (very different front stage, his role is to be there for patient. Backstage: where you work on your impression management -Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits (training area for impression management)

Discrimination - Individual vs. Institutional

Individual discrimination - ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. Institutional discrimination - governments, banks, etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated. Unintentional discrimination - how policies can discriminate unintentionally -Side-effect discrimination - talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. -ex: a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take lesser crime). Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too -Past-in-present discrimination: - how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. -Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom.

Bystander effect

Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group -small group=less bystander effect -large group=more bystander effect if someone falls, would you help them up. -people say yes, research says no they won't help Why do they not help? -diffusion of responsibility theory: when individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, they feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action. Bystander effect can lead to little happening by any individual. One example is story of Kitty Genovese who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were in vicinity. Spanned over half an hour. Deindividuation - those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday.

Operant Conditioning: Innate vs. Learned Behaviours

Innate behavior is performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus - they innately possess. Commonly called "Instinct". - Simple innate behavior- reflexes (squint or blinking), taxis (bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus - a purposeful movement), kinesis (rats randomly scurrying in different directions - no purpose). -Complex innate behaviors - fixed action patterns (mating dance), migration (birds flying south), circadian rhythms (biological clock, waking up early to sing) Learned behaviors: are learned behaviors through experience. -Habituation: response to alarm decreases over time. -Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until intensity of emotional response decreases. -classical conditioning: associate alarm w fire -operant conditioning: consequence that follow behavior decrease/increase likelihood of behavior happening again. -insight learning: solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning. Ex. Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem -Latent learning: learn behavior is not expressed until required

Inpatient treatment/outpatient treatment

Inpatient treatments: require residence at hospital/treatment facility Outpatient treatment: live at home buy come in for treatment

Social Institutions

Institutions are essential parts of a society, ex. police stations, hospitals, businesses. Impose structure on how individuals behave. Guide what we do. -They don't need any 1 individual, just need many of them, and each individual is very replaceable. Whereas without institution major changes can occur to individual. Imbalance in power. - A form for filling the need. -Sometimes need to be redesigned if they are to be helpful to society, ex. businesses. We think of institutions as a business/corporation, sociologists thinks of social structures, governments, families, hospitals, schools, laws, religion, businesses, etc. All continue without any 1 individual.

Subcortical Cerebrum

Internal Capsule: contains important pathways including corticospinal tract Corpus Collosum: connects right and left cerebral hemisphers -Acronym: corpus call someone Basal Ganlia: major role in motor function. dont have UMN's but help motor area perform proper movement. Thalamus: Sensory functions b/c all senses have pathways to travel to thalamus. -also higher functions of brain like cognition and emotion Hypothalamus: controls pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in body

substance use disorder

Intoxication: behavioral and psychological effects of drug on individual Withdrawal: when you stop using after some time you get withdrawal symptoms -Acute symptoms: few weeks, physical symptoms -Post acute: fewer physical symptoms, more emotional/psychological -PAWS: mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, low enthusiasm -PAW feels like roller coaster of symptoms -in beginning, symptoms change minute to minute, or hr to hr; eventually, good stretches get longer but bad stretches can also get longer. -PAW episodes usually last a few days -hang on, youll get threw it -PAW usually lasts 2 years

what is light?

Light is an electromagnetic wave -visible light is EM spectrum (ROYGBV form highest to lowest) light enters pupil and goes to retina, which contains rods & cones -120million rods for night vision -when light comes in, goes through pupil and hits rod -when light hits rod, it turns off -6 million cones -red, green and blue - almost all cones centered in fovea

population dynamics

Looks at how population of a region changes - factors that increase/decrease a population. 3 factors contribute to total growth rate: fertility, migration, mortality -Fertility: birth -migration: people moving permanently into/out of country/state. doesn't change total people in planet -mortality: death, decreases population To measure these, we use rates. Measure rates over 1 year, and per 1000 people so rates are comparable. · What affects population changes: -Increase: Births and immigration. Can also look at births in terms of fertility rate. On avg women in US gives birth to 2.1 children in her life. If 2, no increase/decrease in population. -Decrease: Death and emigration. Can calculate mortality rate by age group, or country. *Growth rate is not always a positive number. While world population grows, growth rate of some countries is negative.

Motor unit

Lower Motor neurons(LMN): -efferent neurons of the PNS, control skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. Form a neuromuscular junction. Abnormalities of LMN can cause the lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs), which can happen in addition to weakness -Signs: atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

Attention

MOST are on cognitive psychology quizlet.

Macrosociology vs. Microsociology

Macrosociology - large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations -Functionalism comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning. -Conflict theory is also a macroperspective - the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved. Microsociology: face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society, look at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society. -Ex. doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics. o -Symbolic interactionism - social theory that's a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives

Mating Behavior and Inclusive fitness

Mating is the pairing of opposite sex organisms for purpose of reproduction and propagation of genetic material. Includes act of mating and the behaviors associated with it. Also events that occur after mating, like nest building. -ex: the superb bird of paradise does a complicated dance. Mating strategies when searching for mate: 1.Random mating; all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating is not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: hardy Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} 2. Assortative mating:Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/ similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, -ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. -can result in inbreeding 3. Dissassortative mating: situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating. Which strategy is best? -Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism. -inclusive fitness: concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other

Demographic Structure of Society - Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

Media often portrays gender as binary - female vs. male Also portrays sexual orientation as binary - you like men or you like women. However, there's way more than 2 options. There are 5 considerations when examining persons gender and sexual orientation -Biological: XX or XY -Identity: -Expression: gender they express -Attraction: gender they are romantically attracted to -Fornication: gender they are sexually attracted to *All of the above are a part of a person's identity and don't need to align Sex: Biological Factor: XX or XY -but some are inter sex who have 1 or 3+; some have both male and female characteristics due to unusual hormone level. -XXY (Kleinfelter's syndrome) -XO (Turners syndrome) Can occur in Meiosis I nondisjunction in spermatogonium and when that joins with a normal egg) [Sperm has XY or O] Meiosis II nondisjunction can result in spermatognium becoming spermatids with XX and or YY or O chromosomes, creating children that are XXX (triple X, super-females) or XYY (Jacobs syndrome - super males) or XO(turners syndrome) if fertilized with normal egg. - Kleinfelters is male that are female like, Turners = females that are short Gender: Has two main factors - gender identity and expression. Many possible combinations, -ex. someone biological male and identify as male (cis-gender- same biological sex and gender identity), or identify as female (trans-gender - biological sex and gender identity don't match) -gender queer: don't identify as male or female -agender: rejecting gender categories -gender fluid: moving across gender -nonbinary: not identifying w/ any specific gender -third gender: cultures that recognize non-binary gender Sexual Orientation - (attraction and fornication). Not dependent on sex OR gender of a person. You can be attracted to any gender but only have sex with females, or any combination. You can be attracted to no gender. Many differences between men and women, discrimination, pay, expected roles. Men more likely to get heart disease while women more likely to have psychological illness. -Societal expectations affect what problems will be reported. Gender schema theory - Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society. Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema. • Gender script - what we expect men and females to do. Gender Script: organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation.

psychological disorders (come back to this)

Mental disorders: disorders of the mind -mental illness, psychological illness, Distress: negative type of stress that builds up over time. is bad for your body. Eustress: positive type of stress that happens when you perceive something as challenging, but motivating Neustress: neutral type of stress. happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly effect you.

Regulatory Genes

Molecular genetics: new field of science that looks at molecular structure and function of genes Watson and Crick discovered structure of DNA and gave rise to central dogma of molecular genetics -segments of dna code for RNA, units of RNA (codons) code for 1 of 20 aa's eventually becoming building blocks of proteins, which affect our behavior. Gene Mapping helps us narrow down heritability of traits to a particular gene. -We can now look at genes that may contribute to a trait, and compare and contrast Found that 95% of genes dont code for proteins but regulate how proteins are coded -Sugar increases, we code for protein insulin Epigenetics: changes to gene expression from changes other than DNA/Gene. -methylation inhibits activation of certain genes.

Operant Conditioning: Schedules of Reinforcement

Most of our behaviors are on a partial reinforcement schedule - behavior is reinforced only some of the time. -More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement: for each behavior there is a reward (1:1) Fixed Ratio: reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses. -car salesman gets bonus for every 5 cars he sells Fixed-interval: pay employee every two weeks. time is constant. pay doesn't change if he performs well. less incentive to perform well. response rate is slower. Variable-ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except # changes. Just fixed-ratio but varies. - Ex. bonus can be 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5. - Ex: slot machine. Variable-interval:Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount -Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days. -VR is most effective (acronym: produces a Very-Rapid response)

Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction and Cognitive Theories

Motivation asks the question why? 5 school of thought/approaches: Evolutionary approach: role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do for survival? -ex: think babies; cry, sleep, eat Drive Reduction theory: drive vs. needs; need is the lack/deprivation that energizes drive. fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. -ex: need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water Optimum arousal theory: people want to reach full arousal/alertness and natural high -why we go to amusement park Cognitive: thought processes drive behavior -ex: light bulb going off in your head Maslow's hierarchy of needs: -we need to satisfy needs in particular order

Theories of Language Development: Nativist, Learning, Interactionist

Nativist (innatist): children are born w/ ability to learn language. -Associated with Noam Chomsky. Thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that this ability exists - all languages shared universal grammar (same basic elements like nouns, verb, etc). -So LAD enables child to pick up on understand/pick up on those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language. - Goes along with idea there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. Learning(behaviorist) theory: children aren't born w/ anything, they only acquire language b/c operant condition (reinforcement) -doesn't explain how children say words they never heard. interactionist approach: believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. -Childrens' desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language. Associated with Vygotsky.

gene-environment interaction

Nature vs. Nurture Gene-Environment Interaction: Gene + environments effect our Behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other ex: hideous baby and attractive baby. As a result, attractive baby receives more attention and is more sociable and well-adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose for depression, that are triggered by environment. Beautiful baby's genes are not activated, while ugly baby's genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher.

Learning

Nonassociative learning: when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, -ex. habituation and sensitization. -In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. -Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. -Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus. Associative learning: - when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

biological basis of schizophrenia

One way of thinking about schizophrenia is abnormal activity is mesocorticolimbic pathway leads to dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that cause cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and temporal cortex causes positive symptoms.

operant conditioning (issues)

Operant extinction: -dog won't sit on command every time if you stop giving treats sometimes. Instinctual drift: -the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors

Organizations and Bureaucratization

Organizations are institutions designed for a specific purpose, and try to achieve maximum efficiency. Ex. Postal Service, McDonalds, etc. -Utilitarian Organizations - members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, -ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). -Normative Organizations - members come together through shared goals, -ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. -Coercive Organization - members don't have choice about membership, -ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through bureaucracy - the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT mean something negative, lines, or red tape) -Bureaucratization - process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you. -Iron rule of oligarchy - even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Once person gains leadership role they might be hesitant to give it up. Also have skills that make them valuable. -Mcdonaldization: policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment, -ex. movie theaters all look and work similarly, with same concession stands look same, carry same brands and same popular movies, with same seating arrangements, look the same, and #of screens is the same. All ticket systems now the same (especially online). Same pre-show entertainment.

Social inequality

Overview of social inequality: Resources in society are distributed unevenly: -Wealth in U.S, top 20% have 72% of wealth -Upper middle and lower class based on incomes Groups of populations are disproportionately affected; -racial/ethnic minorities those in poverty also face barriers to obtaining healthcare, lower education, etc. Gender does too. females experience different pay (gender pay gap), and glass ceiling effect (poorly represented in higher positions in company) People may feel increasingly socially excluded, live in segregated neighbourhoods, and feel politically disempowered. o Can lead to civil unrest, and tempt people into criminal activities. **Ways to help: government schemes (ex. Food stamps), improve access to education/healthcare, and figure out social interventions that allow integration to society.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

People perform best when they are moderately aroused; -bell shaped curve

Peripheral Somatosensation

Position + vibration + touch = mechanoreceptors (FAST) pain = nociceptors (SLOW) temperature = thermoreceptors (SLOW) Difference b/w slow and fast are how big their axons are: -mechanoreceptors have large axons and have thick myelin sheath; thus, conduct fast

Physiological Concept of positive and negative feedback

Positive Feedback: process that increases production of product -domino or chain effect Negative Feedback: works to decrease product

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Prejudice = attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. -Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team. Discrimination: differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. ACTIONS ARE BEING TAKEN on negative-attitude (going a step further from prejudice) -Ex. say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her just because she's a women.

Prejudice and Discrimination Based on Race, Ethnicity, Power, Social Class, and Prestige

Prejudice and discrimination usually talked about in relation to racial and ethnic groups. - Physical characteristics with social significance - some have more meanings than others. -Ex. skin color, but not eye color. Attached meaning to skin color. Ethnicity: - Defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns. ex. Puerto Rican, Irish, or Japanese Can be based on power, social class and prestige: Power: - political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc.) Social Class: - status (social status) is relative. Social class often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class -the Just World Phenomenon -good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, (contributes to prejudice) Prestige: based on occupation -lawyer, doctor. minority groups have lower paid jobs (janitor).

Emotion and Cognition in Prejudice

Prejudice is made up of 3 components: 1. Cognition (stereotype): generalized belief 2.Affect-prejudice carries an emotional component 3.Discrimination: (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) -capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (ABC model) At the core of prejudice is often fear of frustration. -Scapegoats are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed, ex. Jews during World War II. Types of personalities more subject to prejudice: -Authoritarian personality: They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. -They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others. Frustration Aggression Hypothesis - not personality based, but more emotional. -.Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechannelled it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation -upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Social Perception - Primacy and Recency Bias

Primacy Bias: First impressions count! They're 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't... -ex: if you are messy person, people will look at your messy room instead of clean desk Recency bias: Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before. -Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.

Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary groups - closest members of the group to you, ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen. They provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group - your family. Often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion. Secondary groups - formal and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Only part of the group to accomplish a task or earn money.

Demographic structure of society

Race: a socially defined category on physical differences b/w groups of people -racial formation theory: looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities -Sometimes differences are real, but sometimes only defined by history. **In the US, race is defined by skin color but hair color is irrelevant. Latin America can be broken down to 5-6 races in SA. Ethnicity:socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor. Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time. -Ethnic minority can be absorbed into majority after a few generations. A minority is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic. **Racial differences can cause drastic events, like genocide or population transfer (where group is forcefully moved from territory), intercolonialism (minorities group is segregated and exploited), and assimilation (where minority group is absorbed into the majority). -many differences b/w racial/ethnic groups in healthcare, education, life expectancy etc. -minorities have shorter life spans Equal opportunity in life/equal access to education - in reality, different races are stereotyped for different jobs. Minorities are expected to have lower-paying jobs while majority are expected to have higher paying job. Interesting discrimination is present in criminal justice system. More incarceration of minorities (when compared to whites) -Ex. Laws for similar offences vary drastically. Punishment for crack cocaine (cheaper, used by low income users) are tougher/harsher than powdered cocaine (used by rich, more expensive). Separates rich/poor (who are typically minorities). Poor get tougher sentences. Pluralism encourages racial and ethnic variation.

Rational Choice Theory and Exchange Theory

Rational Choice Theory - people not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get more good -Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action. -People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals. How do we calculate value of these actions? Social resources being exchanged - time, information, prestige, etc. -3 main assumptions: completeness (every action can be ranked), transitivity (since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C), and independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option, won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order). Exchange Theory - application of rational choice theory to social interactions. -Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. -Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. -Sexual selection - natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex -Social selection - idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Also that social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population. -Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action. -Basic principle behind exchange theory - behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments. **Assumptions: People seek to rationally maximize their profits, behavior results in a reward is likely to be repeated - more often reward is available the less valuable it is, interactions operate within social norms, people access have information they need to make rational choices, human fulfillment comes from other people, and standards people use to evaluate interaction changes over time - reward to one is punishment for another. o What kind of interactions? Self-interest and interdependence. We form relationships to benefit ourselves, no one is self-sufficient. § Subjective interactions of rewards + punishments of each interaction.

Freud - reality principle, and pleasure principle

Reality principle: When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification -ex: taking candy might get you in trouble Pleasure Principle: As a young child (or if you are immature) you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. Not willing to compromise. -ex: taking candy now. We have drives; intrinsic, universal feelings we all have toward varying things -Life drive(eros drives): health, safety, sex, -death drive (Thantos): Self-Destructive/Harmful to Others. Comes with Fear, anger (inward or outward), hate.

primary auditory cortex

Receives and processes sounds and information from cochlea. separated by regions which detect range for frequencies

What can we learn from Milgram Experiment

Regular every day people will comply w/ authority figure even if goes against their moral values and harming others Study has been replicated and results remain the same. Study is enethical. -milgram was denied tenure at harvard. Things we should avoid: -many participants felt ashamed but continued to speak poorly on the victims. - he wouldn't have been shocked if he answered correctly, the "just world phenomenon" - belief good things happen to good people, and vice versa. Some people use this to justify their actions. -Many participants felt comforted in passing responsibility of actions to others -ex: i was just following orders. Can we stop this from happening? -Avoid just word phenomenon: idea that universe is fair and people get what they deserve. -take responsibility of your own actions. stoping placing blame. -caution ourselves from self serving bias: that we would never commit acts like this b/c apparently we would -Fundamental attribution error - focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions.

Biological theory of personality

Researchers always try to look at identical twins, because used to tease out environmental vs. genetic characteristics - same genetic makeup -results show even if twins separated, still have similar personalities. -Social Potency trait: the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations -Traditionalism: tendency to follow authority -Weaker genetic traits: achievement , closeness -People w/ longer dopamine 4 receptor gene are more likely thrill seekers. -just b/c you have gene doesn't mean you express it -Temperament:innate disposition, our mood/activity level constant throughout life.

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect light -black, white, and gray

Incentive Theory

Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/ intention of causing the behavior to occur again. -ex: doing well at work; getting a promotion (tangible) or intangible= job satisfaction if person is rewarded immediately, chance of it happening again is higher if person isn't rewarded less likely to do it again Focuses on positive reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement

Role Strain and Role Conflict

Role Strain: when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student. -ex: student has lab report, 4 reading assignment, in one week. Role Conflict: conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. -Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. -Ex; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get- together.

Emotions: Cerebral Hemispheres and Prefrontal Cortex

Role of cerebral cortex in emotions. One way is in terms of hemispheres - L and R hemispheres. -positive emotions evoke more activity on right side -negative emotions evoke more activity on left side Dividing into functional divisions - focus on prefrontal cortex -Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans. +Executive control -solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations. -Phineas Gage had iron rod penetrate his prefrontal cortex. After incident, rude and rough, behaved inappropriately.

encoding strategies

Rote rehearsal: least effective. you say same thing over again Chunking: grouping info into meaningful categories ex: bananas, organe, grape= fruits Mnemonic Devices: link what you trying to learn into previously existed long term information -imagery -pegword: verbal anchors link words that rhyme w/ numbers -ex: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree -Method of loci: good for remembering things in order, link info to location -acronym Self-referencing: thiink about new info and how it relates to you -related idea: preparing to teach Spacing: spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods

Schemas, Assimilation and Accommodation

Schemas: frameworks for us to organize and interpret new information -piaget belief of cognitive development was in development of schemas Assimilation: how we describe new info in terms of our current understanding -acronyms: ss, same schema Accommodation: how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experience -acronym: cc, change schema

Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy,

Self Esteem: respect and regard one has for oneself Self Efficacy: belief in one's abilities to succeed in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. -plays a role on how goals are approached Two types of Self Efficacy: -Strong: Recover quickly from setbacks, strong Interests, Strong sense of commitment, and Enjoy challenging tasks (Acronym: RISE) -Weak: focuses on personal Failures, Avoid challenging tasks, quickly Loses confidence in personal abilities, believe they Lack ability to handle difficult situations. (Acronym: FALL) 4 sources that determine weak or strong efficacy: -Mastery of Experience: strengthens self efficacy -Social Modeling: seeing people similar to ourselves complete same task strengthens self efficacy -Social persuasion: when someone says something positive to you , helps overcome self doubt. -Psychological Response; learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult situations. *A person w/ low self esteem can have high self efficacy. (Vice Versa) -perfectionist can have low self esteem (critical about themselves) but high self efficacy (can see themselves completing tasks.

Self Concept, Self Identity, and Social Identity

Self concept (aka self identity): how someone thinks/perceives themselves Development of self concept involves two parts -Existential self: most basic part of self concept. the sense of being separate and distinct. awareness that self is constant /consistent throughout life. -Categorical Self: comes once baby realizes they're separate - becoming aware that even though we're separate, we also exist in the world with others. And each of those entities have properties Carl rogers believed self concept had 3 components: -Self image: what we believe we are -Self esteem/self worth: how much value we place on ourselves -Ideal Self: what we aspire to be. *When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity.

Semantic Networks and Spreading activation

Semantic networks: concepts organized in your mind as connected ideas -links are short for closely related ideas hierarchical semantic networks: we store information from higher order category to lower order category -ex: animal->bird->ostrich -supported by cognitive economy principle -which states are brain is efficient Evidence: how long it takes to verify statements -longer it takes us to verify connection b/w nodes longer it takes to make that link modified semantic network: every individual semantic network depends on experience and knowledge -spreading activation: all ideas in brain are connected together. pulling up one memory pulls up others aswell -stronger nodal links=decreased processing time

Why do dreams occur?

Sigmund Freud: dreams are unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted Evolutionary Biology: threat simulation other theories: -maintain brain flexibility -thoughts to long term memory -cleaning up thoughts -infants develop neural networks

Social Identity Theory

Social Identity Theory: -Personal Identity: things unique to each other (traits,personality) -Social Identity: groups you belong to in community Steps involved: -All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, ex. race/job/etc. If we assign categories to others, we make pre-judgements about them. -Next is identification. When we adopt identity of group, we see us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. Our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging. -Final step is social comparison - how we comparing ourselves with other groups, to maintain our self-esteem. Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we compete to maintain self-esteem.

social constructionism

Social constructionism argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. Things are social products made of the values of the society that created it -A social construct is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money. Social constructionism is theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement - nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society. -The self is a social construct too - our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people. 2 types of social constructionism: weak and strong -Weak social constructionism proposes that social constructs are dependent on: -Brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). -Institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value. -Strong social constructionism states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist. **Main criticism to social constructionism is it doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society, and for strong social constructionism it has difficulties explaining those phenomena because they don't depend on human speech or action. Strong SC only explains reality through thoughts of humans, not using fundamental brute facts.

Charles Cooley - Looking Glass Self

Socialization: process by which people learn attitudes, behaviors, values expected by culture/community -shapes our self image and self concept (charles Cooley used the term looking glass self to describe this process). Thought this happened in 3 steps: How do i appear to others? What must others think of me? (are we shy, intelligent,..) Revise how we think of ourselves (based on perceptions about us) **Critical Aspect of his theory Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we image the opinions of others to be! -ex:Say we have teacher grading paper harshly, and doing it because they think that student has a lot of potential. But student gets paper back, think the teacher did so because student is not very intelligent, and came to conclusion they're not very good at literary analysis. Might result in student putting less effort into the class. Student is acting on incorrect perception on what teacher believes. -ex: person trying on clothes in front of omirror before going out w/ friend.

Demographic Structure of Society - Age

Sociology looks at different age cohorts (groups), specifically at age groups/generations, because they all live through the same events in certain time. -Always-On Generation: 2004+ - debated -Generation Z - 1995-2003 (acronym: The kids who love their Sony xperia Z phones) -Millennials - 1980s-2000s (Generation Y) (acronym: Dats us!) -Generation X - 1965 - 1980 (The 70s loved Drugs (Xstacy)) -Baby boomers: 1946-1964 is large population in US, now up to 60s. Grew up in postWWII periods, currently leaving work force. (Acronym: Your dad was a baby too!! This one's common sense!) -Silent generation - 1925-1945 older than baby boomers born during Great Depression (Acronym: Your silent grandfather) -GI (Greatest) generation - 1901-1924 - oldest people alive today. Born first quarter of the 20th century (Acronym: Your great grand father) -Because of new advancements people live longer, estimated by 2025 that 1/4th of population will be >65, right now only 13.5%. 65 is when people retire. Can look at dependency ratio, an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labor force, and compares that to # of people who are. -Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are. Although living longer means can contribute longer to workforce. But as we become older our body breaks down. -Older people are 5x more likely to use health services, but age affects what kind of healthcare they can get - discrimination. -Need for society to readjust expectations of old age -Can still contribute to social, economical well-being of society. Life Course theory:aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born till time you die -age based expectations no longer applies as they used to as people live longer (80 yr old on ski slopes). Age stratification theory: age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation Activity Theory: looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged. Disengagement Theory: older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self absorbed as they age. -Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable. Continuity Theory - people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging

Asch Conformity Study

Solomon Asch was part of the Gestalt Psychologists -they believed it is not possible to understand human behavior by breaking down into parts, have to be understood as whole. Holocaust influenced Ash's studies of conformity (was born in Poland and moved to US at age of 13). -Was interested in studying how group behavior can influence behavior of an individual. What aspects of the group behavior is most important. Experiment: he holds up a card w/ target line and 3 comparison lines and participants need to figure out which comparison line matches target line. -First trial, everyone gives what is obviously right answer. Second trial, same occurrence. Error rate <1% -Third trial, answer remains just as obvious, but the first participant gives the wrong answer. The second group member than gives the same wrong answer. The study found: 75% of participants give the wrong answer (conform to the wrong answer) at least once and 37% conform every single time the group does. point was to see if real participants would conform b/c of confederates wrong answers. -No actual pressure to conform, ie. no prize for conforming to the study and no punish for not conforming. Only perceived pressure to conform Why did individuals conform? -some did because normative social influence (did not want to be ridiculed by group) others did because of information social influence (doubted their own answers). -perceptual error: truly believed answer's given by other participants were correct. Why did individuals not conform? -some were really confident, really sure answers were correct and some were just wrong. Problems/Criticisms w/ Study: -all from same population (male undergraduates) -participants knew they were coming to study, so participants were suspicious -Ecological validity: line test in lab is not same as real world -Demand characteristics: describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter

Types of animal communication

Sound: can convey a lot of information (ex: mating calls, warning sounds). useful b/c its fast and can reach many but it is not private and exposes animals location Chemical Signals: · Gain info from the environment through smells. They can release scents called pheromones. Can detect predators using smell, or presence of other animals. Tends to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But can be "noisy" - a lot of chemical signals in a given area. Somatosensory communication - Touch and movement. Ex. mating dances. Can also convey food location (bees), pair bonding (birds cuddle/prune mates), body language. Also seismic communication (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it), electro-communication (fish) Visual Cues: to find a mate, ex. color on birds. Mimicry, camouflage.

The Spotlight Model of Attention and Multitasking

Spotlight model of attention: -selective attention takes info from 5 senses but do not pay attention to everything -we are aware of things on unconscious level -ex: priming

Social Interactions

Status: persons social position in society. each person has many statuses. they affect the type of interaction we have. Ex: we act differently towards our friend compared to our professor. -Ascribed Status: statuses you can't change. given at birth. ex: prince of royal family -Achieved Status: status you earn yourself after working for it. ex: Olympic athlete.

Stereotypes: Stereotype Threat and Self-fulfilling Prophecies

Stereotyping: attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing. -ex: People who wear glasses are smarter, -advantage: allows us to access large amounts of social data -disadvantage: inaccurate Stereotype Threat:- (negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. -ex. Blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, blue students perform worse. Self fulfilling prophecy: - stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes. -"City dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) -> I will avoid them (behavioural component, discrimination) - or, They think I'm rude (cognition) -> They may not like me (affective)-> They avoid me (behavioural) -> City dwellers are rude

subliminal stimuli

Stimuli that are below the absolute threshold and of which we are not conscious.

Symbolic Interactionism

Takes a small-scale view of society, focuses on small interactions between individuals like hanging out with a friend. Sees society as buildup of everyday typical interactions. -Addresses the subjective meanings people believe to be true - meaning is the central aspect of human behavior. Humans ascribe meanings to things, and act towards those things based on ascribed meaning. Language allows humans to generate meaning through interactions, and humans modify meanings to thought processes. Particularly interested in symbols use that people use to contribute values/beliefs to others. Developed by George Herbert Mead, believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things. People change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act. Herbert Blumer continued Mead's work. He proposed 3 tenants to explain symbolic interactionism: -1. We act based on meaning we've given something, ex. tree is place to rest. -2. Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. But we have different views of the tree and we act differently. -3. The meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds. (Tree now is defined as shade on a hot day with a potential of getting bit) *Criticism - doesn't ask same questions as large scale sociologists do. Sometimes considered as supplemental instead of full theory, because restricted to small interactions between individuals. But gives different perspective necessary for fully understanding society. How societies can change when created/recreated by social interactions.

Social Perception - The Halo Effect

The halo effect is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits. Ex. Jim, our initial overall impression is in the middle. His accounting rating/skills is very high, sales are negative, and leadership is moderately good. -Halo effect - as if someone has a halo over their head. If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression. Often happens w/ celeberities and greater attractiveness . Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower - the devil effect/reverse halo effect. Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative. -Ex: From being good at accounting we can perceive them as being mediocre, we can perceive someone as being awful at sales (even though they are great)

Law of Past Experiences

The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. -For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

Weber's Law

The threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation is the just noticeable difference (JND) delta I/I=k

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

Theory emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment. It is possible to fail at resolving conflict central to any given stage of development, but not required mastery of stage to move on. Stages: -Trust vs mistrust (0-1yr), if resolved successfully child will come to trust environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins, child will be suspicious of world. -autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3yrs), favorable outcome is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self restraint. Unfavorable, a sense of doubt and a persisten external locus of control -Initiative vs guilt (3-6yrs), favorable outcome is a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and ability to enjoy accomplishments If guilt wins, overcome by fear of punishment that child will restrict himself or overcompensate by showing off. -industry vs inferiority (6-12yrs), favorable is child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that child desires, Unfavorable, sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, low self-esteem. -identity vs role confusion(12-20yrs), favorable outcome is fidelity, ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person w/ loyalties. Unfavorable, confusion about ones identity. -Intimacy vs. Isolation(20-40yrs), favorable outcomes are love, intimate relationships Unfavorable is, avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing oneself form others Generativity vs stagnation (40-65yrs), favorable outcomes are capable of being productive, caring, contributing member of society Unfavorable is , stagnation and may become self indulgent. Integrity vs despair (>65yrs), favorable outcome is wisdom, meaning of life, dignity and acceptance Unfavorable is, bitterness about ones life, feeling worthless, and fear of death.

conjuctiva

Thin outer lining of the eye and eyelid -first layer of light hits

Law of common fate (gestalt principles)

We group together objects that are moving in the same direction Ex: array of dots moving up is differentiated from array of dots moving downward

Harlow Monkey Experiments

What causes attachment (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientists used to think it was food (mom has food). This is not true...mother provides more than that. Experiment: Separated monkeys from mothers at young age, then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures). -First option was wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube. -Second mother was the cloth mother - same shape/size, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so it can provide comfort. -Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother - spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother. -Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there.

Physical Attraction

What does physical attraction mean, and are there things attractive to all people? -There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive - attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waste). Facial Attraction:more important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face. -we are attracted to strong facial features of opposing genders (sexual dimorphism) - turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness More subtle things also influence attractiveness - ex. red background more attractive than white background. Unrelated physiological arousal also influences attraction - individuals who just walked across narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of woman. -Because during attraction sympathetic arousal occurs as well, ex. fast heartbeat.

Phototransduction cascade (go over more in detail, watch vid)

What happens when light hits rods/cones -Light hits rods (which causes rod turns off) → bipolar cell (turns on)→ retinal ganglion cell (turns on) → optic nerve → BRAIN. -The phototransduction cascade is the process of rod turning from ON → OFF

Social Movements

When a group of people come together with shared idea, can create lasting effects by shaping future of society. -Need organization, leadership, and resources to make an impact. Activist movements aim to change some aspect of society, while regressive/reactionary movements resist change. Several theories of why they form: -Mass Society Theory: Skepticism about groups, said they only form for people seeking refuge from main society. Ex. Nazism. -Relative Deprivation Theory - actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color. 3 things needed for social movement: relative deprivation, deserving better, and belief conventional methods are useless to help. -Criticisms: people who don't feel deprived join social movement even if they don't suffer themselves. And too risky for oppressed to join a movement due to lack of resources. And when all 3 present, no social movement created. -Resource Mobilization Theory - looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. Need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members - charismatic figure needed. Ex. Martin Luther King Jr. in Civil Rights Movement. Rational Choice Theory - people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is best for themselves. Have to assume all actions can be listed, and transient. Also assumes person has full knowledge of outcomes. Rarely all true. ***· Social movement begins with incipient stage (public takes notice). Will either succeed or have to adapt. In the end, become part of bureaucracy they try to change - become absorbed into institutions.

Reward pathway in the brain

When you first experience pleasure, brain releases neurotransmitter called dopamine. - Produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain. -VTA sends dopamine to the amygdala, nucleus accumbens (controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning), and hippocampus (memory formation). -NAcc, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway.

Olfaction

When you have a cold you aren't able to taste well! olfactory epithelium-area in nostril -seperated from the brain by cribriform plate Above the cribriform plate is an extension of the brain, the olfactory bulb--- a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off. -end of each connection are receptors sensitive to 1 type of molecule

Jim Goes to College Subculture

Within a nation many smaller groups - ethnic, regional, tribal subcultures made of people who identify closely with each other. So subculture is smaller community that distinguishes itself from larger society. Different cities states in US may have their own unique subcultures. Ex. Jim, grew up in Florida his whole life, but got into university in Washington DC. Notices a lot of differences between the two. Ex. Has to parallel park, and has to pay for parking. Driving in DC not same as in Florida, much more traffic.

Secure and Insecure attachment

Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months stranger anxiety (the fear of strangers) sets in. child becomes wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety. Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation - done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. -Mother and child in room with a stranger, then mom leaves and returns. Wanted to see how child reacts. -Researchers found children in 2 groups - those with secure attachment and insecure attachment. -60% were secure. Child was secure with parent and explored room, but when parent left, child was upset/distressed, but happy when mother returned. -Insecure children clinged to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. When mother left became upset, but distress did not go away when she came back. Others were avoidant - ignored mother when she returned. What causes this? -Parenting Style: mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. -insensitive example: parent looking at phone and unresponsive to child calling for attention. Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood? -Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. -attachment style w/ infants effects our attachement w/ our own cildren Parenting Styles: -authoritarian: very strict, break will of children. punishment -authoritative (BEST): strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. -Permissive/Indulgent: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Defense Mechanism

a psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. -A way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires, and impulses. Classified into four categories: Pathological defense mechanism: distort reality -Denial: person pretends something hasnt happened -Acronym: pathological liar/denier -Ex: you have breast cancer, deny it Immature defense mechanism: -Projection: throwing you attributes at someone else -Can cause projected identification: person targeted w/ projection can start believing, feeling having thoughts of the attributes projected -Passive Aggression: aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly. Neurotic defense mechanism: -Intellecualization: separating emotion from ideas. -Rationalization: making yourself feel you are not at fault. avoids blame of oneself -can have false logic -Regression: unconscious process where thoughts are moved down to unconscious -Displacement: person angry at someone but taking it out on someone else -Reaction formation: unconscious feelings that make person to complete opposite. -ex: a person who doesn't like immigrants might start to volunteer at an immigration center Mature: -Humor: expressing jokes to alleviate feeling and to be truthful but socially acceptable -Sublimation: channeling negative to positive energy -ex: violence; become a boxer -Suppression: conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time -Altruism: in service of others.

Adoption studies

adopted child compared to biological family and adopted family -If environmental factor plays a big role, the adoptive child would be similar to adoptive parent and dissimilar to parents. -If genetics is a predominate player, the adoptive child would be similar to biological parent and not the adoptive parent. . Problems w/ adoption studies: incomplete info about biological family of adopted children

Language (cont.)

agraphia: inability to write anomia: inability to name things -anomic aphasia" difficulty in retrieving words Language is spread into parts of the brain. localized brain damage, will affect langauge but you won't lose everything and can regain most via creating new connections b/w neurons (neural/synaptic plasticity) -ex: stroke Even w/ perfect functional hemispheres, you can have trouble naming objects b/c connection b/w left and right hemisphere is severed - if you sever corpus callosum -this creates a split brain patient -ex: if you see object on left, you wont be able to name it; we can pick it up w/ left hand (since right side controls left) but needs to be on right visual field to name it. Left side of brain =language right side of brain=action, perception, attention

Aggression

any physical/verbal harmful behavior intended to harm/destroy Aggression/aggressive behavior comes from combination of 3: 1. Biology: -Genes: Identical twins, if one is aggressive the other one most likely is too. not same for fraternal twins. -Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: The amygdala facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for impulse control, criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. -Testosterone: hormone releases in testes in men and ovaries in women. higher in men and why men are more aggressive than women. 2. Psychological: -Frustration-aggression principle: the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Example: Physical pain or presence of crowd. Higher temperatures can also lead to frustration. -Reinforcement-modeling: can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future 3. Socio-cultural: -People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. -Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. -Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. -Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong

Operant Conditioning: Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

associated w/ B.F Skinner operant conditioning: focuses on relationship b/w behavior and their consequences and how those inturn influence behavior. -reinforcement(increases behavior or punishment (decreases behavior) Positive reinforcement: introducing something to increase behavior Negative reinforcement: taking something away to increase behavior -ex: seatbelt buzzing when not on. Positive punishment: introduce something to decrease behavior -ex: speeding tickets. Negative punishment: taking something way to decrease behavior -taking away licence Token economy - system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes). *Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying/desirable, like food. **Secondary reinforcers are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli.

signal detection theory

at what point can we detect a signal Ex: traffic lights (red or green light) experiment: hit, miss, false alarm and correct rejection

suspensory ligaments

attached to the cilliary muscle; together they form the cilliary body that secretes aq. humor

lens

bends light so it can go to the back of eyeball -focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina -flat for focusing on far objects -shorter and wider when focusing on close objects

temperature

both nociception and thermoception are SLOW -In order to sense temperature we rely on TrypV1 receptor -heat causes a conformation change in the protein sending signals to the brain -when cell is poked, it breaks; pieces bind to Trypv1 which sends singals to the brain

long term potentiation and Synaptic plasticity

brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories, instead connections b/w neurons strengthen called long term potentiation, one example of synaptic plasticity Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals - through synapse With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron converts into greater post-synaptic neuron - stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called long-term potentiation. This is learning!

information processing model

brain is similar to computer (input->process>output -assumes limited storage capacity, limited capacity for attention, and assumes serial processing but we are capable of parallel processing

Drug dependence and homeostasis

brain will understand/get cues when about to take drug -before taking cocaine, brain understands where you are and will lower heart rate so it can be increased with cocaine usage) -what would happen if you get cues and not do the drug? -body crashes; body is below homeostasis -body prepared for drug intake by lower HR to offset drug -New location buy take normal amount of drug can cause overdose!!

Altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals. Types of altruistic behavior: -Kin Selection: people act more altruistically to close kin than non distant kin -same when people share last name (especially rare ones) -Reciprocal altruism: people are more cooperative if they will interact w/ that person again in the future. -we feel obliged to help someone who has helped us -Cost Signalling: signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. · Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis - suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. -Early developmental trajectory - Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping.

Halucinogens

cause hallucinations/distorted perceptions, heightened sensations, emotional responses (mood swings) -exact effect is different depending on each person LSD modifies serotonin neurotransmitter, -the 5-HT2 receptor family

substance induced disorders

caused by substance -can be disorders of mood (anxiety, mania, depressions, sleep disturbance, etc)

overview of the function of cerebral cortex

cerebral cortex bump: increase cellular mass/surface area. Frontal lobe: motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, broca's area Parietal lobe: somatosensory cortex & spatial manipulation occipital lobe: vision "striate cortex" Temporal lobe: sound, wernickle's area

Cones

color vision

Zimbardo/Stanford Prison Study

conducted in 1971. Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on their own) or even contrary to how they think they would act. -certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards Experiment: Participants got so caught up in roles had to stop experiment early. Participants knew all about the study - no deception. And participants were definition of normal, with no medical/psychological problems. -Male, middle class students. 18 students randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners. All knew it was random. Had participants in prisoners arrested at unexpected times on a random day. No windows and clocks. Separate prisoners from outside world. Also met with guards and told them they were not supposed to physically harm prisoners, but could create fear/loss of control/loss of individuality. -Given batons, and sunglasses. -Instructed to refer to prisoners by #s and not names. Day 1-6 -Day 1 uneventful: Then prisoners began to rebel against guards. Guards had to decide what to do. Guards fought back. Prisoners cursed at guards. At some point, guards began to see prisoners as actual dangerous prisoners. And used fire extinguishers on them and forced them to strip down. -Prisoners put into solitary confinement, couldn't lie down or sit. After 36 hours prisoners began to break down. Not only one. -Day 3, situation went even further. Participants went on hunger strike. In response, forced to repeat their #s over and over again, exercise, withheld bathroom privileges, and make them turn on each other. -Day 4, continued escalations. -Day 5, same. Zimbardo involved himself as prison warden. Never realized things had gone wrong. **6 days his girlfriend Maslach visited prison and so upset by what she saw she made him stop the experiment. By this time, half of prisoners already left from breakdowns. No guards had left.

Conformity and obedience

conformity: peer pressure, how we adjust our behavior to match a group. obedience: how we follow order/obey authority. both can be positive or negative in society -positive: don't question cereal is breakfast -negative: holocaust. Social Anomie: breakdown of social bonds b/w an individual and community -To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms # of types of conformity and obedience: -Compliance: we do a behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. tendancy to go along w/ behavior w/out questioning why. -ex: paying taxes. -identification: when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. will do as long as they maintain respect for that individual. -ex: football player people admired and bought his jersey, but then he engaged in domestic violence and once it was made public the identification of this player by people dropped significantly. -Internalization: idea/belief has be integrated into our own values. we conform to belief privately. stronger than other types of conformity. -ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior Can conform due to different types of social influence- pressure we feel from those around us -Normative Social Influence: If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. - Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. -Informational Social Influence: when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. -Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions.

Perception

conscious sensory experience of neural processing

sleep and consciousness

consciousness: awareness of self and environment -can be natural or induced by external factors (drugs) -alertness: you are awake -daydreaming: feel more relaxed, not as foccused -drowsiness: just before falling asleep or after waking up -sleep: not aware of self or world around you

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. -In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Cerebellum

coordinates movement and balance -motor plan info is sent to cerebellum -position sense information (ex: muscle stretch fibers). middle cerebellum = walking side cerebellum= movement of limbs (arms/legs)

Monocular Cues of Form

cues in which only one eye is needed -Relative size: closer the object, the bigger it is perceived -Interposition: (overlap) object that is in front is closer -Relative height: things further away are lower -Shading and Contour: using light and shadows to perceive form -ex: crater/mountain or art/paintings -Motion parallax (relative motion): things further away are slower

Evolution and Human Culture

culture is the customs, knowledge and behaviors learned and socially transmitted. includes values and objects -biological component Charles Darwin's theory of evolution: both physical traits and behaviors can be selected for. -culture universals: all culture has a way of dealing w/ illness, medicine, death, mariage, etc. Evolution can shape culture but culture can shape evolution also. -hunter gather society vs farming society -lactose intolerance.

Non-REM Stage 2: N2

deeper stage of sleep; harder to awaken; more theta waves -sleep spindles, burst of rapid brain activity; inhibit certain perceptions, to maintain tranquil state; also ability to sleep through loud noises -K-complexes, suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep; help sleep based memory consolidation

Lesion Studies and Experimental Ablation

deliberately makes brain lesions in order to observe changes on behavior - done on animals, not humans Examples: Tissue Removal: surgical removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), and severing nerve w/ knife Radio frequency lesions: destroy tissue surface of brain and deep inside brain. Wire is inserted into brain to determine the area. Then pass high freq current which heats up and destroys tissue. Can vary current to change size, but destroys cells and axons. Neurochemical lesions: excitotoxic lesions, cause influx of calcium that it kills the neuron and excites it to death. -kainic acid: destroys cell body but doesn't influence axons passing by -oxidopamine: selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. can model parkinson's disease. Cortical cooling (Cryogenic blockade)- involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing. -cryoloop: surgically implanted b/w skull and brain -can be reversed unlike other techniques

binocular cues of depth

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes ex: two eyes allows to view items slightly different

smell

desensitized receptors in your nose to molecule sensory inforation over time

Humanistic Theory

developed by Carl Rogers, focuses on health personality development and humans are seen as inherently good. Most basic motive of all people is actualizing tendency (self actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance ones full potential. Primary difference b/w freuds theory is that frueds theory is deterministic (behavior is determined by unconscious mind). Humanist theory focuses on conscious and says people are inherently good we are self motivated to improve First theorist of humanist theory was pavlov, who formed hierarchy of needs. self actualization was last of needs to fulfill Carl Rogers says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life, self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting process. In order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, 2 conditions that need to be met: -Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. -Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance from others - allows us to live up to our ideal selves. *Central feature of our personality is self-concept, achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate. **When there's discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved. ***Genuine + acceptance = self-concept ****Importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to feel fulfilled.

Stress

dog chasing rabit -stressor - dog -stress reaction: bunny's response to dog chasing it Appraisal Theory of Stress: stress happens less from event and more from assessment/interpretation of event. -Primary appraisal: assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories that are: irrelevant, benign/positive, and stressful/negative -Secondary appraisal: evaluation of one's ability to cope w/ situation. appraisal of harm, threat and challenge (how to overcome it)

Sensory Adaptation

down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body -change over time to a constant stimulus over time -Ex: push hand to wall, constant pressure receptors no longer fire; if they get over excited, cell dies

Sight

down-regulation (light adaptation): - pupils constrict and rods and cones become desensitized to light up regulation (dark regulation): pupils dilate and rods and cons produce more light sensitive molecules

Stimulants

drugs that excite CNS, increas HR/BP, alertness, energetic -caffeine-inhibits adenosine receptors -Nicotine- increase HR/BP, suppress appetite, introduce stress reducing neurotransmitter at high levels -Cocaine: brain releases so much dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine that it depletes brains supply -intense crash when it wears off -amphetamines/methamphetamines- also trigger release of dopamine; -block the reuptake of dopamine, which stimulates an increase in the release of dopamine from the presynaptic membrane.

dual coding hypothesis

easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

Transmission

electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron

Theories of Emotion

emotion is made of cognitive, physiological and behavioral responses -which response comes first? James-Lange theory - Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses. -Holding pet cat → increased HR/neurotransmitters/smile → happiness -When sad, don't cry because you're sad, you're sad because you cry. -Event → Physiological Response (PR) → Interpretation of PR → Emotion Cannon-Bard theory - disagreed with James-Lange, and found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion. He noticed many different emotions had same PR. -*He Believed PR and Emotions occur simultaneously -ex: holding cat-> PR and Emotion simultaneously . Schachter Singer: physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form emotion. -**We don't feel emotion until we're able to identify reason for situation -Event → PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously) → Emotion Lazarus Theory: experience of emotion is depends on how the situation is labeled -how we label event depends on person/culture -Event--> label--> emotion + PR

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism In Group and Outgroup

ethnography: study of particular people and places Ethnocentric: judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture -viewing your culture as superior. can lead to bias and prejudice Xenocentrism: judging another culture as superior to one's own culture Cultural relativism: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture from within their culture. -no right or wrong -Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from. Cultural imperialism: • Cultural imperialism: the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture. People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to culture/spirituality. -in groups: ones we are connected w/ (US) -out groups: groups we are not associated w/ (THEM) -In group favoritism: we favor/friendly to people in our own group, but those in out-group we are neutral - we don't give them favors we do to our in-group. -Out group derogation: we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate -Group polarization: Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints

Memory Reconstruction, Source Monitoring, and Emotional Memories

every time we retrieve memory we change it in small ways according to mood, environment, etc. ex: story about catching fish; every time they tell story fish gets bigger False information: inaccurate recollection of an event -people saw a car stop at yield sign; someone tells a story of a car stopping at a stop sign; now they believe car actually stopped at stop sign then yield sign Misleading information: -participants watched traffic safety video of an accident. they were asked "how fast car was going when they hit or smashed into each other. -smashed= people correlated it w/ broken glass' even though there was no broken glass in video -source monitoring: when people recall something they often forget the source. -ex: recognize somewhere but don't know from wher Emotional Memories: can be positive or negative -highly vivid memories are flashbulb memory -ex: memory of birth of a child

Social Loafing

exerting less effort when performing a group task than when performing the same task alone Group-produced reduction of individual effort - groups experiencing social loafing put less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. -Can be reduced by making task more difficult, or separate grades. So does presence of other help or hinder performance? depends -HAWTHORNE effect: individuals modify or improve an aspect of behavior if they know they are being observed.

vitreous chamber

filled with vitreous humour, jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball; -also gives nutrients to inside of eyeball.

Dream theories (more)

freud says it represents our unconscious thoughts and feelings -what happens? manifest contest -monster chasing you -hidden meaning: latent content -job pushing you out Activation synthesis hypothesis: -brain gets neural impulses in brain stem -interpreted by frontal cortex -brain is simply trying to find meaning of random activity

Proximity and the Mere Exposure Effect

geographical proximity: nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships -Mating starts with meeting - we aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. Even with social media, still true. Mere Exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. -Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure -ex: study with individuals who had anterograde amnesia (retrograde amnesia is loss of memory before accident, anterograde is loss of memory after). Showed them faces, and show them faces again at later date, some new some old. Ask individual if they've seen before, say no. But if ask which one attractive, they pick the face they've seen before. Advertisers use mere exposure effect; more times we see a product, more we form positive opinion

Decision making

heuristic: a mental shortcut to make a decision, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. Available Heuristic: using examples that come to mind -more shark attacks on news, so we believe shark attack is more fatal than firework accidents but its not true. Representativeness Heuristic: people look for the most representative answer and look to match a prototype -people believe linda is a feminist bank teller. but the probability of her being a bank teller is way higher

Proprioception

how can you walk in pitch black room? -rely on proprioception (balance) tiny sensors in our muscles called spindles send signals to spinal cord/brain; -spindle has protein that is susceptible to stretching -sensors contract w/ muscles (lets us know how relaxed or contracted our muscles are)

Nature vs. Nurture

how much intelligence is due to genes and how much due to environment? Study heritability by looking at correlation scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together. -What we know is of 3 groups, strongest correlation between IQ scores in identical twins raised in same homes. Raised apart not as high correlation (there is some environmental component). -Fraternal twins raised together show lower correlation, suggesting also a genetic component. environment can only negatively effect ones intelligence; it can not make a genius

intensity of somatosensation

how quickly neurons fire for us to notice -slow: low intensity -fast: high intensity

Animal Communication

humans communicate w/ each other via language, non-verbal cues( can tell if someone is happy,sad, by smile or frown), and visual cues (painting room pink/blue). other animals communicate also, not with language, but with visual and non verbal cues. Who are animal communicating with? -members of same species -members of different species (Some frogs use bright colors to signal they are toxic so communicate with other animals that they should not eat them, cat communicates with a human when they are hungry) -Auto communication - can give information to themselves (bats and echolocation) What are they trying to communicate? What is the main function of animal communication? -Mating rituals, to attract opposite sex. Ex. Some animals use bright colors, complicated dances, and specific verbal calls. -to establish/defend territory -to convey information about food location -alarm calls to warn others -to signal dominance Watch out for: anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. ex. pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat.

Upper motor signs

hyperreflexia: increase in muscle stretch reflexes clonus: rhytmic contractions of antagonist muscle -ex: foot goes involuntary up and down -Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles hypertonia: increased tone of skeletal muscles -increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch extensor plantar response: if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up.

Interference

in cognitive psyc quizlet

Hearing Adaptation:

inner ear muscle: higher noise = muscle contract (this dampens vibrations in inner ear, protects ear drum.) -Takes a few seconds to kick in! So does not work for immediate noises like a gun shot, but it works for being at a rock concert for an entire afternoon

hypnotism

involves getting person to relax and focus on breathing, and they become more susceptible to suggestions in this state-but only if they want to -alpha waves in this stage (awake but relaxed state) Some use hypnosis to retrieve memory -very dangerous, memories are malleable -can introduce false memories Dissociation theory: -hypnosis is extreme form of divided conscioussness Social influence theory: -people do and report whats expected of them Refocused attention -used to treat pain

Behavior influence attitudes

its possible our behaviors shape our attitudes -ex: strong social attitudes can influence our behavior Foot in the door phenomenon: -we agree to small actions first, then comply to bigger actions. (relates to how people are brainwashed) Role Playing: -first few day in new role (new job, new parent) feels fake/forced, but over time what feels like acting starts to feel like you. - ex: Zimbardo's stanford prison experiment Public decorations: -people more likely to follow through if they've told everyone Justification of effort: -effort (people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard

Gestalt Principles

laws of grouping -similarity: items similar to each other are grouped together -Pragnanz: reality organized to simplest form possible -olympic rings -Proximity: items close together are grouped together -Continuity: lines are seen as following the smoothest path -Closure: objects grouped together are seen as whole -mind fills in missing information -symmetry: mind perceives objects as symmetrical

Agents of socialization

life long process where we interact w/ others. -talking, eating, walking; how we learn behavior Important agents of socialization: -School: Schools teach life skills - don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills - importance of obeying authority, act interested, etc. Part of the "hidden curriculum", subtly taught by teachers. -Family: most important; when you are a child you are dependent on family to survive. your parents teach you how to care for yourselves, their beliefs/values, and how to talk to others. -Peers: teach us to develop our social behaviors -can contradict w/ family values -we must decide what values to keep and what to get rid of. -Mass Media: when you are young you learn things from mass media that parent won't approve of.

Factors that influence obedience

likelihood someone will obey depends on type of authority giving orders. -our closeness to authority giving order. more likely to accept orders from someone we respect. -Physical proximity: more likely to comply w/ someone we are close to. -ex: teacher was close to experimenter. -legitimacy of authority: if wearing labcoat/clipboard we are more likely to obey. -institutional authority: well respected university, can also be symbolic -ex: police, government -Victim distance: ex: Milgram study, if you see participant, less likely to obey (30% instead of 65%). -Denationalization:when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them Role models for defiance: more likely to disobey orders if we see someone else doing the same.

location of somatosensation

location specific stimuli by nerves is sent to brain -relies on dermatomes

Kohlberg Moral Development

looked at how people developed their morals and how the way moral reasoning changes as people grow. looked at children by telling stories and gauging response -ex: the Heinz Dillema; wife was dying. chemist made drug (very expensive). husband had half the money up front. chemist refused. husband broke in and stole drug. -asked children what if heinz didn't love his wife. if person dying was a stranger should he have stolen drug. Should police arrest chemist for murder if she had died. *After analyzing the answers, he came up w 3 moral stages Three stages: Preconventional morality: emphasis on consequence -Obedience: avoiding punishment -Self interest: gaining rewards. -Ill scratch your back, you scratch mine. Conventional morality: -Conformity: person seeks approval from others Good boy or nice girl -Law and order: maintains social order in highest regard Steeling items that you can't afford causes producer to go out of business. Postconventional morality: -Social contract: moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, reasoning focused on individual rights Right to live, right to have profitable business. -Universal human ethics: reasons should be made in consideration of abstract principles Wrong to hold ones life for ransom.

Depressants

lower body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNS activity Three types of depressants: Alcohol: decreased inhibitions, lack of coordination, think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep Barbiturates: used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety -anesthesia -not often prescribed, b/c reduced memory benzodiapezenes: sleep aids or anit-anziety/seizure -enhance brain response to GABA -by opening up GABA activated Cl- ions in neuron -3 types: short, intermediate and long acting - short/intermediate for sleep -long acting for anxiety

Biological and Sociological Factors-Food, sex drug

many factors regulate food, sex, and drug 2 categories: Biological Factors (hormones and brain regulate each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously Socio-Culture: conscious choices on how we express our needs ----------------------------------------------------------- Food: Biological: -lateral hypothalamus sends positive signal to start eating. Ventromedial hypothalamus sends leptin to tell us we are full. -Insulin: brain can detect insulin amount of sugar/fat -metabolism: when dieting metabolism slows -makes it easier to gain weight Socioculturally: -eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal Sex: investigated by Master and Johnson (MJ loved sex) Biological: -Sexual response cycle: first part of phase is excitement phase marked by increased HR, muscle tension, BP. Second is plateou, 3rd is orgasm, 4th is resolution/refractory period. -sexual drive was related to testosterone activity for both women and men Socioculturally: -age, culturally, stimilus, emotions, want to procreate Drugs: Biological: -Genetic: family history/genetic predisposition, withdrawal/cravings, biochemical factors, abnormal release of dopamine affects our limbic system leads to feelings of euphoria or total happiness Socioculturally: -curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope w/ stress

Biological Theory

many variations to theory; some relate to brain and some to behavior instead of traits -Ex. Evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have diff mating strategies that influence cost of passing on genes. Males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy.(Buss) The biologic theory: important parts of personality are inherited Hans eysenck: proposed extroversion is based on differences in reticular formation -introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek less stimulation. Jeffrey allen gray (bio-psychological theory): behavior is governed by behavioral inhibition (pushiment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system. -acronym: 50 shades of gray based on punishment. C. Rober Clonigner: linked personality to brain systems in reward/punishment/motivation -ex: low dopamine correlating to impulsivity

context effects

memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations one theory is there's one general intelligence (spearman's) -evidence comes from fact those who score well on one test, tend to do well on other types of tests -factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g-factor (acronym: g=general intelligence) 3 intelligence theory: analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined problems, such as, how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase) - IQ score measure only analytical intelligence emotional intelligence -perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others. Fluid Intelligence :- is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. -thinking on your feet Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge and skills -fluid knowledge decreases as we get older but crystallized knowledge increases or stays same

Absolute threshold of sensation

minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time -influenced by alertness, expectations, motivation and experience

demographic transition

model that changes in a country's population - population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low birth rate/death rates (fertility/mortality) which stabilizes the population -This stabilization often occurs in industrialized/developed countries. -When immigrants travel to developed countries, they affect demographic transition of the country by increasing fertility and decreasing mortality (often healthier people migrate). Demographic Transition Model: 5 stages Stage 1: This stabilization often occurs in industrialized/developed countries. o When immigrants travel to developed countries, they affect demographic transition of the country by increasing fertility and decreasing mortality (often healthier people migrate). Stage 2: Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution. High birth rates remain. Overall population growth. Stage 3: Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow -Birth rates fall because of birth control, social trend towards smaller families. -Death rate drops because Society has better healthcare, -Occurs in countries that are becoming more industrialized (fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work or not allowed to work by law - no longer economically beneficial to have children). In this stage children are sent to school instead of working to support the family. -Slower population expansion and longer lived elderly Stage 4: : Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4. -Low Birth Rates: improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in workforce. Many Couples focus on careers over children. Ex: US/Australia Stage 5: Speculation. World population stabilizes, Malthusian Theorem suggests. Run out of resources, food shortage. Leads to public health disaster and force population to stabilize and decrease birth rate - negative growth rate. *Anti-Malthusian Theorem: Couples only want to have one child or have children later in life. (low birth rate) Summary: : Demographic transition shift from high birth and death rate to low death and birth rate as country becomes industrialized. What happens in stage 5 is hard to tell.

Differences b/w rods and cones

more rods than cones (120 million vs 6 millions) rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones cones detect color, some light rods have slow recovery time while cones have fast recovery time -ex: takes a while to adjust to dark

DSM-5 categories of disorder

most on other quizlet but some here. 1. Neurodevelopmental Disorders - involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD. 2. Neurocognitive Disorders - Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. Big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many causes - drugs/blood/infections). Dementia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive. 3. Sleep-wake Disorders result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues. Include insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders. 8. Trauma/Stressor-Related Disorders - distress/disability form occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Leads to mood, emotional, and behavioral abnormalities. ▪ Ex: Post-traumatic stress disorder, common after wars, or other traumatic experiences (natural disasters/rape) 9. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders - distress/disability form the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function. Include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco, others. 11. Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders - distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. Inability to control inappropriate behaviours 14. Feeding and Eating Disorders - distress/disability from behavioural abnormalities related to food, ▪ ex. Anorexia nervosa (takes in insufficient amounts of food), bulimia nervosa (binge eating then purging (induced vomiting)). 15. Elimination Disorders - distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places. ▪ Ex. Urinary accidents

Urbanization

movement of people from rural to urban areas -rural is anywhere w/ less than 1,000 people per square mile . has to have less than 25,000 residents. (Ex: Alaska) Urban areas include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile. -Cities have over 50 000 people. -Metropolis have over 500 000 people. -megalopolis: if metropolis are connected (Ex: NY city area from Washington DC to Boston Functionalist perspective: Cities are sites of culture, but also host to more crime. According to conflict theory: they're sources of inequality. From symbolic interactionism viewpoint: cities are places where people can get different perspective of looking at life. Why people move to urban areas? -Began during Industrial Revolution, losing jobs on farms to machines. -More job opportunities, and more options for education/healthcare/etc. -Isn't enough land for everyone to farm. -Crowding can occur in cities. And less sense of belonging, so we join groups to form communities. Suburbanization is movement away from cities, but commute for work can be long and harder to get medical help. However, suburbs form their own economic centres. Ex. Silicon Valley. Beyond suburbs are exurbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs. Urban renewal - revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford it - leads to great inequality in cities. Rural rebound - people getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas. People who can afford to leave the city. -Often move to scenic rural areas

Transformation

neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception

Timing of somatosensation

non adapting: neuron consistently fires at constant rate slow adapting: neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and calms down after a while fast adapting:neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts; stops firing and starts again when stimulus stops.

Observational Learning: Bobo Doll Experiment & Social Cognitive Theory

observational learning: learning through watching and imitating others, such as modeling actions of others -mirror neurons found support to this ex: aggression is learned. Social Cognitive theory: theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions b/w people & environment -unlike behaviorism, cognition plays a role here. -social factors, observational learning and environmental factors can influence your beliefs. Bobo doll experiment: Albert bandora studied it and Cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. It's a blow-up doll you can punch. -man comes and hits, kicks doll in front of kids -kids get frustrated doing a puzzle, and kick, hit doll -revealed kids observe and learn from environment -some kids hit, kicked the doll, others didn't. why? -2nd experiment : where watched a video of kicking, hitting doll but showed person getting punishment after. -some did and some didn't. to those who didn't they were bribed if they imitate aggressive behavior. learning performance distinction - learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things. Banduro's Social Cognitive theory: -Am I Motivated -Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation

zoom in on olfactory bulb (come back to this)

olfactory cell sends projections to olfactory bulb. -thousands of olfactory epithelial cells; each w/ diff receptor; these olfactory epithelial cells are located within epithelial cells. -When it binds to receptor triggers cascade that causes cell to fire AP in olfactory bulb; all cells sensitive to benzene (for this case) will fire to one olfactory bulb called glomerulus(designation point ) -They then synapse on another cell known as a mitral/tufted cell that projects to the brain.

pupil

opening in the center of the iris -pupil modulates amount of light enters the eye -if iris contracts/relaxes the pupil could get bigger/smaller

Opiates/Opioids

opiates-natural & opioids-synthetic -Like depressants: Decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety). -analgesic- reduce perception of pain -b/c they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins

Proprioception

our sense of body position "sense of balance in space" -experiment: you will eventually accommodate and flip it back after wearing goggles that make everything upside down

Processing the environment (sensory adaptation)

our senses are adaptable and can change their sensitivity to stimuli

General Classification of ear

outer ear- pinna to tympanic membrane middle ear- ossicles inner ear- cochlea and semicircular canal

sleep deprivation

people w/ sleep deprivation equals -more irritable, more accidents, poor memory/attention -more susceptible to obesity -body makes more cortisol and gherlin (hunger hormone) -increase risk for depression -REM sleep helps process emotional experiences

Personal Control (Locus of Control, Learned Helplessness, and the Tyranny of Choice)

perceived behavioral control: persons ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior important element of social cognitive theory. -Are we getting controlled or are we controlling the environment around us. Internal locus of control: i should've studied harder -we control our own fate external locus of control: test was really hard. -outside forces help control your fate Learned helplessness: when tone is sounded dogs are shocked. group 1 can press button to stop shock. group 2 had no way to turn off shock -dogs placed in new environment. shocked. group 1 tried to escape by jumping over barriers. group 2 didn't try to escape. lack of control leads to depression. too much control can also negatively impact our cognition behavior via tyranny of choice -to many choices at stores. -ex: one result is information overload, and can lead people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made.

convergence

perception of depth things far away-muscles in eye are relaxed things close by-muscles in eye contract

withdrawal

period of not having drug, people experience withdrawal symptoms -once you've built up tolerance and need drug to feel normal again, you are ADDICTED!

Behaviorist theory

personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on person's environment -deterministic in that you start w/ blank state and environment completley shapes your personality Focuses on observable and measurable traits not mental/emotionsl -opposite to psychoanalytical theory 1. skinner: operant conditioning 2. pavlov: classical conditioning -People have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan. Constantly evolving and changing. **What connects the observable to mental approach? The cognitive theory, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like psychoanalytic. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory.

Persuasion, Attitude Change, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model

persuasion: method for attitude/behavior change -The elaboration likelihood model explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be changed 3 main characteristics that impact how we are persuaded for/against a message 1. message characteristic: - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. 2. source characteristic: - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not 3. Target characteristic: characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message. Elaboration likelihood model: we evaluate information via two paths; central and peripheral routes. - Central - people are persuaded by the content of the argument. Leads to deep processing of information. Results in a lasting attitude change. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. -Peripheral - don't care about topic, little motivation/interest. Leads to shallow processing of information, such as the speaker's looks. Creates a temporary attitude change.

Social theories overview

pg (82-83) or (236-237)

Demographic Structure of Society Overview [Lots of repeat to above but a new KA video]

pg 244-246

Sensation

physical stimuli converted into neural impulse -in the case of the eye, light being converted to neural impulse by a photo receptor

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and Physiological Markers of Emotion

physiological changes that occur b/c of ANS -aren't under your control Sympathetic NS: results due to fear -pupils dilate, decrease in digestion, decrease salivation, increase HR, increase respiratory rate, increase adrenaline, increase glucose release Parasympathetic NS: rest and digest -opposite of sympathetic NS

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

piaget argued children were not miniature adults. they actively construct understanding of the world as they grow. -as their bodies grow, so does their brain Stage 1: Sensorimotor stage (0-2yrs): -children gather information about the world via smell, touch, taste, hearing, sight, and motor. -in this stage, you develop object permanence, -objects exist even if we can't see them -ex:take a ball away from infant, they will stop looking Stage 2: preoperational stage (2-7yrs): -children develop/engage in pretend play -start to use symbols to represent things -very egocentric -only concerned about themselves, no empathy -ex: sit in front of you when they watch tv. Stage 3: Concrete operational (7-11yrs): -learn idea of conservation -can test to see if in this stage. grab two glasses of equal amounts of water; pour one of water into short fat glass and other in tall skinny glass. ask which one has more? before this stage they will say tall glass, if in this stage they will say both are equal -they also begin to learn empathy -they also begin reasoning of math skills Stage 4: Formal operational Stage (12+yrs): -reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences -moral reasoning -they reason more like adults. -are able to think logically about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations

choroid

pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that nourishes the retina

limbic system

plays an important role in regulating emotions Structures : Acronym: HAT hippo Hypothalamus:(hypo - below, thalamus, tiny structure); for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). -Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex Amygdala: aka, aggression center; if you stimulate amygdala, it produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety -If you destroy it, g et mellowing effect. Kluver-Bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior. -damaged amygdala--> patients givens benzos (acts like alcohol) Thalamus: sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. -Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain -exception is smell; it bypasses thalamus and goes near amygdala Hippocampus: · key role in forming new memories. Convert short to long-term memory. -If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones.

Meditation

practice of self regulating attention and awareness -more alpha waves than normal relaxation -deep meditation=increased theta waves -only experts those who meditate often have shown -increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippo campus, and right anterior insula-- increased attention control

Biases

prevent us from making correct decisions 1. overconfidence: -ex: going into test w/out knowing a lot of info 2. Belief perseverance: ignore/rationalize dis-conforming facts -ex:during elections, ignore facts about someone you like 3. Confirmation bias: actively seek out only confirming facts -ex: only read stories about how wonderful a candidate was Framing effect: how you present the decision can effect decisions as well ex: disease that kills 400 ; 100% 200 people will be saved or 30 % of 600 will be saved. most people will pick first option, even though its the same

cochlear implant

procedure that attempts to restore hearing to individuals w/ sensorineural narrow hearing loss (nerve deafness) -(individuals have problem w/ conduction of sound waves from cochlea to brain -Receiver goes to a stimulator which reaches the cochlea. Receiver receives info from a transmitter. Transmitter gets electrical info from the speech processor. Speech processor gets info from microphone.

Psychoanalytic theory of personality

psychoanalytic theory: Sigmund Freud -personality is shaped by person's child hood experiences, person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings and past memories -2 instinctual desires motivate human behavior: -libido: motivation for survival, growth, etc. -Death instinct: drives aggressive behavior fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself. Individual influences on behavior: -projection (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), -reaction formation (defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), -regression (defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations), -sublimation (defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

psychotherapy aimed at correcting negative thinking and consciously changing behaviors as a way of changing feelings -learn to anticipate problematic situations, like going to a party, and to self monitor for cravings

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

pyramid: bottom to top order 1. physiological: food, water, sleep, breathing 2. Safety: employment, health, protection, security 3.Love: need to belong, acceptance from friends, family, intimacy 4. Self-esteem: feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, and respect 5. Self-actualization: reaching their maximum potential. differs from person to person.

Somatosensation

receive information about types of somatosensation (the intensity, timing and location)

Muscle stretch Reflex

reflexes have two parts (stimulus-afferent) and (response-efferent) The muscle stretch reflex causes a muscle to contact after it's stretched, as a protective response -ex: knee jerk response Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the sp .cord, which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent) -muscles on underside of leg inhibit when topside of leg is excited. necessary for reflex to occur. ANS (no conscious involvement) -efferent neurons in PNS, control smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscles and gland cells Sympathetic has short axon then long Parasympathetic has long axon then short.

Retrieval

remembering memory of something learned before retrieval types: -priming: -context: environment you encode helps retrieval -State dependent: study drunk--take test drunk

Nociception

similar to temperature, pain causes conformation change -capsaicin binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

Non-REM stag 3

slow wave sleep; difficulty to awaken; delta waves -sleep walking happens -declarative memory consolidation

Conformity and Group Think

social psychology: how people act/behave in social interactions -people act differently in groups. Conformity: "peer pressure" tendency to bring behavior in line w/ group norms. very powerful. Why do people conform to group norms, even if behavior is wrong? -1. Informative influence:look to group for guidance wen you do not know what to do. -2. Normative influence: even if you know whats right do what group does to avoid social rejection. 2 ways a person can conform; publically or privately -If you privately conform, change behaviors to align with group. If publically you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. Decision making often takes place in groups: -Group polarization is a phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. -all views do not have equal influence -arguments made tend to favor popular view and any criticism is minority - confirmation bias. Group think :occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand -meeting w/ neighborhood to kill dog to protect neighborhood. instead of arguing and having conflict people agree.

Somatosensory tracts

somatosensory information travels via two pathways 1. position sense, vibration sense and fine touch 2. pain, temperature, and gross (less precise) touch Deliver info to spinal cord, spinal cord delivers to brain via tracts, crosser other side then goes to cerebrum. -this is why injury to one side effects the other side. -b/c all somatosensory information crosses sides.

aging and cognitive abilities

some cognitive performance decline, some stay stable stable: implicit memory and recognition memory Improve: semantic memory improves till around 60 -older adults have better verbal skills -ex: crossword puzzles -also, crystallized IQ (ability to use knowledge) Decline: recall becomes difficult, episodic memories (forming new ones are difficult, old ones stable), processing speed declines, and divided attention -prospective memory (remembering to do things in future also decline)

anterior chamber of eye

space filled with aqueous humour, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball; - allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris.

Photo receptors (rods and cones)

specialized nerve that take light and convert it to neural impulse -inside rods are optic disks (thousands of them) -in membrane optic disks, are proteins capable of firing APs -conses are built similar to rods

Trait Theory

stable predisposition towards a certain behavior -puts it in patterns of behavior Surface traits: evident from person's behavior Source Traits: factors underlying human personality What is a trait? -stable characteristic of person that causes them to behave a certain way 1. Gordon Alport: all of us have different traits -Cardinal Traits: traits that direct most person's activities; dominant trait influences all traits -Central Traits: honesty, sociability, shyness -Secondary Trait: preferences or attitude -ex: love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat. Acronym: A Cardinal named Allport Can Sing (Central, Cardinal, Secondary) . 2. Raymond Cattel: proposed we had 16 personality traits that make up personality. proposed the 16 personality factor questionairre (PF) 3. Hans Eysenck: we have all traits, just express them in different degrees. three major dimension to personality: ·extroversion, neuroticism (emotional stability), and psychoticism (degree to which reality is distorted). *However, Eysenck said not all necessarily have psychoticism. Acronym: Eysenck's pen 4. Five Factor Model (big 5 personality traits): -openness: independent vs conforming; imaging vs practical -Conscientiousness: careful vs careless, disciplined vs impulse -Extroversion: talkative vs quiet -Agreeableness: kind vs cold, appreciative vs unfriendly -Neuroticism: stable vs. tense, calm vs anxioius Acronym: OCEAN. ****· Cattell, Eysenck, and Big 5 all use factor analysis - a statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits. Allport's theory did not, he used different methods.

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream -most important for memory consolidation -formation of episodic memories -combination of alpha, beta and desynchronous waves (Acronymn: BATS drink blood) -called paradoxical sleep, b/c brain is active but body is paralyzed -Cycle through these 4-5 times per sleep, each one 90 times. -Order within cycle goes from N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM. .

Responding to stress

stressors like threats and dangers trigger flight or fight response (the SNS) and the endocrine system -SNS Response: flight or fight -Endocrine Response: -adrenal medulla releases catecolamines (epinephrine/norepineprine) -adrenal cortex: releases cortisol -Tend and Befriend response: sometimes the better to response to stress is having support systems -oxytocin is important for this (peer bonding and moderats stress response)

Milgram Study of Obedience

studied in response to holocaust; Nazi officers said "they were just following order" milgram wanted to know if normal people can be made to follow such horrendous orders. Experiment: -deceived study participants in order to recruit participant. posted ads about memory/learning experiment -when participants arrived at lab they were told they were looking at effects of punishment in memory/learning. -confederate was "always randomly" selected as learner participant was teacher. -Learner was hooked to electrodes, and told learner would be shocked when gave wrong answer. Teacher was taken to different room without visual contact, sat in front of shock box. First 15V, and switches increased until 450V. -Whenever they made error, teacher was instructed to give higher shocks with each wrong answer (no actual shocks were given). -After several increasing shocks, learner would cry out in pain and complain about their heart condition. As shocks increased, continued to yell they want to quit. -Finally, all responses would cease and only silence. -Experiment stopped when teacher had 4 verbal protests about the study or when they gave the 450V shock three times. *Teacher was instructed to continue by experimenter, by saying experiment requires you continue, it is absolutely essential you continue, you have no choice. **When results of study came out, very disturbing - 65% of participants shocked all the way. They had protested and were trembling, but still obeyed commander. -In conditions with heart condition actor, dropped a bit, but not much - 63%.

touch

temperature receptors desensitize over time

Self Control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards Humans have natural desires. these aren't necessarily bad. however, they can become temptations, when desires conflicts w/ values or long term goals. -ex: losing weight (eating bad food) THE MARSHMALLOW TEST: kids in school were given marshmallow. were told if they wait 15min they can get another one. -some ate right away, some licked it. -those who waited had better life outcomes in future Ego depletion: idea that self control is limited resource. if you use a lot of it, you can get used up and less to use in the future. -demonstrated by experiment. those who resisted to not eat cookies gave up sooner on other tasks muscle is uses as metaphor for self control. can be strengthened but also depleted. How to improve self control? -change environment: moving snacks to more difficult to reach area -operant conditioning: reinforce good behaviors w/ rewards. ex: watch netflix after hr of studying. -classical conditioning: eat healthy snacks every time you crave chocolate, over time you may start craving healthy snacks -deprivation: removing object of temptation. can be problematic. ex: those w strict diets fall to temptation

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle -controlled by melatonin (produced in pineal gland) -control body temp, sleep cycle, etc -can change as we get older -young=night owl while old=early grind

Iris

the colored part of the eye, which is the muscle that controls the size of the pupil

central executive

the control center of working memory; - it coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage components -this creates integrated representation that stores it in episodic buffer to be stored in long term memory

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment are determined via one another. Social Cognitive theory: behaviors are influenced by person's traits/cognition and social context -Cognition->environment->behavior (order can be reversed) -ex: meg is interested in soccer, joins soccer team, and spends time w/ soccer players -or ex: meg hangs out w/ soccer players, so she joins soccer team to hangout w/ them more, after she plays a while she develops real interest in soccer. Theory developed by bandura(bobo doll experiment guy)

constancy

the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting

vestibular system

three semicircular canals (posterior, interior and anterior) that provide the sense of balance and spatial orientation -Canal is filled w/ endolymph -causes it to shift - allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and the strength of rotation. -Otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. -In these are CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move, and pull on hair cells, which triggers AP

somatosensory homunculus

topological map of the body in the brain (cortex) -information goes to the sensory strip in the cortex part of cortex/parietal lob is sensory cortex -holds the homunculus ex: neurosurgeon would have to touch parts of the cortex and stimulate them for a patient w/ brain tumor to see what sensation is lost.

Cornea

transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, anterior 1/6 -starts to bend light -outermost part of eye

Treatments and triggers for drug dependence

treatments address physiological and psychological to treat, detox. but, sometimes it requires medication -For Opiates such as heroine act at neural receptor site for endorphins to reduce pain and give euphoria. -Methadone activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. -Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and can't experience the high because receptors are already filled. -For tobacco, nicotine patches are used or chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in brain -For alcohol, meds block receptor in reward system of alcohol. also reduce withdrawal symptoms

Operant Conditioning: Escape and Avoidance Learning

two types of aversive control; situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant - examples of negative reinforcement Escape: escape an unpleasant stimulus -ex. fire, element of surprise because you're thrown in condition where you have to find way to get out Avoidance:A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation.

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks, person randomly collapses into REM sleep -possibly b/c lack of alert neurotransmitter -neurochemical intervention can help overcome this

Amplification

up regulation -ex: light hits photoreceptor in the eye and causes cell to fire AP. that AP causes other cells to fir AP and so on.

Tolerance

used to drug, so you need more of it for same effects -shift in dose response curve that causes decrease sensitivity due to exposure

Heritability

variability in traits attributed to difference in genes -% of variation of traits due to genes Assume we say heritability of intelligence (a trait) is 50%. NOT saying that intelligence is 50% genetic, saying that the difference in intelligence is 50% attributable by genes. -control boys environment 100%, yet IQ not the same. so IQ difference is 100% heritable -alternatively, different environment same genes. must be due to environment

Early Methods of studying the brain

wait until person died or wait until brain injury - issue: not conrolled, injury to brain is more than one part of brain usually Broca studied patient w/ loss of speech w/ no other disorders -specific part of frontal lobe was damaged (broca's area). this is now called broca's aphasia

problem solving

we are excellent problem solvers -two categories of problems -well defined: clear starting and endpoint -ill defined: ambigious starting and endpoint Methods of solving problems -trial + errors: take random guesses until something works -Algorithm: methodical approach; logical step by step procedure of trying solution until you hit the right one -Heuristics: mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than the other method; ex: focusing on one category of solutions -Means-end analysis: analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems -current state--> goal state -Working backwards: goal state--> current state -Intuition: relying on instinct. high chance of error Fixation: getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem -if we start solving the problem, we get insight (that aha moment) -problem can also incubate, (insight comes after a while) Type I error: false positive Type II error: false negative

Situational Approach to behavior

we are placed in new situations everyday. these situations effect our behavior. Social Psychology: emphasizes influence of changing environmental circumstances over stable personality traits. -focuses on interactions b/w individual and environment. -People behave differently depending on situation (external vs internal) -Can't judge a person off one situation Attribution: process of inferring causes of events/behavior (either internal or external) -inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they are in. 3 main parts to external attribution -consistency (does he normally behave this way) -distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations) -Consensus (do others behave similarly in situation. *If yes to last 2, then we know situation is influencing their behaviour. **If person is consistent in all situations, then maybe not environment, and more internal.

resource model of attention

we have limited resources in attention. - resources that are easily over tasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once.

parallel processing

we see all information at the same time

Aspects of Collective Behavior: Fads, Mass Hysteria, and Riots

what happens when people in groups behave in ways they are not inline with? Collective behavior: not the same as group behavior b/c of few reasons: -collective behavior is time-limited, and involve short societal interaction while group stay together long time. -collective can be open while groups exclusive -collectives have loose norms while groups are well defined. Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective. 3 types of collective behavior: -Fads: something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large # of people in that time. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people. -example is a "cinnamon challenge" -Mass hysteria:large # of people who experience delusions at same time, reach more people through rumors and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news. Ex. severe weather warnings (mild form). Can also be result of psychology, when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease - mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria. Ex. after anthrax attack in US, over 2000 false alarms. -Riots: - characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes.

Normative and non-normative behavior:

what is normal? Who decides what is normal? Norms are standards for what behaviors, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not -guided by moral/ethical standard Norms vary/are dependent on context, physical locations, culture and by country. Can change with time as individual's attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviors to be valued. -ex: at baseball game, you stand up and yell; if you stand up and yell at work. not acceptable. Norms are reinforced w/ sanctions: rewards/punishments in accord w/ or against norms -positive sanction: reward for conforming to norm -negative sanction: punishment for violating norm -Formal sanction: offically recognized and enforced -informal sanction: does not result in punishment Formal norms are written down informal norms are understood but less precise and have no punishment 4 categories of norms: Folkways - the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time -ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Consequences are not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. Mores - norms based on some moral value/belief. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. -Ex. truthfulness. Don't have serious consequences. Laws - still based on right and wrong, but have formal consequences. -Ex. if you lie under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. Taboos - completely wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community. -Ex. incest and cannibalism.

feature detection and parallel processing

when looking at an object, we need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what we are looking at -3 things we consider (color, form, & motion) Color: trichromatic theory- red (60%), green (30%), blue (10%) -if object reflects red-red light hits red cone-fires AP-brain says oh red Form: Parvocellular pathway- good at spatial resolution but poor temporal (can't detect motion) Motion: Mangocellular pathway- high temporal motion but poor spacial resolution

Perspectives on Deviance: Differential Association, Labeling Theory, and Strain Theory

when norm is violated it is referred to as deviance. Deviance is relative. depends on context, culture, individuals, group and country -ex: most Americans eat meat, vegans are deviant Symbolic interactionism: society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance. Theory of differential association: deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm. -Relationships are important. close relationship w/ deviant person=more likely you will become deviant. Labeling theory: a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. -Primary deviance: no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. person will continue to behave in same way. -athlete uses steroid. whole team uses steroid. -Secondary deviance:more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. -teammates label play as deviant and do not invite him to lunch afterwards. Strain Theory: if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success -ex:athlete attends a school that doesn't have proper baseball training equipment or no coach, or funding. Athlete becomes frustrated and turns to deviant behavior. School lacks the resources, so athlete tries steroids to level the playing field.

Sensory Memory (Register) [info processing model]

where first interact w/ information in environment two components: -iconic (what you see) or echoic (what you hear) Partial Report Technique: report one part of a whole field in a cued recall -participants recalled 9 of 12 letters (75%) Whole report Technique: recall as many elements from the original display -participants recalled 3-5 out of 12 characters(35%)

photoreceptor distribution in retina

where optic nerve connects to retina -blind spot (no cones or rods) rods found in periphery while cones found in fovea At fovea, no axons in the way of light, so there is high resolution At periphery, light has to go through bundle of axons, thus energy is lost; = less resolution= less light goes to rods

Sclera

whites of the eye, thick fibrous tissue that covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball. Attachment point for muscles.

smell (olfaction)

why do dogs pee on fire hydrant? -b/c of pheromes (specialized olfactory cells) pheromes are chemical signals that triggers an innate response if sensed by others -important for mating, fighting and communication Animals have accessory olfactory epithelium where it sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb, which then sends signals to the brain. -within olfactory epithelium there is a vomeronasal system which have basal and apical cells -Molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal cell/apical cell here. -Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the amygdala (part of the brain)

motivational interviewing

working w/ patient to find intrinsic motivation to change -can open door to group meetings or CBT

sleep apnea

you stop breathing while sleeping -body is aware, wakes up long enought to grasp for air, then falls back asleep -not enough N3 -snoring is indication -fatigue after full night sleep

Visual field processing

• How our brain makes sense of what we're looking at. Right side of body controlled by left side, vice versa. How does it work in vision? • All right visual field goes to left side of brain, all left visual field goes to right side of brain. -Ray of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye (vice versa )