KHAN ACADEMY & KAPLAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain cells called neurons send information and instructions throughout the brain and body. The information is sent via electro-chemical signals known as ________ that travel down the length of the neuron.

-Action potentials

How action potentials work?

-During the resting state (before an action potential occurs) all of the gated sodium and potassium channels are closed. These gated channels are different from the leakage channels, and only open once an action potential has been triggered. -These channels are "voltage-gated" bc they are open and closed depends on the voltage difference across the cell membrane. Voltage-gated sodium channels have two gates (gate m and gate h), while the potassium channel only has one (gate n). -Gate m (the activation gate) is normally closed, and opens when the cell starts to get more positive. -Gate h (the deactivation gate) is normally open, and swings shut when the cells gets too positive. -Gate n is normally closed, but slowly opens when the cell is depolarized (very positive).

Absolute refractory period

-During this time it is absolutely impossible to send another action potential. The inactivation (h) gates of the sodium channels lock shut for a time, and make it so no sodium will pass through. No sodium means no depolarization, which means no action potential. Absolute refractory periods help direct the action potential down the axon, because only channels further downstream can open and let in depolarizing ions.

Relative refractory period

-During this time, it is really hard to send an action potential. This is the period after the absolute refractory period, when the h gates are open again. However, the cell is still hyperpolarized after sending an action potential. It would take even more positive ions than usual to reach the appropriate depolarization potential than usual. This means that the initial triggering event would have to be bigger than normal in order to send more action potentials along. Relative refractory periods can help us figure how intense a stimulus is - cells in your retina will send signals faster in bright light than in dim light, because the trigger is stronger.

Action Potential (AP)

-Electrical impulses that send signals around your body, nothing more than a temporary shift (from negative to positive) in the neuron's membrane potential caused by ions suddenly flowing in and out of the neuron.

Action potential frequency

-How often action potentials are sent. -Number of potentials produced per unit of time to a stimulus.

Resting membrane potential

-It is -70mV. -Regular state of a negative concentration gradient, more negative ions inside. -More sodium ions Na+ outside than inside the neuron. -More potassium ions K+ inside than outside the neuron.

Concentration gradients

-Key on how action potentials work. -The difference in ion concentrations between the inside of the neuron and the outside of the neuron (called extracellular fluid).

Dendrites

-Receive signals from neighboring neurons (like a radio antenna).

There is a maximum frequency at which a single neuron can send action potentials, and this is determined by its?

-Refractory periods.

Myelin sheath

-Speeds up signal transmission along the axon.

One of the main characteristics that differentiates an action potential from a different kind of electrical signal called graded potentials?

-The action potential is the major signal sent down the axon, while graded potentials at the dendrites and cell body vary in size and influence whether an action potential will be sent or not. -Graded potentials are small changes in membrane potential that are either excitatory (depolarize the membrane) or inhibitory (hyperpolarize the membrane). -Many excitatory graded potentials have to happen at once to depolarize the cell body enough to trigger the action potential.

The cell however maintains a fairly consistent negative concentration gradient (between -40 to -90 millivolts). How?

-The neuron cell membrane is super permeable to potassium ions, and so lots of potassium leaks out of the neuron through potassium leakage channels (holes in the cell wall). -The neuron cell membrane is partially permeable to sodium ions, so sodium atoms slowly leak into the neuron through sodium leakage channels. -The cell wants to maintain a negative resting membrane potential, so it has a pump that pumps potassium back into the cell and pumps sodium out of the cell at the same time.

Axon

-Transmit signals over a distance (like telephone wires).

Axon terminal

-Transmit signals to other neuron dendrites or tissues (like a radio transmitter).

Explain 3 main events that take place during an action potential?

0)A triggering event occurs that depolarizes the cell body. This signal comes from other cells connecting to the neuron, and it causes positively charged ions to flow into the cell body. Positive ions still flow into the cell to depolarize it, but these ions pass through channels that open when a specific chemical, known as a neurotransmitter, binds to the channel and tells it to open. Neurotransmitters are released by cells near the dendrites, often as the end result of their own action potential! These incoming ions bring the membrane potential closer to 0, which is known as depolarization. An object is polar if there is some difference between more negative and more positive areas. As positive ions flow into the negative cell, that difference, and thus the cell's polarity, decrease. If the cell body gets positive enough that it can trigger the voltage-gated sodium channels found in the axon, then the action potential will be sent. 1)Depolarization: -Makes the cell less polar (membrane potential gets smaller as ions quickly begin to equalize the concentration gradients) . Voltage-gated sodium channels at the part of the axon closest to the cell body activate, thanks to the recently depolarized cell body. This lets positively charged sodium ions flow into the negatively charged axon, and depolarize the surrounding axon. We can think of the channels opening like dominoes falling down - once one channel opens and lets positive ions in, it sets the stage for the channels down the axon to do the same thing. Though this stage is known as depolarization, the neuron actually swings past equilibrium and becomes positively charged as the action potential passes through! 2)Repolarization: -Brings the cell back to resting potential. The inactivation gates of the sodium channels close, stopping the inward rush of positive ions. At the same time, the potassium channels open. There is much more potassium inside the cell than out, so when these channels open, more potassium exits than comes in. This means the cell loses positively charged ions, and returns back toward its resting state. Hyperpolarization: -Makes the cell more negative than its typical resting membrane potential. As the action potential passes through, potassium channels stay open a little bit longer, and continue to let positive ions exit the neuron. This means that the cell temporarily hyperpolarizes, or gets even more negative than its resting state. As the potassium channels close, the sodium-potassium pump works to reestablish the resting state.

Three states a Voltage-gated sodium channels exist?

1-Deactivated (closed) - at rest, channels are deactivated. The m gate is closed, and does not let sodium ions through. 2-Activated (open) - when a current passes through and changes the voltage difference across a membrane, the channel will activate and the m gate will open. 3-Inactivated (closed) - as the neuron depolarizes, the h gate swings shut and blocks sodium ions from entering the cell.

3 main events that take place during an action potential

1. Depolarization. 2. Repolarization. 3. Hyperpolarization.