Language Development Final

Which of the following observations is more likely to provide evidence for an early differentiation of the phonological systems in bilingual children?

Maneva and Genesee (2002) reported that a baby in Montreal who was exposed to both French and English babbled in French when he was interacting with his French-speaking parent but babbled in English when interacting with his English-speaking parent.

Individual differences in children's grammatical development show that ____.

children are equally successful at learning a grammar regardless of whether they adopt a holistic or analytic style.

Across languages ________________.

children generally learn morphemes which are highly frequent and perceptually salient first.

In alphabetic systems such as English (and Russian, Korean, and many more), the symbols (i.e., the letters) correspond to phonemes. This letter-phoneme correspondence is known as _____________.

the alphabetic principle

Speech sounds are the acoustic signals languages use to express meaning. Of all the possible noises humans can produce, some __________ speech sounds are used in the 7000 or more languages in the world (https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/how-many-languages).

200

Sometime around 18 months of age, but ranging from 15 to 24 months, children achieve a productive vocabulary of ________ words.

50

According to Miller and Chapman (1981), children with MLU between 3 and 3.49 would be in ______ of grammatical development.

Early IV

All of the following observations except ______________ provide evidence for individual differences in morpho-syntactic development.

Early multiword sentences tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, whereas negations and questions are rare and come much later.

Constructivism grew out of:

Piaget's views on cognitive and language development.

Dickinson & Tabors (2001) measured the language experience of 85 children from low-income homes at ages 3 and 4 years and their oral language and emergent literacy skills at age 5 years, when the children were in kindergarten. Their results showed all of the following except _____________.

The amount of reading children do predicts their vocabulary size, and the amount that children are read to as preschoolers is a strong predictor of their later success in learning to read.

Developmental dyslexia is the term applied to children whose reading ability is lower than would be expected on the basis of their IQ. Which of the following is NOT true about developmental dyslexia?

The core problem in most cases of dyslexia involves letter recognition and visual processing deficits, such as the ability to distinguish among visually similar letters b and d.

Cummins (2000) suggests that achieving the level of second language proficiency necessary for literacy and academic achievement takes children _______________.

between 5 and 7 years

Studies examining the rate of language development in bilingual children have found that _________________________.

bilingual children's language development is within the normal range, but the actual rate may be different for each their languages

Peters (1994) suggests that because blind children are more dependent than sighted children are on speech as a means of social interaction, they are motivated to adopt a "pick it up and use it before you have time to analyze it" (Peters, 1994, p. 200) approach to language. This may explain why ___________________.

blind children frequently rely on rote-memorized formulaic speech to participate in conversation

Children's past tense overregularizations (e.g. saying "goed" instead of "went") demonstrate that _____.

children have learned the regular rule for the past tense.

Behaviorism refers to the study of:

how behavior changes in response to occurrences in prior behavior.

Most research on language acquisition was conducted:

to establish norms in large-scale studies.

All the following observations EXCEPT ____________________ show the effect of bilingual exposure on the development of phoneme perception.

Two month old infants who are exposed to English only can distinguish English from

All of the following except ____________ are true of the distinction between comprehension and production vocabularies?

Although some words enter the lexicon as context-bound words and gradually become decontextualized, other words are contextually flexible from the time the child first uses them.

It is hypothesized that the greater discriminability of phonemes in infant-directed speech may help the establishment of phonemic categories (i.e., help children to learn the sound repertoire in their native language). Which of the following studies provides results that support this hypothesis?

Liu, Kuhl, & Tsao (2003) found that mothers who produce more discriminable vowels in their infant-directed speech have infants who demonstrate better speech perception skills in laboratory tests.

The importance of communication for the development of language is that ________.

children appear to require a live communicative context to motive their learning.

Which of the following is true about Open and Closed class words in language?

open class words are content words and closed class words are function words.

Language productivity (or generativity) refers to the fact that ____________.

speakers and hearers have the capacity to produce and understand an infinite number of novel sentences.

All of the following except _________________ indicate the impact of environmental factors on lexical development?

4 and 5 year old children with better phonological memory skills had more advanced vocabularies at both ages.

When children reach the _______________ word milestone around the age of 18 months, the rate at which new words appear in the children's vocabularies increases from 8 to 11 words per month to an average rate of 22 to 37 words per month. In this period of rapid lexical growth, children often learn a new word after only a single exposure.

50

The "fis" phenomenon refers to an oft-cited example of one child's refusal to accept "fis" as the label for his toy fish, even though "fis" was how the child produced the word (Berko & Brown, 1960). It is used as evidence that children's perceptual abilities are often in advance of their productive abilities. It suggests that children's immature productions do not necessarily imply that children incomplete mental representations of how the word is supposed to sound. Which of the following may also serve as an example for the 'fis' phenomenon?

A child named Alissa pronounced her name as though it were "yitya" for a long time. However, if someone else teasingly called her "yitya," she became quite incensed.

The high-amplitude sucking (HAS) technique is one of the most widely used experimental procedures that reveal when babies perceive two sounds as different from each other. It makes use of all the following characteristics of babies EXCEPT ___________________. HAS doesn't work very well with babies older than 4 months.

Babies show a particular change in electrical activity in the brain coincident with a change in the sound presented.

Which of the following is an example of over-extension, that is, children sometimes use their words more broadly than the meaning truly allows?

Bowerman (1978) reported that her daughter used the word moon to refer to the moon, to a ball of spinach, to hangnails she was pulling off, to half a Cheerio, to curved steer horns mounted on a wall, and to the magnetic capital letter D she was about to put on the refrigerator, to list a few

All of the following except _______________may count as evidence for the idea that communicative development and linguistic development are somewhat separable strands of development.

Choi (1991) found that Korean children under the age of 2 years used different sentence-ending suffixes, depending on whether the sentence they were producing was a statement or a request.

All of the following except ___________ provide evidence for the impact of maternal speech on vocabulary development.

Fernald et al. (2006) found that children who have shown more rapid vocabulary growth between 12 and 25 months are more rapid word processors at 25 months than children the same age with a slower rate of lexical growth.

One group of researchers played recordings of their mothers' and a stranger's voice to 38-week-old fetuses (i.e., fetuses 2 weeks before they were due to be born), using a loudspeaker placed 10 cm away from the mothers' abdomens. The fetuses' heart rates went up in response to their mothers' voices and down in response to a stranger's voice, demonstrating that the fetuses made a discrimination (Kisilevsky et al.,2003). Results like this suggest that ____________________.

Fetuses seem not only to hear but to remember what they hear.

All of the following except _________________ provide evidence for the role of parents in children's narrative development?

French, Lucariello, Seidman, and Nelson (1985) found that when children share contextual knowledge, their conversations are longer and their language use is more advanced than when they do not share background knowledge.

Telegraphic speech is so called primarily because it misses _______________

Function words and bound morphemes that mark plural, possessive, or tense

Beginning as early as 6 months, the sounds that babies produce are somewhat influenced by the language that they hear. This phenomenon is known as babbling drift. Which of the following study provides evidence for the babbling drift?

In the study of de Boysson-Bardies, Sagart, and Durand (1984), French speakers were asked to listen to pairs of either French and Arabic babies' babbling or French and Chinese babies' babbling, and then to judge which sample of each pair came from a French baby. French speakers were able to make that judgment correctly about 70 percent of the time (i.e., better than chance) on the basis of the recordings of 8-month-olds.

Which of the following is considered contextually flexible word use (in contrast to context-bound word use)?

Jenny said "no" while pushing a drink away, while crawling to a step she was not allowed to climb, and while refusing a request by her mother (Harris and colleagues, 1988).

All of the following except ____________ provide evidence for children's productivity, that is, evidence that they are not merely repeating what they have heard when they talk.

Olguin and Tomasello (1993) found that 2-year-old children do not readily use newly taught verbs in structures they have not heard.

A chronological view of child language development demonstrates that children learn language in the following stages:

Phonology, vocabulary, grammar.

Which of the following observations suggests that over-extensions do not necessarily result from incomplete word meanings?

Rescorla (1980) found that the incidence of overextensions declined as children acquired more differentiated vocabularies (e.g., learning words for animals other than dog).

Child language research paralleled studies in linguistics in which of the following ways?

Research in the 1960s focused on children's grammatical development, then focused on theory; later in the 1980s and 1990s, research focused on syntax as well as lexicon and pragmatics.

Researchers examine communication function in terms of how it:

a. leads to acquiring language form, b. acts independently of language form in child language acquisition. c.forms the basis for learning language forms. (all of these are true)

Phonemes are the meaningfully different sounds in a given language. A phoneme may be produced in different ways in a language. And the variations of the same phoneme in a language, such as the aspirated and unaspirated /p/, are called the phoneme's _________.

allophones

All of the following except _________________ have been proposed to explain children's omissions of function words in telegraphic speech.

children have developed a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations.

Children's early narratives are said to be conversational in nature because __________.

children tell them in a conversational context in which their parents ask questions and probe for needed information.

The development of children's use of questions shows that _______.

children understand both interpretations of a complex wh-question ("When did the boy say he hurt himself?") while still in preschool.

Vygotsky's theory of the function of private speech suggests that:

children use private speech in a stage of transition, during which self-talk slowly is internalized.

The study of language development is used as an applied research topic for:

children who have a variety of conditions, including mental retardation, brain injury, and hearing impairment.

All of the following except _____________ provide evidence for the role of maternal responsivity in language and communicative development.

children with older siblings—who provide competition for access to their mother as a conversational partner—are particularly skillful at entering and sustaining participation in conversations

Figure 5.2 represents results of Goldfield and Reznick's (1990) study of vocabulary development. In this study, they carefully documented the rate of vocabulary development in 18 children whom they studied from the age of 14 months until each child achieved a 75-word vocabulary. The results in Figure 5.2 suggest all of the following except _______________.

children younger than 18 months or with vocabularies of fewer than 50 words are not as good at learning new words in an experimental situation as are older children or those with larger vocabularies

Swingley and Aslin (2000) explored whether young children were sensitive to small mispronunciations in the words they know. They presented 18- to 23-month-olds with familiar words that were pronounced either correctly or incorrectly. The incorrect pronunciations changed only a single segment (e.g., baby was pronounced vaby). The infants' task was to look at the matching picture out of two presented on a screen in front of the baby (e.g., a picture of a baby versus a picture of a dog). They found that the babies in this study turned to the matching picture more quickly when the word was pronounced correctly. Results like this suggest that ________________________________.

children's representation of familiar words includes fine phonetic detail.

According to Piaget, when preschool children engage in spontaneous conversations, they do not participate in true dialogue because, according to Piaget, the child is "unable to place himself at the point of view of his hearer" due to his egocentrism and has "no desire to influence his hearer or to tell him anything". According to Piaget, although preschool children may take turns talking, each speaker's turn has little to do with the previous speaker's turn. Rather, each child is producing his or her own monologue, albeit with interruptions for the other child's monologue. Accordingly, Piaget termed such interactions _______________.

collective monologues

While infants have the sensory capacity to discriminate between minimally different phones (e.g., /p/ versus /b/), they may process speech in terms of syllables rather than individual phones. This proposal is supported by a study of 4-day-old infants, which has found that the babies ________ distinguish a sequence of two-syllable sounds (such as rifo, ublo) from a sequence of three-syllable sounds (rekivu, kesopa); but they _________ discriminate a two-syllable sequence with four phonemes (rifo, ublo) from a two-syllable sequence with six phonemes (treklu, suldri) (Bijeljac-Babic, Bertoncini, & Mehler, 1993).

could; could not

Children's use of gesture:

demonstrates the child's communicative interest prior to using formal language.

In a now classic experiment using the HAS procedure, Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk, and Vigorito (1971) played artificially synthesized syllables to 1-and 4-month-old babies in three different conditions. In the first condition, babies habituated to a 20-msec VOT sound and then were presented with a 40-msec VOT sound. Babies in this condition _____________ when the new sound was presented. (Remember the phoneme boundary between /b/ and /p/ is 25 msec.) In the second condition, babies habituated to either a 20-msec VOT sound or a 60-msec VOT sound and then were presented with a new sound that had a 20-msec longer VOT lag. Babies in this group did not significantly increase their sucking. In a third control condition, babies were presented with the same sound even after they had habituated to it, and no increase in sucking occurred. Figure 4.5 summarizes the results. These results suggest that infants also exhibit categorical perception as adults and they sort sounds into phonemic categories with little, if any, experience.

increased their sucking

Maye, Werker, and Gerken (2002) set out to test the hypothesis that __________________. They gave 6-and 8-month-old English-learning infants two different types of experience hearing sounds along the /d/-/t/ continuum. Some infants received a bimodal distribution of experience (as in the dotted line in the figure below) and heard sounds near the endpoints more frequently than they heard sounds in the middle of the range. Other infants received a unimodal distribution of experience (as in the solid line in the figure below) and heard sounds in the middle more frequently than sounds at either end. Next, the infants' abilities to make the /d/-/t/ discrimination was tested. The infants who heard the bimodal distribution were able to distinguish between /d/ and /t/; the babies who heard the unimodal distribution could not.

infants' attention to frequency distribution of acoustic properties of the speech signals in the input affects their speech perception development

The Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), the average length of children's utterances counted in morphemes, ____________________. It is calculated by first collecting a speech sample of a child interacting with an adult, and then dividing the total number of morphemes by the total number of utterances in a speech sample.

is a good predictor of children's grammatical abilities.

Although English has both an aspirated /p/ sound as in 'speak' and an unaspirated /p/ sound as in 'peak', the form p takes depends on the sound that precedes it, and English speakers automatically produce the correct form. There is never a case in which two words differ only in the use of aspirated /p/ or unaspirated /p/. Because aspiration is never the basis for a contrast between two words in English, aspiration ___________ a distinctive feature in English and it does not carry meaning.

is not

In many cultures, adults use a particular way of speaking with babies (Fernald et al., 1989; Grieser & Kuhl, 1988). This style of speech is called—motherese, or infant-directed speech or child-directed speech. Infant-directed speech ________________.

is produced with a higher-pitched voice, a wider range of pitches, longer pauses, a slower tempo, and shorter phrases than adult-directed speech. might support language acquisition by providing particularly clean examples of the sounds to be learned. is preferred over adult-directed speech for infants. all of the above

Which of the following observations provides evidence for the many-to-many relationship between linguistic form and communicative function (e.g., a single linguistic form can be used for different functions or the same function can be expressed by different linguistic forms)?

one 2-year-old girl used simple imperatives in expressing requests to other 2-year-olds at preschool, but she usually modified her imperatives by adding "Please" in making requests to 3-year-olds, and she used questions when making requests of 4-year-olds.

In some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, the same sound or sound combination uttered in different tones can be different words. For example, /bā/ produced with a high tone that neither rises nor falls means "eight," and /bá/ produced with a rising tone means "to pull" (C. N. Li & Thompson, 1977). Here is the question, the brackets or slashes before and after a sound as in the previous Chinese examples indicate that the sound is written in _____________.

phonetic transcription

Around 18 months of age, children appear to have developed systematic ways in which to alter the sounds of the target language so that they fit within the repertoire of sounds they can produce. These systematic transformations are called _________________.

phonological processes

Consonants differ both in where the vocal tract is closed (this feature is called ____________ ) and in how the vocal tract is closed (this feature is called __________________).

place of articulation; manner of articulation

Theories of language development can be divided into several categories of research, including:

studying different aspects of cognitive development, perspectives on language development, and theories of childhood development.

Sometime around 6 to 9 months of age, the quality of infants' vocalizations changes, and the infants start to babble. What emerges is canonical, or reduplicated, babbling. Canonical babbling is distinguished from the vocalizations that precede it by the presence of true_________________, that are typically produced in reduplicated series of the same consonant and vowel combination, such as [dada]. The appearance of canonical babbling is a major landmark in the infant's prespeech development.

syllables

In Figure 4.2., infant 2 does not increase his or her sucking rate, this is because _____________.

the baby was unable to make the discrimination. the bay was just uninterested in the new sound. the baby was uninterested in the whole procedure, crying, sleeping, or doing other things that babies are wont to do. All of the above are possible (That is, we can't know whether the baby was unable to make the discrimination or was just uninterested in the new sound, uninterested in the whole procedure, crying, sleeping, or doing other things that babies are wont to do).

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the predominance of nouns in English-speaking children's early vocabularies. Which of the hypotheses considers the question why some words are acquired earlier than others as a language learning problem, rather than a problem of children's cognitive or linguistic understanding?

the meanings of nouns are clearer from context than the meanings of verbs, and it is easier for children to use nonlinguistic and linguistic context to map nouns onto their meanings

The study of lexical development is the study of the child's acquisition of a mental lexical. Which of the following statements may be true of the mental lexicon?

the mental lexicon is like a dictionary in the head. the mental lexicon is essentially the knowledge of words that adults have. the mental lexicon consists of phonological, grammatical and semantic information all of the above

It's been observed that by 18 months, children hearing a novel word will look around for a novel object rather than take the novel word as a label for something familiar that is in view. This observation may provide support for children's use of __________________ to solve word-referent mapping problem.

the mutual exclusivity assumption

Roger Brown's (1973) longitudinal study of the 14 grammatical morphemes in English by three children, Adam, Sarah and Even, suggests all of the following except _______________.

18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect (Santelmann & Jusczyk, 1998).

L. Bloom and associates (1976) examined child-adult interactions and found developmental changes in the kind of contingent responses that children produced. The frequency of contextually contingent responses such as ________________ declined with age, whereas the frequency of linguistically contingent responses increased.

ADULT: Where's the other sock? CHILD: See my sitting on it.

The degree to which children master a second language in childhood is a function both of characteristics of the children and of the sociocultural environment in which they are exposed to a second language. Here is the question. Which of the following observations suggests the effect of sociocultural environment on the degree to which children master a second language in childhood?

According to Jia & Aaronson (1999), the best learning occurs in children who become so assimilated by the new speech community that the new language becomes their dominant language.

Which of the following provides evidence that the amount or type of exposure to each language the child receives contributes to variability in bilingual development?

Chan and McBride-Chang (2005) found that among kindergarten children in Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong, those who were cared for by Filipina foreign domestic helpers demonstrated better vocabulary knowledge in English and poorer vocabulary knowledge in Cantonese than did the children who were cared for by their Cantonese-speaking relatives.

Although children accomplish the basics of language development by the age of 4 to 5 years, language development does not stop at that point. Evidence for continued phonological development in the school years, for example, may include all of the following EXCEPT _______________________.

Changes in both the size and the composition of children's lexicons continues after early childhood.

A key issue in the study of simultaneous bilingualism is language differentiation. According to the differentiation with interdependent development hypothesis, _________________________.

Children differentiate the two languages they hear, but the course of the development of each is influenced by the other

Affixing (i.e., adding an affix '-er' to a root word 'preach' to form the word 'preacher') and compounding (i.e., combining two existing words 'tree' and 'house' to form 'treehouse') are two important word formation processes. Clark and Hecht (1982) found that when asked questions such as "What could we call someone who gives things?" 3-year-olds were likely to produce compounds like giveman, whereas 5-year-olds consistently used the -er suffix to derive forms like giver. The observation from this study suggests that _________________________.

Compounding appears to be an earlier acquired word formation process than affixing.

Using the headturn procedure, Goodsitt, Morse, ver Hoeve, and Cowan (1984) found that 6-month-old infants could iscriminate between /ba/ and /du/ with no difficulty, correctly discriminated /kokodu/ from /kokoba/ (where /ba/ and /du/ were embedded in a redundant sequence) 75 percent of the time, but they were able to discriminate mixed sequences such as /kotiba/ from /kotidu/ (where /ba/ and /du/ were embedded in a complex mixed sequence) only 67 percent of the time. These results suggest that ____________________.

Discriminating speech sounds embedded in multisyllabic strings is more difficult for infants than is discriminating isolated contrasts, and the more complex the string, the more difficult it is.

Language development may lag behind nonlinguistic cognition, as it does in persons with______________, or it may exceed nonlinguistic cognitive abilities, as it does in persons with______________.

Down syndrome; Williams syndrome

Phonotactic knowledge refers to the knowledge of constraints on how he sounds of their language can combine to form words. Which of the following is an example of phonotactic knowledge?

English speakers intuitively know that "kpakali" or "zloty" are not English words.

In the expression of spatial relations, both English and Korean distinguish between containment and support: the bowl is on the table and the apples are in the bowl. However, Korean makes an additional distinction between loose containment (as in the apples in the bowl) and tight containment (as in a piece in a puzzle), whereas English does not have different words for loose and tight containment. Will adult speakers of Korean make more mental distinctions about containment than English speakers by virtue of their language? The answer seems to be YES, according to the results of a study by McDonough, Choi, and Mandler (2003) who observed that __________________.

English speaking 9-to-14 month old children noticed the distinction between loose and tight containment in a preferential looking task, but English speaking adults didn't.

The relation of mean length of utterance (MLU) to age for the three children Adam, Eve, and Sarah is depicted in Figure 6.6. It shows that _______________ faster in morphosyntactic development as measured by MLU than the other two children. For example, _____________ reached an MLU of 3 at the age of 24 months, whereas the other two children reached an MLU of 3 at about 36 months and 38 months respectively.

Eve

All of the following studies EXCEPT ______________ are concerned with the development of comprehension monitoring (i.e., the process of message evaluation).

Flavell et al. (1981) gave kindergartners and second-graders the task of making buildings with blocks according to instructions that they were told had been previously tape-recorded by a 12-year-old named Kiersten. Sometimes the instructions were clear, and sometimes they were contradictory, incomplete, or impossible to execute with the blocks available. They found that second graders were more likely than kindergartners to express difficulty in following the inadequate instructions

Sequential or successive bilingualism is likely to occur in all of the following situations EXCEPT _________________.

French/English bilingual parents in the French/English bilingual community of Quebec might speak French and English to their infant, who would also hear both languages from other sources

___________________, as measured by tests of children's ability to understand complex syntactic and morphological forms, also predicts success at learning to read (Snow et al., 1998), although it is less strongly related to reading than either phonological skills or vocabulary.

Grammatical knowledge

Styles of language use associated with particular social settings or listeners are called registers. All of the following except ___________________ show that young children are sensitive to the use of different registers.

Harris (2007) noticed that higher SES mothers asked more question than did lower SES mothers and that children from 18 months to 5 years of age showed the same pattern of difference.

Researchers have proposed several sentence comprehension strategies that children use, and these include 'word order strategy', 'order of mention strategy', and 'probable event strategy'. However, none of these strategies seem to allow children to interpret the sentence in _____________ correctly.

I broke my balloon because I cried.

Which of the following children negative sentence forms involve constructions with internal negative marker but no auxiliaries?

I no want envelop

Children use most of the different types of complex sentences by the age of 4. Which of the following types of complex sentences would be the earliest to appear in children's spontaneous speech?

I think language development is interesting.

In their work on the achievement of French by English-speaking Canadians, R. C. Gardner and Lambert (1972) distinguished two motivations for learning a second language. __________________ motivation included reasons such as needing to speak French for employment purposes. _______________ motivation included a desire to be part of the French-speaking community. Gardner and Lambert found that an integrative motivation was associated with more Successful language learning.

Instrumental; Integrative

Consider the morpheme -ist, which means a person who performs an action: an illusionist is someone who performs illusions and a typist is someone who types. What kind of morpheme is this and why?

It is derivational morpheme because it changes the kind (the syntactic category) of word it is on: type is a verb but typist is a noun.

All of the following except ______________ are true of individual differences in vocabulary development.

Lexical representations are built gradually and become more complete and more robust with development. As lexical representations become stronger, children become able to access them more rapidly.

One question that arises in characterizing the language of children with SLI is whether their language is only delayed or whether it is also deviant. Grimm & Weinert (1990) observed that German-speaking SLI children produced utterances with word order errors both at a higher rate than do typically developing younger children and with other structural features that are extremely unusual in German. The observations of Grimm & Weinert (1990) are used to provide argument for ___________.

SLI as having deviant grammars

One view of our syntactic (and morphological) knowledge suggests that it consists of a system of rules that operate over abstract or symbolic representations. Which of the following hypothetical rule would best accommodate the productive nature of language (NOTE: the "=" sign can be read as 'consists of' or 'is rewritten as' or 'is made up of')?

Sentence = Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase (where Verb Phrase can be a verb plus an optional noun).

The degree to which children master a second language in childhood is a function both of characteristics of the children and of the sociocultural environment in which they are exposed to a second language. Here is the question. Which of the following observations suggests the effect of the characteristics of the children on the degree to which children master a second language in childhood?

Ultimate mastery of the grammar and the ability to speak without an accent are better achieved by younger learners. According to Flege (1995), second language learners who begin at 2 years have an advantage over those who begin at 6 years, And those beginning at 6 have an advantage over those who begin at 12.

Code switching is _________________________.

a systematic shifting between languages that is sensitive to grammatical structure and also social situations.

Which of the following teachers would be most likely to improve the language abilities of the children in her class?

a teacher who used a range of sentence types, including complex ones, and also used more advanced vocabulary items.

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, and they come in different kinds. The progressive morpheme "-ing" (as in "Amy is singing") is ________.

a bound morpheme, because it adds meaning to the verb but it cannot stand alone in the sentence.

Simultaneous bilingualism is when _________________________.

a child learns two languages at the same time from birth.

Which of the following is an example of using words referentially?

a child says 'duck' while pointing to a duck in the pond

A child who responds by saying "I like trucks" after her mother says "Eat your peas!" has demonstrated which of the following?

a non-contingent response

A child is fussing and staring towards a favorite blanket out of her reach. Her mother notices the child's distress and fetches the blanket of the child. This child has effectively engaged in what kind of communicative act?

a perlocutionary act

Joint attention is ________.

a social-communicative act in which two persons jointly attend to some third entity

Which of the following is a good example decontextualized language?

a written story book

Evidence for lexical differentiation in bilingual children typically includes ______________.

degree of overlap between the vocabularies of the child's two languages

Are you interested in children's ability to learn from imperfect input? Studies of deaf children who learn sign from their parents who are not themselves native signers show that __________.

although the parents make errors typical of late learners of a language, their children do not.

Loewenstein and Gentner (2005) presented preschoolers with a task in which they had to find a "winner" in a three-tiered box after they had seen where the "winner" was in a different three-tiered box. The position of the winner in the test box always corresponded to the position of the winner in the box they were shown. Half the children were just shown the position of the winner accompanied by the statement "Let's look at this one," and half were shown the position accompanied by a statement that labeled the relative location, such as "let's look at the one at the top of the box." Among 3½-year-olds, children who were provided the label were more successful at test than children not provided the label. Four-year-olds, in contrast, were generally successful whether or not they heard the label. Here is the question. These results were suggested to provide evidence that _________________ based on relational similarity is a form of thinking that is supported by language.

analogical reasoning

Young children's ability to comprehend language ___________.

are generally ahead of their ability to produce the same language.

Piaget's views on children's egocentric language:

are questioned by researchers today.

Suzy is a first grader who has the typical comprehension monitoring difficulties of a child her age. She is given a set of blocks and directions for how to arrange them, but the directions are incomplete and actually won't lead to a coherent arrangement. Suzy is most likely to respond to these directions by _________.

arranging the blocks as best she can, as if she did not notice the instructions were bad.

Longitudinal studies have found that differences among children in phonological awareness before they learn to read predicts their later reading skill—through at least the fourth grade. All of the following EXCEPT ____________ are examples of tasks that measure phonological awareness.

ask children to tell the names of the letters of the alphabet and the sound associated with each letter

Liberman, Shankweiler, Fischer, & Carter (1974) found that about 50 percent of 4- and 5-year-olds can tap out the number of syllables in a mutisyllabic word. By contrast, Liberman and associates (1974) found that no 4-year-olds and only 17 percent of 5-year-olds were able to tap out the number of phonemes in words. The contrast suggests that ___________________.

awareness of phonemes as units is a later development than awareness of syllables, onset, and rimes.

Blind children often fail to appropriately generalize words, using new words as names for specific referents rather than as names for _____________ (Dunlea, 1989), which suggests that visually accessible information plays a role in learning the extensions of categories.

categories

Factors which contribute to lexical development in children after over the school years include all of the following except __________________.

children all over the world (many without benefit of literacy) invent secret languages such as pig latin, which depend on the manipulation of phonemes.

The continuity assumption argues that __________.

children and adults both have the same kinds of grammatical representations and the differences between adults and children arise from experience-based knowledge and processing limitations of children.

Phonological awareness in pre-school aged children is important because it predicts __________.

children's reading ability through 4th grade.

Figure 9.1 shows the estimated vocabulary size of first-, third-, and fifth-graders. According to these estimates, children's vocabularies increased by 9000 words from first to third grade and by 20,000 words from third to fifth grade. These data suggest that vocabulary growth proceeds at an even more rapid pace than during the preschool years. Here is the question. These estimated were obtained by asking first-, third-, and fifth-graders to _____________.

choose the best definition for each word in a sample of entries from a dictionary

A. Gopnik and Meltzoff (1984, 1986) followed children longitudinally and found that words that encode disappearance, like gone, appeared in children's vocabularies at about the same time as they were successful on a nonlinguistic task that measures understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of view. Results like these are used to provide support for the view that _______________________.

cognitive development and lexical development go hand in hand

It is in the area of_________________, rather than_________________, that individuals with autism show the most clear and significant impairment. In some ways, the language profile presented by individuals with autism seems to illustrate the dissociability of language and communication and the separate contributions to language acquisition of (1) a computational mechanism for acquiring the grammar and (2) the social/cognitive underpinnings of communicative development.

communicative competence; linguistic competence

Jill de Villiers and Thomas Roeper (1995) presented 3- to 6-year-old children with stories like below, and asked them two separate questions: (1) "When did the boy say he fell?" or (2) "When did the boy say how he fell?". They found that that even 3-year-olds knew that there were two possible answers of the first question and that the word "how" in the second question made only one answer possible. Here is the question. Children's performance in response to questions like these makes it clear that they know subtle aspects of ________________ at a very young age.

complex syntax

Studies of how children in special populations learn language shed light on ask how different human abilities contribute to the language acquisition process. For example, studying language development in ______________ can help us discover whether language depends on the auditory-vocal channel or whether language is a function of the human brain that can make use of other channels if the typical channel is unavailable.

deaf children

Research on children using American Sign Language (ASL) as their first language indicates that _______.

deaf children make the same types of errors and learn language elements in the same sequence as hearing children.

A language skill that seems to particularly depend on school experience is the ability to provide definitions of words (Kurland & Snow, 1997). A definition describes a word in terms of other words. Thus, producing definitions is a completely _____________ use of language.

decontextualized

Some children may regard language primarily as a vehicle for referring to objects, while other children may regard language primarily as a vehicle for social interaction. This difference in the views children hold about the use of language may most likely lead to ____________.

difference in the content of early vocabularies

Speakers of Spanish know the difference between fingers and toes and between a watch and wall clock, although the Spanish lexicon does not have different words for these things. This suggests that ___________.

differences among languages do not seem to completely determine differences in thoughts.

Protoimperative and protodeclarative behavior is:

different in adults and children.

When asked to perform tasks such as reading real words or reading pseudowords pseudowords (e.g., words like 'mard' that are pronounceable and could be English words), the level of activation in different brain regions of normal readers is _______________.

different when compared to dyslexic readers

All of the following sound productions EXCEPT ________________ involve the phonological rule of voicing assimilation (that is, when two consonants are together in a word, they match in terms of voicing).

dovetail

Children with _______________ are particularly competent conversational partners. Compared with typically developing children of the same language level, they are better at maintaining a conversational topic over several turns and are better at repairing or revising their utterances when conversation breaks down. However, older individuals in more demanding communicative tasks do not do as well. Adolescents with _____________ have difficulties using language for social interaction, they perform poorly in referential communication tasks, have difficulty with the kinds of form-function mappings that need to be controlled in order to mark politeness appropriately, and have difficulty controlling reference in narrative production.

down syndrome

In Korean, verbs are more frequent and more salient in input than they are in English. Interestingly, it has been found that children acquiring Korean seem to acquire verb and concepts of means/end relations (the kind of things that verbs encode) relatively _______________ in the course of lexical development than children acquiring English do. In contrast, English-speaking children had larger naming vocabularies and also showed a more advanced understanding of object categorization. These findings seem to be consistent with the Whorfian hypothesis (that language provides the categories into which we organize the world.).

earlier

The low-functioning persons with autism compose about 50 percent of the autistic population. They either do not speak at all or have primarily __________ speech, which is the meaningless repetition of a word or word group previously produced by another speaker.

echolalic

The following Parent Child interaction illustrate an example of ____________style of parents' elicitations of past-event descriptions from young children. Studies have shown that a parent who provides ________________ scaffolding help the child tell richer narratives.

elaborative

_____________ refers to children's knowledge about print, about books, and about the functions of literacy. For example, well before they can actually read, many children know how to hold a book and turn the pages, they know that words and stories are contained in the print on the page, they know that the print on signs and labels also contains information. Many studies have found that this collection of skills and knowledge about literacy predicts later reading and writing skills.

emergent literacy

The task of acquiring a vocabulary in a sign language is _______________the task of learning arbitrary symbol-meaning associations for a spoken language.

essentially the same as

One aspect of communicative competence that does not demonstrate difference in group- or culture-specific language styles is ________.

ethnicity

In a series of studies, Elena Bialystok has found that bilingual children have an advantage over monolingual children in performing tasks where the presence of distracting information require them to _______________.

exercise attentional control

The "moved object" task is one of experimental tasks that have been widely used to assess children's understanding of ___________________. Sally Anne task is the classic "moved object" task. In this task, children were presented with two dolls, Sally (who has a basket) and Anne (who has a box). Sally puts a marble in her basket, and leaves the room. While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from the basket, and hides it in her box. Finally, Sally returns to the room, and the child is asked three questions: (a) Where will Sally look for her marble? (b) Where is the marble really? (c) Where was the marble at the beginning? The critical question is the question in (a) - if children answer this by pointing to the basket, then they have shown an appreciation that Sally's understanding of the world doesn't reflect the actual state of affairs. If they instead point to the box, then they fail the task, arguably because they haven't taken into account that they possess knowledge that Sally doesn't have access to. The questions in (b) and (c) essentially serve as control conditions; if either of these are answered incorrectly, then it might suggest that the child didn't quite understand what was going on. A study by Baron-Cohen and colleagues (1985) showed that around 85% of typically developing children (aged around four) and children with Down's syndrome (aged around 11), but only 20% of children with autism (aged around 12) correctly answered question (a). For those who failed the task, they consistently say Sally will look for the object where it is (i.e., in the box), not where they saw it placed (i.e., the basket).

false belief

During a family interaction, the father said "Who wants some mango for dessert?", and the child responded with "What's a semmango?". The child's speech error may illustrate which of the following problems that a child faces in learning a new word?

finding the word within the stream of speech

Major theories of language development take into account:

five sets of tenets that address grammar, language construction, social phenomenon, language as a system of patterns and learning through positive behaviorism.

Brooks and Meltzoff (2005) tested 10- and 11-month-old infants' __________________ abilities in an experimental setting. They then assessed these children's language at 18 and 24 months. The children who were better at _____________ at 10 to 11 months had bigger vocabularies at 18 months; at 24 months, they had bigger vocabularies and produced more complex sentences.

gaze following

In a study of language socialization comparing the speech German and American mothers' address to their 2-year-old children, Shatz (1991) observed that ______________ mothers were found to talk more about necessity ("You have to . . .") and obligation ("You must . . .") and to produce more negative statements, whereas the ________________ mothers talked more about intention ("I'm gonna . . .") and possibility ("That can . . .") and asked more questions.

german; american

By the age of 3½ years, children produce passive forms in their spontaneous speech, and the frequency of passives in children's speech continues to grow, even after age 5 (Budwig, 1990). In English, _________________ tend to be used to describe something negative that happened to an animate entity—a person or animal, whereas ________________ tend to be about inanimate things.

get passives (e.g., My cat got run over by a bus); be passives (e.g., It can be putten on your foot).

Roger Brown (1957) showed preschool children a picture of a pair of hands kneading a mass of material in a container. He described the picture as "sibbing" to some of the children, as "a sib" to some of the children, and as "some sib" to others. Children interpreted "sib" as describing the action, the container, or the material, respectively, depending on which form they heard. Results like this suggest that children can use __________________.

grammar as a clue to word meaning

Phonological development may be affected by blindness. Blind children make more errors than sighted children in producing speech sounds that have _______________ articulatory movements (such as /b/, /m/, /f/), but they are not different from sighted children in their production of speech sounds produced by _____________ articulatory movements (such as /t/, /k/, /h/). This suggests that visual information, such as lip configuration, contributes to phonological development in sighted children (A. Mills, 1987).

highly visible; nonvisible

Scaffolding in children's and adult's conversations demonstrates:

how adults structure communication to build understanding for the child.

Camaioni and Perucchini (2003) distinguished two kinds of pointing behavior in 11-month-olds: pointing for ________ purposes (e.g., the baby points at something he wants) and pointing for ________ purposes (e.g., the baby points at something just to get another person to look at what he is looking at). They found that children's use of declarative pointing was related to their understanding of other minds, whereas imperative pointing was not.

imperative; declarative

The meanings expressed by children's 2-word utterances ____________.

include several kinds of basic relations among actors, objects and actions.

Research on the role of joint attention and child language development:

indicates that rapid growth of skills to gain joint attention may directly relate to rapid development of language.

When children move from one language community to another, they typically acquire the language of that new community as a second language. Both children and adults acquiring a second language have been described as going through a period of ____________, which is a systematic and rule governed system, but it is not the same systematic and rule-governed system as the target form of the new language..

interlanguage use

Many children have difficulty reading only because they do not receive the amount and type of instruction they need. The whole language approach to reading _________________.

involves providing children with interesting materials to read and interesting experiences to pair with literacy experiences

Towards the end of the chapter, the author suggests that the best method of reading instruction may be one in which instruction ___________________.

is individually tailored to the skill level of the child

A usage-based account of phonological development emphasizes the role of _____________ in the child's development of phonological representations.

language input and language use

The study of Choi & Bowerman (1991) is a study of _________________. In this study, comparisons were made of the early description of motion by children acquiring Korean and English. In English, the same words are used to describe the path of motion (such as up or down) regardless of whether the motion is caused ("He pushed me down") or spontaneous ("I fell down"). In Korean, however, the direction of motion is part of the meaning of the verb (like ascend and descend), and different verbs are used for caused and for spontaneous motion. Results show that one-year-old English-speaking children commonly use the words down and up for both spontaneous and caused motion to mean "put me down" or "I fell down." However, Korean children under the age of 2 respect the caused/ spontaneous distinction in their use of motion verbs.

learning lexical organization

Lifelong bilinguals who use both languages in everyday life have been found to show _____________ age-related decline in cognitive control (Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004), and among elderly patients with dementia, those who were bilingual showed symptoms of dementia 4 years _____________ than did monolinguals (Bialystok, Craik, & Freedman, 2007).

less; later

Bates et al. (1988) followed 27 children from the age of 10 months to 28 months, collecting data on several aspects of the children's language production and comprehension along the way. They then analyzed these data to see which aspects of development were related and which were not. They found that measures of the children's _____________ at ages 13 months and 20 months were strongly related to measures of their ______________ at 2 years.

lexical development; grammatical development

Box 9.1 presents some expository texts produced by English-speaking children in fourth, seventh, and eleventh grade. These examples illustrate developmental changes in all of the following except _______________.

lexical innovation (i.e., coining novel words such as when a child says 'try to be more rememberful, Mon")

Children who are described as having specific language impairment (SLI) have ____________.

limited language development in a variety of areas

When a child hears a new word 'cup' and try to learn it, how does the child know that it is the cup that is being labeled rather than the cup's handle, the cup's color, the material the cup is made of, or the contents of the cup? Or maybe the word being uttered in the presence of a cup is not a label at all but a command to do something, like drink. This potential problem that the child faces is known as the _____________.

mapping problem

Spelke and Tsivkin (2001) tested the hypothesis that _______________ uses a particular language by training bilingual adults in both math facts and historical facts in one of their languages and then testing their knowledge of those facts either in the language of training or in the bilinguals' other language. They found that historical facts were retrieved with equal accuracy and speed regardless of the match between the language of training and the language of test, but math facts involving exact calculations over 4 were retrieved faster and with greater accuracy if the language of training and test were the same.

mathematical thinking

Compared with mental-age-matched children without autism, children with autism show both similar vocabulary growth and similar understandings of word meanings. However, children with autism do not use words that refer to _________________, such as believe, figure, idea, and guess.

mental states

The language delays characteristic of SLI are not even across domains of language. The areas of greatest weakness for children with SLI are ______________________.

morphology and syntax

Box 10.1 illustrates the kind of grammatical construction produced by deaf adolescents who are orally educated with either oral or total communication methods. The particular type of syntactic errors made by these deaf adolescents suggests that ________________________.

most deaf children do not fully acquire the grammar of the spoken language.

The only reported difference between blind and sighted children in the rate of grammatical development is a delay in blind children's acquisition of verbal auxiliaries—the "helping verbs" such as can, will, do (Landau & Gleitman, 1985). This delay may result from the observation that __________.

mothers of the blind children used more direct imperatives (such as "Take the doll") and fewer yes/no questions (such as "Can you take the doll?") than did mothers talking to sighted children.

By age 24 months, children start to refer to absent objects and events and to use language imaginatively, as in pretend play. These first references to past events are the beginning of ______________.

narrative development

Sign languages, such as American Sign Language (ASL) or the Langue Signe Quebecoise (LSQ) are _______.

natural languages, containing all the grammatical complexities found in spoken languages.

Katharine Nelson's (1973) longitudinal study of 18 children found that ______________ were the largest category of children's words, from the first 10 words to the 50-word mark.

nominals (general such as "Mommy, Daddy, Rover" and specific such as "dog, ball, milk")

All of the following hypotheses EXCEPT _________________ about the nature of the underlying deficit in children with specific language impairment are consistent with the suggestion that the cause of SLI lies not in the children's environment but in some characteristic of the children themselves. Each of the hypotheses concerning the underlying cause of SLI has some empirical support, but so far no single hypothesis has been able to account for the full range of phenomena that characterize SLI.

poverty of stimulus (that is, linguistic input)

An area of relative strength in the language development of children with Down Syndrome is_____.

pragmatic development

Cognitivism refers to the study of:

psychological developmental stages.

Paul Grice (1975) proposed that conversation is guided by a spirit of cooperation that involves adherence to several conversational maxims. According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxim of ________________, utterances should be as informative as the situation requires, but the contribution should not convey more information than is needed. For example, a father asked his daughter who was playing with a doll, "Which is your favorite animal?" The child did not verbally respond and continued playing with a doll; the child did not supply the information requested. As such, this is a violation of the Maxim of ________________ because the child was obligated to supply a response but did not take her turn to talk.

quantity

Words are arbitrary ____________ that can be used to refer to things. Many behaviors communicate meaning but are not _________ and therefore are not words. Babies' crying because they are hungry, dogs' barking because they need to go outside, and adults' shivering because they are cold all convey information, but neither the cries, the barks, nor the shivering are words beca

symbols

Using the preferential looking paradigm, Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff (1991) presented 13- to 15-month-old children with a sentence like "She's kissing the keys." As the children heard this sentence, two videotaped scenes were presented simultaneously on two different screens. On Screen A, a woman was kissing keys and holding up a ball. On Screen B, the same woman was kissing a ball and holding up keys. Babies looked more at the matching event on Screen A when they heard, "She's kissing the keys!" This result could only have emerged if infants were processing the sentence as a sentence as opposed to individual words as both videos contained a "she," the action of "kissing," and "keys", but "kissing keys" was depicted in only one scene. In other words, the children in this study who are just beginning to talk have demonstrated ____________.

sensitivity to the meanings that the grammatical morphemes such as '-ing' and '-s" carry

The rates at which children develop Theory of Mind understandings is closely related to their rates of language development, and among typically developing children, the more linguistically advanced are also more advanced in performance on Theory of Mind (ToM) understanding tasks. To explain this correlation between language and ToM, Jill de Villiers (2005) suggests that mental representation of false belief requires a certain kind of ____________ structure—one that allows one false proposition to be embedded in another true proposition. For example, in the sentence "Little Red Riding Hood believes that her grandmother will answer the door", the statement that "her grandmother will answer the door" is false, but the whole sentence is true.

sentence complement

Among the following two word utterances that children would produce, _______ expresses the relational meaning of "action + location"?

sit chair

Relational meanings refer to the relations between the referents of the words in a word combination. According to Roger Brown (1973), the list of eight relational meanings in Box 6.2 below account for the majority of the meanings that children express in their two-word utterances, even children acquiring different languages. However, one of the examples involving an action was labeled with the wrong meaning in Box 6.2, and this example is _________.

sit chair

Parents (and others) teach children what to say ("Say Please"; "Say you're sorry"), prompt children ("What's the magic word?" "What do you say when you hurt someone?"), and directly praise children for appropriate speech and reprimand them for socially inappropriate speech. These observations suggest that ________________ is influenced by caregivers' active instruction of their children in particular forms of language use.

sociolinguistic development

Noam Chomsky's perspective on the language acquisition device indicates that:

some kinds of language learning experiences may cause the device to go into operation, but do not affect the operation itself.

Neils and Aram (1986) compared the incidence of language disorders in the immediate families of children with and without language impairment. They found that, on average, 20 percent of the family members of children with language impairment also had some language impairment, compared with a 3 percent incidence of language impairment among the family members of unimpaired children. This finding seems to suggest that ____________________.

specific language impairment may have a genetic basis

The developmental approach to the study of language addresses such issues as:

stages of the child's language learning process.

Research on bilingual education programs in the U.S. has shown that ________________________.

supportive dual language programs in which children are instructed in both their home language and also English lead to higher academic performance.

Sénéchal and LeFevre (2001) carried out an experiment to tease out the role of socializing the literacy behaviors through exposing children to books and the role of directly teaching children reading skills to support later literacy acquisition. They separately measured how much direct teaching of reading and writing parents did and also how much exposure to books they provided their preschool children. These two behaviors were sufficiently independent that the children could be classified into four groups: (1) high teaching and high reading, (2) high teaching but low reading, (3) low teaching and high reading, and (4) low teaching and low reading. The development of these children in terms of emergent literacy at the beginning of grade 1, reading skill at the end of grade 1, and reading skill at the end of grade 3 is depicted in Figure 9.8. The results suggest that ___________________.

the benefit of direct teaching shows primarily in grade 1, whereas the benefit of being read to persists

A child speaks a low prestige heritage language at home and receives schooling in a second, high prestige language. The child has many friends in school and desires to become an integrated member of the larger community. Which of the following is TRUE about this child?

the child is at risk of losing her first language in a process of attrition

Box 10.4 include some examples of sentences produced by a 16-year-old child with SLI. One salient feature of the language use in these examples is that _______________________.

the child with SLI produces six- and seven-word utterances that are still missing some grammatical morphemes.

Oral language development outcomes in deaf children with cochlear implants are extremely variable. The children who seem to do best are ______________________.

the children who have the greatest residual hearing before the surgery

Verbs in English and Chinese seem to function differently. The grammar of Chinese allows verbs to be used as single-word utterances. In addition, Chinese verbs have narrower meanings than verbs in English. For example, where the single verb carry applies in English, the Chinese speaker needs separate verbs for carrying on one's back, carrying in one's arms, carrying in one hand, and so on (Tardif, 2006). These language specific properties may explain ______________________________.

the degree to which children's vocabularies show a noun bias

Payne (1980) followed four children from the same family that moved to Philadelphia when the children were 3, 5, 6, and 8 years old. Payne examined the children's speech 5 years later, when they were 8, 10, 11, and 13, respectively, and she found that the 10- and 11-year-olds had the strongest Philadelphia accents. The 8-year-old and the 13-year-old had fewer features of the Philadelphia dialect. The results of this study suggests that ___________________.

the particular accent of their caregivers that children acquire is not permanently fixed, but may be altered due to peer influence.

The taxonomic assumption, which holds that words refer to things that are of the same kind, is a language-specific principle that is supposed to help children solve _______________.

the problem of word extension

Semantic bootstrapping refers to ____________.

the process by which children figure out grammar by assigning grammatical structure to sentences based on their meanings.

Languages in the world differ in __________________.

the properties of individual sound segmetns the rules governing the sequencing of sounds stress patterns (e.g., the rhythm of poetry) prosodic qualities (like the melody in music) ALL OF THE ABOVE

The course of sign language development in deaf children who are exposed to sign from birth is _____________ the course of spoken language development (Goldin-Meadow, 2006).

the same as

Jia and Aaronson (2003) have documented ________________for Chinese immigrant children in New York City. They found that children who were under the age of 9 years when they immigrated reported preferring to speak in English over Mandarin after 1 year and were more proficient in English, as measured by several tests of grammatical knowledge and translation, by the end of 3 years. Children who were over the age of 9 years when they immigrated maintained their preference for Mandarin and remained more proficient in Mandarin than English over the 3 years of the study.

the switch in language dominance

In a study on lexical development by Gelman and Markman (1985), four-year-old children were presented with picture sets such as Figure 5.6 below. When they were instructed "Find the fep one," they would pick (b). But when they were instructed "Now find the fep," they would pick (c). These children seemed to know the difference between 'fep' as an adjective in the former instruction and 'fep' as a common noun in the latter. These responses suggest that 4-year-olds can use _____________ to distinguish between words that imply a contrast between members of the same category (adjectives) and words that do not imply such a contrast (common nouns).

the syntax of a sentence

Consider the following narrative produced by a 4-year-old based on a picture book with no text (Karmiloff-Smith, 1986, p. 471). "There's a little boy in red. He's walking along and he sees a balloon man and he gives him a green one and he walks off home and it flies away into the sky so he cries." Here is the question. The main problem in this narrative is ______________, because without the book, a listener can't tell to whom the different "he/s" refer.

the use of pronouns

Speakers of different language formulate experience for linguistic expression in quite different ways, depending on the type of their native language. In some languages such as English, verbs of motion encode the manner of the motion; in other languages such as French, motion verbs encode path. While English speakers have the option of not expressing manner by saying that the dog enter the house, they tend to say 'The dog ran into the house'. Similarly, while French speaker could have said that the dog was running when it entered the house, they tend to say 'Le chien est entre dans la maison encourant' (literally, The dog entered the house runningly). According to Dan Slobin (2001), this provides support for his _______________________. In other words, speakers of different language may attend to different information about a particular experience/event and encode such information for the purposes of talking about that experience/event.

thinking for speaking hypothesis

The average reading level of deaf high school graduates is roughly the fourth to sixth grade (Marschark & Spencer, 2003). According to a view by Wilber (2000), the deaf children who perform at the highest level in reading are ___________.

those who have deaf parents and acquired sign from infancy

Studies of vocabulary development that directly compare bilingual and monolingual children typically, but not always, suggest that bilingual children have smaller vocabularies in each of their languages than do monolingual children of the same age. However, their ______________________ (i.e., all the concepts for which they have a word in at least one language) are larger than their vocabularies in either language and compare favorably to that of monolinguals.

total conceptual vocabularies

Prelingually deaf children exposed to a sign language such as ASL pass through the same stages in the same order as hearing children exposed to a spoken language. They produce manual babbling, followed by single-sign productions, followed by multi-sign combinations, followed by morphological development and more complex syntax.

true

A typical 3-year-old will not appreciate that when Little Red Riding Hood knocks on her grandmother's door she expects her grandmother but really will be greeted by the wolf. This is because that these young children do not reliably show ___________________.

understandings of false belief

Linguistic competence is the ability to understand and produce well formed sentences; while communicative competence include abilities to ___________________.

use language for multiple communicative functions (pragmatics), participate in conversation and relate a past event (discourse knowledge), and use language in a manner that is appropriate to the social situation and valued by your social group (sociolinguistic knowledge).

Intentionality refers to:

using language to create a belief in the listener's mind.

Across the world, bilingualism is

very common. Many children grow up speaking more than one language.

Jusczyk, Friederici, Wessels, Svenkerud, and Jusczyk (1993) presented American and Dutch 6- and 9-month-old babies with American and Dutch words. At 9 months, but not at 6 months, the American infants listened longer to the American words, and the Dutch infants listened longer to the Dutch words. When only the prosodic contours of the words were presented, there were no preferences, because English and Dutch have _______________________. This result suggests that, by 9 months, infants have learned something about the kind of sound patterns that characterize their language.

very similar prosodic characteristics

The feature of sound production that differentiates the final sound in the words 'bugs' and 'bikes' is called ____________.

voicing

All of the following except _____________ present evidence that children's early use of gesture predicts language development.

when a child pointed to a cat, his mother said, "Yes, that's a cat," and when a child pointed to his baby sister and said "sleeping," his mother said, "Yes, baby's sleeping".

Constructivist and Nativist accounts of language development DISAGREE about which of the following ____________________.

whether or not a child is born with language-oriented biases that help them use input from adults to learn their native language.

Children who are acquiring English tend to combine content words before they add grammatical morphemes to their utterances, leading to the telegraphic quality of children's early word combinations. By contrast, children acquiring Turkish add grammatical inflections to nouns and verbs, producing two morpheme utterances, before they combine content words (Aksu-Koç & Slobin, 1985). This contrast in grammatical development most likely result from the crosslinguistic difference in ________________.

whether the language has a rich and regular morphology

According to Vygotsky, there are basic thought processes that do not require language, and there are higher mental processes that do require language. Thus, according to Vygotsky, language is a tool used for thinking. In particular, some kinds of thinking are possible only by those _______________, and, therefore, there are some kinds of thinking that only humans can do.

who have language

Which of the following is NOT an example of a nonliteral use Of language?

yes/no questions