Language Development Final

Roger Brown's (1973) longitudinal study of the 14 grammatical morphemes in English by three children, Adam, Sarah and Even, suggests all of the following except _______________. children's transition from being beginning telegraphic speakers to having full command over the use of these forms takes quite a long time. the acquisition of grammatical morphemes is not an all-or-none phenomenon, such that different morphemes first appear at different times, and a long period of time passes between the first time a morpheme is used and the time it is reliably used in contexts where it is obligatory. 18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect (Santelmann & Jusczyk, 1998). the order in which the 14 different morphemes are acquired is very similar across different children.

18-month-olds, but not 15-month-olds, listen longer to passages that use grammatical functors correctly than to passages that are identical except that the grammatical functors are incorrect (Santelmann & Jusczyk, 1998).

Verbs in English and Chinese seem to function differently. The grammar of Chinese allows verbs to be used as single-word utterances. In addition, Chinese verbs have narrower meanings than verbs in English. For example, where the single verb carry applies in English, the Chinese speaker needs separate verbs for carrying on one's back, carrying in one's arms, carrying in one hand, and so on (Tardif, 2006). These language specific properties may explain ______________________________. 1) why young children in Argentina know more kinship terms than children of the same age in the United States, and children in the United States know more object labels 2) the degree to which children's vocabularies show a noun bias 3) why a few of children's very first words serve social purposes rather than being truly referential 4) the difficulty to untangle cultural differences from linguistic differences

2) the degree to which children's vocabularies show a noun bias

Speech sounds are the acoustic signals languages use to express meaning. Of all the possible noises humans can produce, some __________ speech sounds are used in the 7000 or more languages in the world 7000 1000 200 45

200

All of the following except _________________ indicate the impact of environmental factors on lexical development? children who hear more speech add words to their vocabularies at a faster rate children of more educated parents have larger vocabularies than children of less educated parents probably because 4 and 5 year old children with better phonological memory skills had more advanced vocabularies at both ages. firstborn children, probably because they experienced more one-to-one interaction with an adult, have a slight advantage in vocabulary development over later-born children . Hearing a rich vocabulary—one that includes many different words and also includes rare or sophisticated words—is associated with more rapid vocabulary development than hearing a more restricted and simpler vocabulary

4 and 5 year old children with better phonological memory skills had more advanced vocabularies at both ages.

Sometime around 18 months of age, but ranging from 15 to 24 months, children achieve a productive vocabulary of ________ words. 1 50 200 1000

50

When children reach the _______________ word milestone around the age of 18 months, the rate at which new words appear in the children's vocabularies increases from 8 to 11 words per month to an average rate of 22 to 37 words per month. In this period of rapid lexical growth, children often learn a new word after only a single exposure. 50 500 1000 5000

50

Simultaneous bilingualism is when _________________________. a child begins to learn a second language after having already started to learn a first one. a child learns two languages at the same time from birth. a child simultaneously learns to read and write a language. a child learns to differentiate between two languages.

A child learns two languages at the same time from birth

The "fis" phenomenon refers to an oft-cited example of one child's refusal to accept "fis" as the label for his toy fish, even though "fis" was how the child produced the word (Berko & Brown, 1960). It is used as evidence that children's perceptual abilities are often in advance of their productive abilities. It suggests that children's immature productions do not necessarily imply that children incomplete mental representations of how the word is supposed to sound. Which of the following may also serve as an example for the 'fis' phenomenon? A child named Alissa pronounced her name as though it were "yitya" for a long time. However, if someone else teasingly called her "yitya," she became quite incensed. Some children rely heavily on whole-word processes, assimilating adult words to a few patterns and avoiding unassimilable words. Other children have a larger repertoire of segmental phonological processes. A 10-month-old girl named Hildegard was observed to produce the word 'pretty' correctly, but subsequently reduced her production of pretty to /pɪti/ and /bti/ some months after her initial production. A child who reduplicates might produce 'blanket" as /baba/, whereas another child less inclined toward reduplication might say /bat/. children who are better at native language discriminations at age 7 months show more advanced language abilities at 14 months and later, whereas children who retain the ability to hear nonnative contrasts at 7 months—that is, they have not yet tuned their perception to the ambient language—show poorer language abilities at 14 months and beyond.

A child named Alissa pronounced her name as though it were "yitya" for a long time. However, if someone else teasingly called her "yitya," she became quite incensed.

L. Bloom and associates (1976) examined child-adult interactions and found developmental changes in the kind of contingent responses that children produced. The frequency of contextually contingent responses such as ________________ declined with age, whereas the frequency of linguistically contingent responses increased. contingent vs noncontingent responses ADULT: Pussycat is calling to wolf. Why? CHILD: Because he's up in this building too tall. ADULT: Where's the other sock? CHILD: See my sitting on it. ADULT: She might pinch her fingers. CHILD: pin her fingers ADULT: What's in your hand? CHILD: book. ADULT: Alright, put the light on. CHILD: cookie.

ADULT: Where's the other sock? CHILD: See my sitting on it.

The degree to which children master a second language in childhood is a function both of characteristics of the children and of the sociocultural environment in which they are exposed to a second language. Here is the question. Which of the following observations suggests the effect of sociocultural environment on the degree to which children master a second language in childhood? According to Wong Fillmore (1991), in settings in which the speakers of the second language outnumber the second language learners, children who are very sociable appear to learn the language faster than shy, withdrawn children. Skehan (1991) found that children's rate of first language development from 3 to 5 years was significantly related to their performance on tests of foreign language aptitude at 13 years. Studies of the interactions of French/English bilingual children with their French- or English-speaking parents find a developmental increase in children's use of the parent's same language, with very few cases of addressing the French speaking parent in English or vice versa by age 5 years. According to Jia & Aaronson (1999), the best learning occurs in children who become so assimilated by the new speech community that the new language becomes their dominant language.

According to Jia & Aaronson (1999), the best learning occurs in children who become so assimilated by the new speech community that the new language becomes their dominant language.

Languages in the world differ in? A) the properties of individual sound segmetns B) the rules governing the sequencing of sounds C) stress patterns (e.g., the rhythm of poetry) D) prosodic qualities (like the melody in music) E)All of the above

All of the above

In Figure 4.2., infant 2 does not increase his or her sucking rate, this is because _____________. the baby was unable to make the discrimination. the bay was just uninterested in the new sound. the baby was uninterested in the whole procedure, crying, sleeping, or doing other things that babies are wont to do. All of the above are possible (That is, we can't know whether the baby was unable to make the discrimination or was just uninterested in the new sound, uninterested in the whole procedure, crying, sleeping, or doing other things that babies are wont to do).

All of the above are possible (That is, we can't know whether the baby was unable to make the discrimination or was just uninterested in the new sound, uninterested in the whole procedure, crying, sleeping, or doing other things that babies are wont to do).

All of the following except ____________ are true of the distinction between comprehension and production vocabularies? Comprehension vocabularies are acquired earlier and grow faster than production vocabularies. Comprehension and production vocabularies differ not only in size but also in content. There are proportionately more verbs in children's comprehension vocabularies than in their production vocabularies. Although some words enter the lexicon as context-bound words and gradually become decontextualized, other words are contextually flexible from the time the child first uses them.

Although some words enter the lexicon as context-bound words and gradually become decontextualized, other words are contextually flexible from the time the child first uses them.

Beginning as early as 6 months, the sounds that babies produce are somewhat influenced by the language that they hear. This phenomenon is known as babbling drift. Which of the following study provides evidence for the babbling drift? A) All babies babble, and they begin to babble somewhere between 6 and 9 months of age. However, deaf infants rarely produce canonical babbling, and they reach the stage of canonical babbling much later than hearing infants, if at all. Therefore, canonical babbling can be seen as the first development that distinguishes the vocal development of hearing children from that of deaf children. B) In the study of de Boysson-Bardies, Sagart, and Durand (1984), French speakers were asked to listen to pairs of either French and Arabic babies' babbling or French and Chinese babies' babbling, and then to judge which sample of each pair came from a French baby. French speakers were able to make that judgment correctly about 70 percent of the time (i.e., better than chance) on the basis of the recordings of 8-month-olds.

B) In the study of de Boysson-Bardies, Sagart, and Durand (1984), French speakers were asked to listen to pairs of either French and Arabic babies' babbling or French and Chinese babies' babbling, and then to judge which sample of each pair came from a French baby. French speakers were able to make that judgment correctly about 70 percent of the time (i.e., better than chance) on the basis of the recordings of 8-month-olds.

Which of the following is an example of over-extension, that is, children sometimes use their words more broadly than the meaning truly allows? Allison produced the word "car" at the age of 9 months, but she said "car" only when she was looking out her apartment window at cars on the street below (L. Bloom, 1973). She did not say "car" when she saw a car close up or when she saw a picture of a car in a book. This is an example of ______________. Bowerman (1978) reported that her daughter used the word moon to refer to the moon, to a ball of spinach, to hangnails she was pulling off, to half a Cheerio, to curved steer horns mounted on a wall, and to the magnetic capital letter D she was about to put on the refrigerator, to list a few. Little Johnny was observed to use dog to refer to collies and spaniels but not to Chihuahuas.

Bowerman (1978) reported that her daughter used the word moon to refer to the moon, to a ball of spinach, to hangnails she was pulling off, to half a Cheerio, to curved steer horns mounted on a wall, and to the magnetic capital letter D she was about to put on the refrigerator, to list a few.

Which of the following provides evidence that the amount or type of exposure to each language the child receives contributes to variability in bilingual development? Ardila (2002) reports that Spanish/English bilingual children sometimes use the English adjective-noun word order (e.g., a big house) when speaking Spanish, thus producing errors such as *la grande casa instead of the correct la casa grande, which monolingual speakers do not make. Chan and McBride-Chang (2005) found that among kindergarten children in Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong, those who were cared for by Filipina foreign domestic helpers demonstrated better vocabulary knowledge in English and poorer vocabulary knowledge in Cantonese than did the children who were cared for by their Cantonese-speaking relatives. V. C. M. Gathercole (2002) found that Spanish-English bilingual children lagged behind the monolingual children in mastering three different morphosyntactic distinctions: the mass/count distinction in English, grammatical gender in Spanish, and the respective treatments of that-trace phenomena in each language. Kuhl (1980) found that babies treated /ba/ spoken by a male and /ba/ spoken by a female as the same even though they are acoustically very different signals.

Chan and McBride-Chang (2005) found that among kindergarten children in Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong, those who were cared for by Filipina foreign domestic helpers demonstrated better vocabulary knowledge in English and poorer vocabulary knowledge in Cantonese than did the children who were cared for by their Cantonese-speaking relatives.

Although children accomplish the basics of language development by the age of 4 to 5 years, language development does not stop at that point. Evidence for continued phonological development in the school years, for example, may include all of the following EXCEPT _______________________. Children continue to improve their ability to perform tasks such as repeating novel sound sequences, rapid naming, and phonological awareness, all of which depend on the quality of their phonological representations. Children may change or acquire new accents through exposure to peers who speak a dialect different from the dialect spoken at home. Changes in both the size and the composition of children's lexicons continues after early childhood. Phonological awareness, i.e., awareness of the sounds and sound structure of the language, becomes important and develops substantially in the school years.

Changes in both the size and the composition of children's lexicons continues after early childhood.

A key issue in the study of simultaneous bilingualism is language differentiation. According to the differentiation with interdependent development hypothesis, _________________________. Children differentiate the two languages they hear, but the course of the development of each is influenced by the other Bilingual children learn their two languages in the same manner and at the same rate as monolingual children learn one Immigrant parents want their children to be successful in the new culture but often do not want their children to lose their heritage language culture As household composition changes, as caregiving arrangements change, and as school becomes part of the picture, the amount and kind of exposure to both languages fluctuates.

Children differentiate the two languages they hear, but the course of the development of each is influenced by the other

All of the following except _______________may count as evidence for the idea that communicative development and linguistic development are somewhat separable strands of development. Blank, Gessner, and Esposito (1979) described a 3-year-old boy whose command of grammar and semantics were appropriate for his age, but whose sociocommunicative skills were severely deficient. Choi (1991) found that Korean children under the age of 2 years used different sentence-ending suffixes, depending on whether the sentence they were producing was a statement or a request. many high-functioning individuals with autism have achieved high-level vocabularies and grammatical skills, but their language is pragmatically quite aberrant. the children who are most advanced in communicative skill are not the same children as those who are most advanced in linguistic skill.

Choi (1991) found that Korean children under the age of 2 years used different sentence-ending suffixes, depending on whether the sentence they were producing was a statement or a request.`

Affixing (i.e., adding an affix '-er' to a root word 'preach' to form the word 'preacher') and compounding (i.e., combining two existing words 'tree' and 'house' to form 'treehouse') are two important word formation processes. Clark and Hecht (1982) found that when asked questions such as "What could we call someone who gives things?" 3-year-olds were likely to produce compounds like giveman, whereas 5-year-olds consistently used the -er suffix to derive forms like giver. The observation from this study suggests that _________________________. The ability of QUIL (for Quick Incidental Learning) seems to emerge only after children have been in the business of learning words for a couple of years. It supports a highly nativist view of the development of morphology because it shows that children obey a distinction between inflections and derivations that is not provided in input. Most of the time in English inflectional morphemes (e.g., the plural s) are added to words after derivational morphemes, but not the other way around. Compounding appears to be an earlier acquired word formation process than affixing. The grammatical complexity of children's speech continues to increase after the age of 5.

Compounding appears to be an earlier acquired word formation process than affixing.

Some children may regard language primarily as a vehicle for referring to objects, while other children may regard language primarily as a vehicle for social interaction. This difference in the views children hold about the use of language may most likely lead to ____________. difference in the content of early vocabularies difference in the rate of early vocabulary development difference in the number of unanalyzed chunks in early vocabularies differences in the extent to which children are risk taker

Difference in the content of early vocabularies

Using the headturn procedure, Goodsitt, Morse, ver Hoeve, and Cowan (1984) found that 6-month-old infants could iscriminate between /ba/ and /du/ with no difficulty, correctly discriminated /kokodu/ from /kokoba/ (where /ba/ and /du/ were embedded in a redundant sequence) 75 percent of the time, but they were able to discriminate mixed sequences such as /kotiba/ from /kotidu/ (where /ba/ and /du/ were embedded in a complex mixed sequence) only 67 percent of the time. These results suggest that ____________________. Infants were not able to make the decimation they made between the isolated syllables when sounds were embedded in a stream of ongoing speech. Discriminating speech sounds embedded in multisyllabic strings is more difficult for infants than is discriminating isolated contrasts, and the more complex the string, the more difficult it is. Infants may make use of the prosodic features of input to break the speech stream into meaningful components.

Discriminating speech sounds embedded in multisyllabic strings is more difficult for infants than is discriminating isolated contrasts, and the more complex the string, the more difficult it is.

According to Miller and Chapman (1981), children with MLU between 3 and 3.49 would be in ______ of grammatical development. Stage II Stage III Early IV Late V

Early IV

All of the following observations except ______________ provide evidence for individual differences in morpho-syntactic development. For some children, the two-word stage lasts for several months. For other children, the two-word stage is brief and barely identifiable as a separate stage before utterances with three and more words are produced. Early multiword sentences tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, whereas negations and questions are rare and come much later. Adam, Eve, and Sarah acquired the 14 grammatical morphemes in English at different rates. Some children produce multiword utterances at age 18 months, whereas others do not start combining words until they are 2 years old. Although most children use both the top-down holistic strategy and bottom-up analytical strategy, and include both unanalyzed chunks and smaller units in their early sentences, they differ in how much they rely on one strategy versus the other.

Early multiword sentences tend to be imperatives and affirmative, declarative statements, whereas negations and questions are rare and come much later.

_____________ refers to children's knowledge about print, about books, and about the functions of literacy. For example, well before they can actually read, many children know how to hold a book and turn the pages, they know that words and stories are contained in the print on the page, they know that the print on signs and labels also contains information. Many studies have found that this collection of skills and knowledge about literacy predicts later reading and writing skills. Parent-child book reading Discontinuity between home and school or literate language Emergent literacy Pretend reading

Emergent literacy

Phonotactic knowledge refers to the knowledge of constraints on how he sounds of their language can combine to form words. Which of the following is an example of phonotactic knowledge? English speakers intuitively know that "kpakali" or "zloty" are not English words. English speakers recognize weary rhymes with napping rhymes

English speakers intuitively know that "kpakali" or "zloty" are not English words.

In the expression of spatial relations, both English and Korean distinguish between containment and support: the bowl is on the table and the apples are in the bowl. However, Korean makes an additional distinction between loose containment (as in the apples in the bowl) and tight containment (as in a piece in a puzzle), whereas English does not have different words for loose and tight containment. Will adult speakers of Korean make more mental distinctions about containment than English speakers by virtue of their language? The answer seems to be YES, according to the results of a study by McDonough, Choi, and Mandler (2003) who observed that __________________. 1) English speaking 9-to-14 month old children noticed the distinction between loose and tight containment in a preferential looking task, but English speaking adults didn't. 2) English speakers could be induced to use either the relative or absolute frame of reference by manipulating the setting 3) Speakers of an absolute language, when transported to a new place, can more accurately point in the direction of other landmarks than speakers of a relative language such as English. 4) Spanish-speaking adults were influenced by grammatical gender in their choices between a woman's voice and a man's voice for some objects and animals supposed to talk in a movie, whereas English-speaking adults were not.

English speaking 9-to-14 month old children noticed the distinction between loose and tight containment in a preferential looking task, but English speaking adults didn't.

The task of acquiring a vocabulary in a sign language is _______________the task of learning arbitrary symbol-meaning associations for a spoken language. a completely different from essentially the same as

Essentially the same as

All of the following except ___________ provide evidence for the impact of maternal speech on vocabulary development. Children of more educated mothers have larger vocabularies than children of less educated mothers, probably because more educated mothers talk to their children more than less educated mothers do. Mothers who not only use words that are new to their children but who also say something about what the word means have children who build their vocabularies at faster rates. Several studies have found correlations between measures of maternal verbal responsiveness or mother-child mutual engagement and children's subsequent vocabulary development. Fernald et al. (2006) found that children who have shown more rapid vocabulary growth between 12 and 25 months are more rapid word processors at 25 months than children the same age with a slower rate of lexical growth.

Fernald et al. (2006) found that children who have shown more rapid vocabulary growth between 12 and 25 months are more rapid word processors at 25 months than children the same age with a slower rate of lexical growth.

One group of researchers played recordings of their mothers' and a stranger's voice to 38-week-old fetuses (i.e., fetuses 2 weeks before they were due to be born), using a loudspeaker placed 10 cm away from the mothers' abdomens. The fetuses' heart rates went up in response to their mothers' voices and down in response to a stranger's voice, demonstrating that the fetuses made a discrimination (Kisilevsky et al.,2003). Results like this suggest that ____________________

Fetuses seem not only to hear but to remember what they hear

One group of researchers played recordings of their mothers' and a stranger's voice to 38-week-old fetuses (i.e., fetuses 2 weeks before they were due to be born), using a loudspeaker placed 10 cm away from the mothers' abdomens. The fetuses' heart rates went up in response to their mothers' voices and down in response to a stranger's voice, demonstrating that the fetuses made a discrimination (Kisilevsky et al.,2003). Results like this suggest that ____________________.

Fetuses seem not only to hear but to remember what they hear

During a family interaction, the father said "Who wants some mango for dessert?", and the child responded with "What's a semmango?". The child's speech error may illustrate which of the following problems that a child faces in learning a new word? figure out what the newly encountered word refers to finding the word within the stream of speech remember what the new word sounded like figure out that verbs with different meanings can appear in different kinds of sentences

Finding the word within the stream of speech

All of the following studies EXCEPT ______________ are concerned with the development of comprehension monitoring (i.e., the process of message evaluation). Flavell et al. (1981) gave kindergartners and second-graders the task of making buildings with blocks according to instructions that they were told had been previously tape-recorded by a 12-year-old named Kiersten. Sometimes the instructions were clear, and sometimes they were contradictory, incomplete, or impossible to execute with the blocks available. They found that second graders were more likely than kindergartners to express difficulty in following the inadequate instructions. Beal (1987) gave first- and second-grade children road maps that were drawn with colored felt pens on poster board, and she gave them directions for driving a toy car on the map to particular locations. The messages were sometimes conflicting or ambiguous. First-graders recognized only half of the inadequate messages, whereas second-graders recognized more than two thirds. Winner, Rosenstiel, & Gardner (1976) asked children to interpret metaphors such as "After many years of working at the jail, the prison guard had become a hard rock that could not be moved". Children at 6 and 7 years frequently gave magical or literal interpretations (The king had a magic rock and he turned the guard into another rock, or The guard worked in a prison that had hard rock walls). By contrast, by the age of 10 years, genuine metaphoric interpretations (The guard was mean and did not care about the feelings of the prisoners) were the most frequent sort of interpretation. Markman (1979) asked third through sixth-graders to read essays that contained inconsistencies such as "There is absolutely no light at the bottom of the ocean. Some fish that live at the bottom of the ocean know their food by its color. They will only eat red fungus." Markman found that a sizable proportion of 12-year-olds judged such essays as comprehensible.

Flavell et al. (1981) gave kindergartners and second-graders the task of making buildings with blocks according to instructions that they were told had been previously tape-recorded by a 12-year-old named Kiersten. Sometimes the instructions were clear, and sometimes they were contradictory, incomplete, or impossible to execute with the blocks available. They found that second graders were more likely than kindergartners to express difficulty in following the inadequate instructions.

All of the following except _________________ provide evidence for the role of parents in children's narrative development? McCabe and Peterson (1991) found that children whose parents asked useful, elaborative questions when the children were 2 years old produced better narratives when they were 3. French, Lucariello, Seidman, and Nelson (1985) found that when children share contextual knowledge, their conversations are longer and their language use is more advanced than when they do not share background knowledge. Fivush (1991) found that the complexity and structure of the narratives mothers produced in conversation with their 2-year-olds were related to the complexity and structure of those children's narratives a year later. Haden, Haine, & Fivush (1997) found that parents' use of certain narrative devices in joint reminiscing with their children at 3½ years predicted the children's use of those devices in their own narratives at 5½ years.

French, Lucariello, Seidman, and Nelson (1985) found that when children share contextual knowledge, their conversations are longer and their language use is more advanced than when they do not share background knowledge.

Sequential or successive bilingualism is likely to occur in all of the following situations EXCEPT _________________. When a family immigrates to a new language community, and the children are exposed to a new language at least outside the home When children of immigrants hear only their parents' native language for their first several years and first encounter the community language when they enter school. French/English bilingual parents in the French/English bilingual community of Quebec might speak French and English to their infant, who would also hear both languages from other sources When children first learn an indigenous or tribal language at home and then the national language at school

French/English bilingual parents in the French/English bilingual community of Quebec might speak French and English to their infant, who would also hear both languages from other sources

Telegraphic speech is so called primarily because it misses ________________________. Function words and bound morphemes that mark plural, possessive, or tense Lexical categories (that is, the categories of noun, verb, and adjective) Vertical constructions (that is, sequences of single-word utterances that are related) The production of multiclause sentences

Function words and bound morphemes that mark plural, possessive, or tense

___________________, as measured by tests of children's ability to understand complex syntactic and morphological forms, also predicts success at learning to read (Snow et al., 1998), although it is less strongly related to reading than either phonological skills or vocabulary. Nonliteral use of language Grammatical knowledge Decontextualized language use Contextualized language use

Grammatical knowledge irony

styles of language use associated with particular social settings or listeners are called registers. All of the following except ___________________ show that young children are sensitive to the use of different registers. Shatz and Gelman (1973) asked 4-year-olds to explain to their mothers and to 2-year-olds how a toy dumping station worked. Speech to adults had a longer MLU and more frequently included complex constructions. Speech to 2-year-olds more frequently included devices to secure and direct the listener's attention such as the words "Hey", "Look", and "Watch". Andersen (1986, 1990) asked children to play-act different roles (e.g., father and mother) in different settings with puppets. When children took on the father role, they spoke loudly and in a deep voice. In contrast, speech as mother was softer and higher pitched. Mother speech was more polite and used few direct imperatives. Harris (2007) noticed that higher SES mothers asked more question than did lower SES mothers and that children from 18 months to 5 years of age showed the same pattern of difference. Killen and Naigles (1995) found that, when conflict arises, girls used more talk oriented toward conflict resolution than boys did.

Harris (2007) noticed that higher SES mothers asked more question than did lower SES mothers and that children from 18 months to 5 years of age showed the same pattern of difference.

Researchers have proposed several sentence comprehension strategies that children use, and these include 'word order strategy', 'order of mention strategy', and 'probable event strategy'. However, none of these strategies seem to allow children to interpret the sentence in _____________ correctly. The swing bumps the kitty. John played before Mary did. The mouse was chased by the cat. I broke my balloon because I cried.

I broke my balloon because I cried.

Which of the following children negative sentence forms involve constructions with internal negative marker but no auxiliaries? Where the other Joe will drive? I ride train? I no want envelop Why kitty can't stand up?

I no want envelop

Children use most of the different types of complex sentences by the age of 4. Which of the following types of complex sentences would be the earliest to appear in children's spontaneous speech? I think language development is interesting. I didn't do well in the class because I missed too many classes. The quizzes are straightforward but the exams require a lot of thinking. There is a lot of stuff that needs come off

I think language development is interesting

In a now classic experiment using the HAS procedure, Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk, and Vigorito (1971) played artificially synthesized syllables to 1-and 4-month-old babies in three different conditions. In the first condition, babies habituated to a 20-msec VOT sound and then were presented with a 40-msec VOT sound. Babies in this condition _____________ when the new sound was presented. (Remember the phoneme boundary between /b/ and /p/ is 25 msec.) In the second condition, babies habituated to either a 20-msec VOT sound or a 60-msec VOT sound and then were presented with a new sound that had a 20-msec longer VOT lag. Babies in this group did not significantly increase their sucking. In a third control condition, babies were presented with the same sound even after they had habituated to it, and no increase in sucking occurred. Figure 4.5 summarizes the results. These results suggest that infants also exhibit categorical perception as adults and they sort sounds into phonemic categories with little, if any, experience. did not significantly increase their sucking increased their sucking decreased their sucking

Increased their sucking

n their work on the achievement of French by English-speaking Canadians, R. C. Gardner and Lambert (1972) distinguished two motivations for learning a second language. __________________ motivation included reasons such as needing to speak French for employment purposes. _______________ motivation included a desire to be part of the French-speaking community. Gardner and Lambert found that an integrative motivation was associated with more successful language learning. Integrative; Instrumental Instrumental; Integrative

Instrumental;Integrative

Consider the morpheme -ist, which means a person who performs an action: an illusionist is someone who performs illusions and a typist is someone who types. What kind of morpheme is this and why? It is an inflectional morpheme because it doesn't change the topic of the word: both typing and a typist are part of the same activity. It is derivational morpheme because it changes the kind (the syntactic category) of word it is on: type is a verb but typist is a noun. It is a compounding morpheme because it adds meaning to the original word: typist provides more information than typing.

It is derivational morpheme because it changes the kind (the syntactic category) of word it is on: type is a verb but typist is a noun.

The study of Choi & Bowerman (1991) is a study of _________________. In this study, comparisons were made of the early description of motion by children acquiring Korean and English. In English, the same words are used to describe the path of motion (such as up or down) regardless of whether the motion is caused ("He pushed me down") or spontaneous ("I fell down"). In Korean, however, the direction of motion is part of the meaning of the verb (like ascend and descend), and different verbs are used for caused and for spontaneous motion. Results show that one-year-old English-speaking children commonly use the words down and up for both spontaneous and caused motion to mean "put me down" or "I fell down." However, Korean children under the age of 2 respect the caused/spontaneous distinction in their use of motion verbs. fast mapping learning lexical organization lexical constraints natural partitions hypothesis

Learning lexical organization

All of the following except ______________ are true of individual differences in vocabulary development. Some children's vocabularies consist almost entirely of referentially used words from the start. Other children acquire many context-bound words even as their acquisition of referential words proceeds. Lexical representations are built gradually and become more complete and more robust with development. As lexical representations become stronger, children become able to access them more rapidly. Some children are analytic learners and divide the speech stream into small bits (words or even parts of words), whereas other children proceed in a more holistic manner, acquiring big chunks such as "Don'tdothat" as single words. In Nelson's (1973) study of the lexical development of 18 children, she found that her referential children's vocabularies had much larger percentages of nominal than others' did whereas her expressive children tended to have more personal/social words.

Lexical representations are built gradually and become more complete and more robust with development. As lexical representations become stronger, children become able to access them more rapidly.

It is hypothesized that the greater discriminability of phonemes in infant-directed speech may help the establishment of phonemic categories (i.e., help children to learn the sound repertoire in their native language). Which of the following studies provides results that support this hypothesis?

Liu, Kuhl, & Tsao (2003) found that mothers who produce more discriminable vowels in their infant-directed speech have infants who demonstrate better speech perception skills in laboratory tests.

Which of the following observations is more likely to provide evidence for an early differentiation of the phonological systems in bilingual children? Poulin-Dubois & Goodz (2001) studied 13 babies between 10 and 14 months old who were exposed to French and English in Montreal, and found that they did not babble differently in French- and English-speaking contexts. Rather, across contexts, the consonantal features of these babies' babbling resembled those of babies in monolingual French environments. Navarro, Pearson, Cobo-Lewis, & Oller (1998) found that some of the 2-year-old Spanish/English bilingual children in south Florida processed their two lexicons and grammatical systems through a single phonological system of the dominant language. Maneva and Genesee (2002) reported that a baby in Montreal who was exposed to both French and English babbled in French when he was interacting with his French-speaking parent but babbled in English when interacting with his English-speaking parent. Au & Glusman (1990) found that 4-year-old bilingual children overrode the mutual-exclusivity principle and accepted two names for the same object if they perceived the two names as coming from different languages.

Maneva and Genesee (2002) reported that a baby in Montreal who was exposed to both French and English babbled in French when he was interacting with his French-speaking parent but babbled in English when interacting with his English-speaking parent.

Sign languages, such as American Sign Language (ASL) or the Langue Signe Quebecoise (LSQ) are _______. composed mostly of iconic pantomimes which can be easily understood by anyone. artificial languages that were created to help deaf people fulfill minimal communicative functions. natural languages, containing all the grammatical complexities found in spoken languages. manual versions of spoken languages; in particular, ASL is the manual version of English and LSQ is the manual version of French.

Natural languages, containing all the grammatical complexities found in spoken languages

Katharine Nelson's (1973) longitudinal study of 18 children found that ______________ were the largest category of children's words, from the first 10 words to the 50-word mark. action words, such as" go, up, look" nominals (general such as "Mommy, Daddy, Rover" and specific such as "dog, ball, milk") modifiers, such as "big, all gone, outside, mine" personal social words, such as "no, want, please" grammatical function words, such as "what, is, for"

Nominals (general such as "Mommy, Daddy, Rover" and specific such as "dog, ball, milk")

All of the following except ____________ provide evidence for children's productivity, that is, evidence that they are not merely repeating what they have heard when they talk. Olguin and Tomasello (1993) found that 2-year-old children do not readily use newly taught verbs in structures they have not heard. Berko (1958) gave children nonsense words and asked them to supply the inflected forms (the forms with the grammatical inflections added). Berko found that children as young as 4 years old knew that the plural of 'wug' must be wugs and that the past tense of 'blick' must be blicked. Gropen, Pinker, Hollander & Goldberg (1991) found that children who hear "I'm mooping a ball to the mouse" can then say its alternative form, "I'm mooping the mouse a ball". Pinker, Lebeaux, & Frost (1987) found that four-year-old children who are told "The pig is pilking the horse" can later say its alternative form, "The horse is being pilked by the pig".

Olguin and Tomasello (1993) found that 2-year-old children do not readily use newly taught verbs in structures they have not heard.

Consonants differ both in where the vocal tract is closed (this feature is called ____________ ) and in how the vocal tract is closed (this feature is called __________________). Place of articulation; manner of articulation Manner of articulation: place of articulation

Place of articulation Manner of articulation

Which of the following observations suggests that over-extensions do not necessarily result from incomplete word meanings? A child who calls all four-legged animals doggie knows something about the meaning of doggie but doesn't know all the features unique to dogs that are not present in horses, cows, and bears. Rescorla (1980) found that the incidence of overextensions declined as children acquired more differentiated vocabularies (e.g., learning words for animals other than dog). Children acquiring Korean, Japanese, and Mandarin (Chinese) show less of a noun bias than do children acquiring English. Gillette, Gleitman, Gleitman, and Lederer (1999) played silent videotapes of mother-child interaction to adult research participants and asked them to guess the word that was uttered at the moment a beep was inserted into the tape. Adults were able to identify 45 percent of the nouns they had to guess, but only 15 percent of the verbs.

Rescorla (1980) found that the incidence of overextensions declined as children acquired more differentiated vocabularies (e.g., learning words for animals other than dog).

One question that arises in characterizing the language of children with SLI is whether their language is only delayed or whether it is also deviant. Grimm & Weinert (1990) observed that German-speaking SLI children produced utterances with word order errors both at a higher rate than do typically developing younger children and with other structural features that are extremely unusual in German. The observations of Grimm & Weinert (1990) are used to provide argument for ___________. SLI as pure language delay SLI as having deviant grammars

SLI as having deviant grammars

One view of our syntactic (and morphological) knowledge suggests that it consists of a system of rules that operate over abstract or symbolic representations. Which of the following hypothetical rule would best accommodate the productive nature of language (NOTE: the "=" sign can be read as 'consists of' or 'is rewritten as' or 'is made up of')? Sentence = John + kissed + Mary Sentence = agent of action + action + recipient of action Sentence = Noun + Verb + Noun Sentence = Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase (where Verb Phrase can be a verb plus an optional noun).

Sentence = Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase (where Verb Phrase can be a verb plus an optional noun).

Relational meanings refer to the relations between the referents of the words in a word combination. According to Roger Brown (1973), the list of eight relational meanings in Box 6.2 below account for the majority of the meanings that children express in their two-word utterances, even children acquiring different languages. However, one of the examples involving an action was labeled with the wrong meaning in Box 6.2, and this daddy sit sit chair toy floor drive car

Sit chair

Dickinson & Tabors (2001) measured the language experience of 85 children from low-income homes at ages 3 and 4 years and their oral language and emergent literacy skills at age 5 years, when the children were in kindergarten. Their results showed all of the following except _____________. The children from homes in which there was more extended discourse (i.e., talk in which multiple utterances build on a common theme) and in which caregivers used a more advanced vocabulary (words that the average child at this age would not be expected to know) when the children were 3 and 4 had better skills at age 5 than children who participated in less extended discourse and heard a simpler vocabulary at home. The children who had teachers who participated in more adult-child conversation (as opposed to uninterrupted teacher talk) and who used a more advanced vocabulary performed better on the language and literacy assessments at kindergarten than did children with less such experience at school. The amount of reading children do predicts their vocabulary size, and the amount that children are read to as preschoolers is a strong predictor of their later success in learning to read. Children's literacy experiences at home at ages 3 and 4 years were positive predictors of children's kindergarten language and literacy skills.

The amount of reading children do predicts their vocabulary size, and the amount that children are read to as preschoolers is a strong predictor of their later success in learning to read.

Developmental dyslexia is the term applied to children whose reading ability is lower than would be expected on the basis of their IQ. Which of the following is NOT true about developmental dyslexia? Children who are poor readers have the same sorts of reading problems as children labeled dyslexic, just not to the same degree The core problem in most cases of dyslexia involves letter recognition and visual processing deficits, such as the ability to distinguish among visually similar letters b and d. dyslexia affects boys and girls with equal frequency, although teachers are more ready to identify boys as having dyslexia than girls All current theories include deficits in phonological processing as a central component of the underlying problem in dyslexia.

The core problem in most cases of dyslexia involves letter recognition and visual processing deficits, such as the ability to distinguish among visually similar letters b and d.

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the predominance of nouns in English-speaking children's early vocabularies. Which of the hypotheses considers the question why some words are acquired earlier than others as a language learning problem, rather than a problem of children's cognitive or linguistic understanding? the meanings nouns encode are easier for children to learn than are the meanings verbs encode. @Nouns refer to entities or things (like tables, chairs, birds, or dogs), and young children can have an understanding of things based on their perception of the physical world. Verbs, on the other hand, express relationships among things; for example, give entails somebody giving something, and go entails somebody going somewhere, and these relational meanings are less available to young children through nonlinguistic experience. the linking between nouns and their meanings is easier to learn than the linking between verbs and verb meanings the meanings of nouns are clearer from context than the meanings of verbs, and it is easier for children to use nonlinguistic and linguistic context to map nouns onto their meanings children's first words reflect their experiences, and probably they hear nouns more frequently in their parents' speech.

The meanings of nouns are clearer from context than the meanings of verbs, and it is easier for children to use nonlinguistic and linguistic context to map nouns onto their meanings.

The study of lexical development is the study of the child's acquisition of a mental lexical. Which of the following statements may be true of the mental lexicon?

The mental lexicon is like a dictionary in the head. -The mental lexicon is essentially the knowledge of words that adults have. -The mental lexicon consists of phonological, grammatical and semantic information all of the above???

Prelingually deaf children exposed to a sign language such as ASL pass through the same stages in the same order as hearing children exposed to a spoken language. They produce manual babbling, followed by single-sign productions, followed by multi-sign combinations, followed by morphological development and more complex syntax. True False

True

All the following observations EXCEPT ____________________ show the effect of bilingual exposure on the development of phoneme perception. Two month old infants who are exposed to English only can distinguish English from Dutch or English from Chinese, but they cannot distinguish Dutch from Chinese. Burns, Yoshida, Hill, & Werker (2007) tested infants (ages 6-8, 10-12, and 14-20 months) from English-French or English-only environments on their ability to discriminate a French and an English voice onset time distinction. Although 6- to 8-month-olds responded similarly and were able to distinguish both contrasts irrespective of language exposure. By 10-12 months, however, the English-only monolinguals had lost the ability to hear the French contrasts whereas the bilinguals were still able to distinguish both contrasts. Fennell, Byers-Heinlein, and Werker (2007) demonstrated that although monolingual infants succeed in a minimal pair associative word learning task (i.e., the switch task) with the /b/-/d/ contrast by 17 months of age, bilingual infants do not succeed until 20 months of age. Bosch and Sebastián-Gallés (2003) tested bilingual infants learning both Spanish and Catalan, and monolingual Catalan infants on their discrimination of a Catalan-specific vowel contrast, /e/-/ε/. At 4 months of age, infants in both monolingual and bilingual environments were able to discriminate the contrast. Similarly, both groups discriminated the contrast at 12 months of age. However, at 8 months the groups diverged: the monolingual-learning infants were able to pull apart the two vowel categories, whereas the infants being raised in bilingual environments did not.

Two month old infants who are exposed to English only can distinguish English from Dutch or English from Chinese, but they cannot distinguish Dutch from Chinese.

The degree to which children master a second language in childhood is a function both of characteristics of the children and of the sociocultural environment in which they are exposed to a second language. Here is the question. Which of the following observations suggests the effect of the characteristics of the children on the degree to which children master a second language in childhood? Oller and Eilers (2002) observed that Spanish-English bilingual school-aged children in the Miami area, who attended bilingual schools, nonetheless consistently spoke English to each other outside of their classrooms. And English, which is the language that is used most, becomes dominant for these children. J. Paradis (2007) examined the learning of English as a second language by immigrant children in Canada. She found that after 21 months of exposure to English 40 percent of children performed within the normal range of monolinguals for grammatical morpheme production, 65 percent for receptive vocabulary, and 90 percent for story grammar. Ultimate mastery of the grammar and the ability to speak without an accent are better achieved by younger learners. According to Flege (1995), second language learners who begin at 2 years have an advantage over those who begin at 6 years, and those beginning at 6 have an advantage over those who begin at 12. According to Wong Fillmore (1991), children learn a second language by memorizing large chunks of speech to use for communicative purposes and then only gradually analyzing these chunks into their component parts.

Ultimate mastery of the grammar and the ability to speak without an accent are better achieved by younger learners. According to Flege (1995), second language learners who begin at 2 years have an advantage over those who begin at 6 years, and those beginning at 6 have an advantage over those who begin at 12.

Across the world, bilingualism is _________________________. very common. Many children grow up speaking more than one language. language dependent. It is possible for children to become bilingual easily if they are learning some languages but not if they are learning others. mandatory. Children are required to learn more than one language. quite uncommon. Very few children grow up speaking more than one language.

Very common. Many children grow up speaking more than one language.

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, and they come in different kinds. The progressive morpheme "-ing" (as in "Amy is singing") is ________. a free morpheme, because it adds meaning to the verb. a free morpheme, because it is free from any ordering constraints. a bound morpheme, because it adds meaning to the verb but it cannot stand alone in the sentence. a bound morpheme, because a speaker is bound to use it frequently.

a bound morpheme, because it adds meaning to the verb but it cannot stand alone in the sentence.

Which of the following is an example of using words referentially? a child says 'yikes!' each time he or she sees a particular cat a child says 'duck' while pointing to a duck in the pond a child says 'hello' while waving his hand at another child a child uses the single verb "go" and combine it with "night-night", "car", and "park" to convey the meanings of three verbs: sleep, drive, and play.

a child says "duck" while pointing to a duck in a pong

oint attention is ________. the capacity to share one's experiences with others a social-communicative act in which a person asks another person to join them in an activity a social-communicative act in which two persons jointly attend to some third entity a formal computational process required for attending to multiple stimuli

a social-communicative act in which two persons jointly attend to some third entity

Code switching is _________________________. a systematic shifting between languages that is sensitive to grammatical structure and also social situations. another way of saying someone knows multiple languages. governed solely by social factors and does not respect grammatical structures. the product of a general confusion between languages.

a systematic shifting between languages that is sensitive to grammatical structure and also social situations.

Which of the following teachers would be most likely to improve the language abilities of the children in her class? a teacher who used very simple language, including simple sentences structures and easy vocabulary that the children would definitely be able to understand. a teacher who used a range of sentence types, including complex ones, and also used more advanced vocabulary items. a teacher who was insensitive to the cultural background of the students in her class. a teacher who focused on getting children to depend on the conversational context to interpret language.

a teacher who used a range of sentence types, including complex ones, and also used more advanced vocabulary items.

Which of the following is a good example decontextualized language? a teacher scaffolding a child's story-telling a conversational shift in which the child provides information that is out of context for the listener a street sign, such as a stop sign a written story book

a written story book

In many cultures, adults use a particular way of speaking with babies (Fernald et al., 1989; Grieser & Kuhl, 1988). This style of speech is called—motherese, or infant-directed speech or child-directed speech. Infant-directed speech ________________. is produced with a higher-pitched voice, a wider range of pitches, longer pauses, a slower tempo, and shorter phrases than adult-directed speech. might support language acquisition by providing particularly clean examples of the sounds to be learned. is preferred over adult-directed speech for infants. all of the above

all of the above

Phonemes are the meaningfully different sounds in a given language. A phoneme may be produced in different ways in a language. And the variations of the same phoneme in a language, such as the aspirated and unaspirated /p/, are called the phoneme's _________. Allomorphs Allophones Minimal pairs

allophones

Are you interested in children's ability to learn from imperfect input? Studies of deaf children who learn sign from their parents who are not themselves native signers show that __________. children make the same errors that are typical of late learners of a language although the parents make errors typical of late learners of a language, their children do not. children acquiring ASL make pronoun reversal errors at the same age that children acquiring spoken language do. According to Liddell and Johnson (1992), both oral and total communication programs deprive deaf children of the opportunity to fully acquire any language.

although the parents make errors typical of late learners of a language, their children do not

Loewenstein and Gentner (2005) presented preschoolers with a task in which they had to find a "winner" in a three-tiered box after they had seen where the "winner" was in a different three-tiered box. The position of the winner in the test box always corresponded to the position of the winner in the box they were shown. Half the children were just shown the position of the winner accompanied by the statement "Let's look at this one," and half were shown the position accompanied by a statement that labeled the relative location, such as "let's look at the one at the top of the box." Among 3½-year-olds, children who were provided the label were more successful at test than children not provided the label. Four-year-olds, in contrast, were generally successful whether or not they heard the label. Here is the question. These results were suggested to provide evidence that _________________ based on relational similarity is a form of thinking that is supported by language. 1) analogical reasoning 2) mathematical thinking 3) thinking for speaking 4) autobiographical memory 5) theory of mind understandings

analogical reasoning

Young children's ability to comprehend language ___________. are generally ahead of their ability to produce the same language. develop at exactly the same rate as their ability to produce language since both depend on the same underlying representations. are extremely difficult to test and have been very little studied. show that children comprehend very little of the language they hear or produce.

are generally ahead of their ability to produce the same language.

Suzy is a first grader who has the typical comprehension monitoring difficulties of a child her age. She is given a set of blocks and directions for how to arrange them, but the directions are incomplete and actually won't lead to a coherent arrangement. Suzy is most likely to respond to these directions by _________. asking for more instructions so she can make the arrangement herself. asking the experimenter to arrange the blocks for her. arranging the blocks as best she can, as if she did not notice the instructions were bad. refusing to play with the blocks at all.

arranging the blocks as best she can, as if she did not notice the instructions were bad.

Longitudinal studies have found that differences among children in phonological awareness before they learn to read predicts their later reading skill—through at least the fourth grade. All of the following EXCEPT ____________ are examples of tasks that measure phonological awareness. ask children to say a word such as 'cup' and then to say what word would be left if the examiner said cup without saying /k/ ask children to find words that begin with the same sound as a target word such as 'cup' ask children to tell the names of the letters of the alphabet and the sound associated with each letter ask children to find words that rhyme with a target word such as 'cup'

ask children to tell the names of the letters of the alphabet and the sound associated with each letter

Liberman, Shankweiler, Fischer, & Carter (1974) found that about 50 percent of 4- and 5-year-olds can tap out the number of syllables in a mutisyllabic word. By contrast, Liberman and associates (1974) found that no 4-year-olds and only 17 percent of 5-year-olds were able to tap out the number of phonemes in words. The contrast suggests that ___________________. awareness of phonemes as units is a later development than awareness of syllables, onset, and rimes. like other aspects of style such as how one dresses and the music one listens to, speech style is a means of stating one's identity. children who know more nursery rhymes at age 3 are better readers at age 6. Chinese adults, who read a logographic system in which characters stand for meanings and only secondarily for syllables, were found to have very low levels of phonemic awareness

awareness of phonemes as units is a later development than awareness of syllables, onset, and rimes.

Cummins (2000) suggests that achieving the level of second language proficiency necessary for literacy and academic achievement takes children _______________. between 2 and 3 years between 5 and 7 years between 8 and 10 years forever

between 5 and 7 years

Studies examining the rate of language development in bilingual children have found that _________________________. bilingual children develop in both their languages at equal rates. bilingual children's language development is within the normal range, but the actual rate may be different for each their languages bilingual children lag far behind monolingual children in the development of both their languages bilingual children acquire both their languages much faster than monolingual children acquire their one language

bilingual children's language development is within the normal range, but the actual rate may be different for each their languages

Peters (1994) suggests that because blind children are more dependent than sighted children are on speech as a means of social interaction, they are motivated to adopt a "pick it up and use it before you have time to analyze it" (Peters, 1994, p. 200) approach to language. This may explain why ___________________. grammatical development is relatively unaffected by blindness blind children frequently rely on rote-memorized formulaic speech to participate in conversation blind children sometimes fail to appropriately generalize the meanings of words—for example, they may use object labels as if they were names for particular referents rather than names for categories the mothers of the blind children used more direct imperatives (such as "Take the doll") and fewer yes/no questions (such as "Can you take the doll?") than did mothers talking to sighted children

blind children frequently rely on rote-memorized formulaic speech to participate in conversation

Blind children often fail to appropriately generalize words, using new words as names for specific referents rather than as names for _____________ (Dunlea, 1989), which suggests that visually accessible information plays a role in learning the extensions of categories. unfamiliar objects categories joint attended objects familiar object

categories

Factors which contribute to lexical development in children after over the school years include all of the following except __________________. children's increasing ability to use quick, incidental learning. children's increasing ability to make use of direct instruction of word meanings. children all over the world (many without benefit of literacy) invent secret languages such as pig latin, which depend on the manipulation of phonemes. children's increasing knowledge of word formation processes and morphological organization.

children all over the world (many without benefit of literacy) invent secret languages such as pig latin, which depend on the manipulation of phonemes.

The continuity assumption argues that __________. all linguistic knowledge derives from experience with language use. children and adults both have the same kinds of grammatical representations and the differences between adults and children arise from experience-based knowledge and processing limitations of children. children and adults have the different kinds of grammatical representations from each other, and they continue to do so. children are born knowing their native language and they continue to use it throughout their lifespan.

children and adults both have the same kinds of grammatical representations and the differences between adults and children arise from experience-based knowledge and processing limitations of children.

The importance of communication for the development of language is that ________. virtually all of language development can be explained in terms of communicative needs. children appear to require a live communicative context to motive their learning. communication plays no role in the process of language development. young children have no need to use language to communicate.

children appear to require a live communicative context to motive their learning

ndividual differences in children's grammatical development show that ____. children who adopt a holistic style in which they focus on the overall tune of a sentence tend to acquire their grammar much later than children who adopt an analytic style in which they focus on the smallest pieces of the sentence. children who adopt an analytic style are extremely frequent, while children who adopt a holistic style are quite common. children are equally successful at learning a grammar regardless of whether they adopt a holistic or analytic style. there are no individual differences in children's grammatical development.

children are equally successful at learning a grammar regardless of whether they adopt a holistic or analytic style.

Across languages ________________. children generally learn morphemes which are highly frequent and perceptually salient first. children always learn the morphology on verbs before the morphology on nouns. children always learn the morphology on nouns before the morphology on verbs. there are no differences in morphology across languages, so there are no differences in when or how children learn them.

children generally learn morphemes which are highly frequent and perceptually salient first.

All of the following except _________________ have been proposed to explain children's omissions of function words in telegraphic speech. children have limited processing abilities and omit the words that are less necessary for conveying meaning. function words are less prominent acoustically and children omit these smaller phonetic elements. children do not understand their meaning and omit words they see as irrelevant. children have developed a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations.

children have developed a productive system when they use the words in their vocabularies in different combinations.

Children's past tense overregularizations (e.g. saying "goed" instead of "went") demonstrate that _____. sentences presented in isolation may be more difficult for children to understand than sentences presented in context. children must memorize all the different forms of their language. children do not pay close attention to the input from their parents. children have learned the regular rule for the past tense. sometimes children are unable to understand the grammatical structures they produce in their own spontaneous speech.

children have learned the regular rule for the past tense.

Children's early narratives are said to be conversational in nature because __________. children tell them in a conversational context in which their parents ask questions and probe for needed information. as children get older, their child-directed speech becomes more like mothers' child-directed speech. children's utterances were syntactically more advanced when children initiated conversations than when they responded to another's prior speech. later-born children produce more contingent responses in conversation than same-aged firstborn children do, even though their linguistic skills are not more advanced.

children tell them in a conversational context in which their parents ask questions and probe for needed information.

The development of children's use of questions shows that _______. children seem uninterested in asking questions until they can use wh-words appropriately. children do not use the appropriate prosody for questions (that is, question intonation, which rises at the end of the sentence) until they regularly use wh-words. children understand both interpretations of a complex wh-question ("When did the boy say he hurt himself?") while still in preschool. children do not master yes-no questions until the school age years.

children understand both interpretations of a complex wh-question ("When did the boy say he hurt himself?") while still in preschool.

All of the following except _____________ provide evidence for the role of maternal responsivity in language and communicative development. children with older siblings—who provide competition for access to their mother as a conversational partner—are particularly skillful at entering and sustaining participation in conversations Bell and Ainsworth (1972) studied the responsiveness of 26 mothers to their infants' crying during the first year of the infants' lives, and found that infants who had the most responsive mothers when they were 6 to 12 months old cried less and were more communicative at the age of 12 months than did the infants with less responsive mothers children whose mothers are responsive to their vocalizations at 13 months produce their first word earlier and reach a 50-word vocabulary earlier than children who have less responsive mothers the frequency with which mothers follow their 13-month-old children's focus of attention in their talk is related to those children's vocabularies at 22 months

children with older siblings—who provide competition for access to their mother as a conversational partner—are particularly skillful at entering and sustaining participation in conversations

Figure 5.2 represents results of Goldfield and Reznick's (1990) study of vocabulary development. In this study, they carefully documented the rate of vocabulary development in 18 children whom they studied from the age of 14 months until each child achieved a 75-word vocabulary. The results in Figure 5.2 suggest all of the following except _______________. some children were gradual word learners and achieved vocabularies of 75 words without a word spurt some children achieved vocabularies of 75 words with a word spurt but the spurt occurred at different ages children younger than 18 months or with vocabularies of fewer than 50 words are not as good at learning new words in an experimental situation as are older children or those with larger vocabularies

children younger than 18 months or with vocabularies of fewer than 50 words are not as good at learning new words in an experimental situation as are older children or those with larger vocabularies.

Phonological awareness in pre-school aged children is important because it predicts __________. children's ability to tell stories that are coherent and cohesive. children's general willingness to learn in school. children's reading ability through 4th grade. children's ability to hear non-native phonemic contrasts.

children's reading ability through 4th grade

Swingley and Aslin (2000) explored whether young children were sensitive to small mispronunciations in the words they know. They presented 18- to 23-month-olds with familiar words that were pronounced either correctly or incorrectly. The incorrect pronunciations changed only a single segment (e.g., baby was pronounced vaby). The infants' task was to look at the matching picture out of two presented on a screen in front of the baby (e.g., a picture of a baby versus a picture of a dog). They found that the babies in this study turned to the matching picture more quickly when the word was pronounced correctly. Results like this suggest that ________________________________. the multiple demands of the word-learning task do not leave the child with sufficient resources to register all the phonetic details of newly encountered words. very young children fail to distinguish newly taught words if the words differ by only one segment. children's representation of familiar words includes fine phonetic detail. children's first words have a simple syllable structure.

children's representation of familiar words includes fine phonetic detail.

Figure 9.1 shows the estimated vocabulary size of first-, third-, and fifth-graders. According to these estimates, children's vocabularies increased by 9000 words from first to third grade and by 20,000 words from third to fifth grade. These data suggest that vocabulary growth proceeds at an even more rapid pace than during the preschool years. Here is the question. These estimated were obtained by asking first-, third-, and fifth-graders to _____________. complete the PPVT (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) choose the best definition for each word in a sample of entries from a dictionary complete the rapid naming task complete a word formation task

choose the best definition for each word in a sample of entries from a dictionary

A. Gopnik and Meltzoff (1984, 1986) followed children longitudinally and found that words that encode disappearance, like gone, appeared in children's vocabularies at about the same time as they were successful on a nonlinguistic task that measures understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of view. Results like these are used to provide support for the view that _______________________. 1) cognitive development and lexical development go hand in hand 2) whereas labeling affects memory for colors, the color lexicon of a language does not affect color perception in speakers of the language 3) there is a strong correspondence between children's development of the understanding of means/ends relationships and the children's first use of words that encode success or failure, such as there or uh-oh 4) there are core cognitive notions that are innate or universally acquired independent of language

cognitive development and lexical development go hand in hand

According to Piaget, when preschool children engage in spontaneous conversations, they do not participate in true dialogue because, according to Piaget, the child is "unable to place himself at the point of view of his hearer" due to his egocentrism and has "no desire to influence his hearer or to tell him anything". According to Piaget, although preschool children may take turns talking, each speaker's turn has little to do with the previous speaker's turn. Rather, each child is producing his or her own monologue, albeit with interruptions for the other child's monologue. Accordingly, Piaget termed such interactions _______________. language play private speech collective monologues substitution exercise solitary monologues

collective monologues

It is in the area of_________________, rather than_________________, that individuals with autism show the most clear and significant impairment. In some ways, the language profile presented by individuals with autism seems to illustrate the dissociability of language and communication and the separate contributions to language acquisition of (1) a computational mechanism for acquiring the grammar and (2) the social/cognitive underpinnings of communicative development. communicative competence; linguistic competence linguistic competence; communicative competence

communicative competence; linguistic competence

Jill de Villiers and Thomas Roeper (1995) presented 3- to 6-year-old children with stories like below, and asked them two separate questions: (1) "When did the boy say he fell?" or (2) "When did the boy say how he fell?". They found that that even 3-year-olds knew that there were two possible answers of the first question and that the word "how" in the second question made only one answer possible. Here is the question. Children's performance in response to questions like these makes it clear that they know subtle aspects of ________________ at a very young age. the knowledge of the world co-reference relations complex syntax the poverty of the stimulus argument

complex syntax

While infants have the sensory capacity to discriminate between minimally different phones (e.g., /p/ versus /b/), they may process speech in terms of syllables rather than individual phones. This proposal is supported by a study of 4-day-old infants, which has found that the babies ________ distinguish a sequence of two-syllable sounds (such as rifo, ublo) from a sequence of three-syllable sounds (rekivu, kesopa); but they _________ discriminate a two-syllable sequence with four phonemes (rifo, ublo) from a two-syllable sequence with six phonemes (treklu, suldri) (Bijeljac-Babic, Bertoncini, & Mehler, 1993).

could could not

Studies of how children in special populations learn language shed light on ask how different human abilities contribute to the language acquisition process. For example, studying language development in ______________ can help us discover whether language depends on the auditory-vocal channel or whether language is a function of the human brain that can make use of other channels if the typical channel is unavailable. blind children deaf children children with specific language impairment (SLI) children with Williams syndrome

deaf children

Research on children using American Sign Language (ASL) as their first language indicates that _______. the children have fewer vocabulary words than their hearing peers at the same level. the children have greater vocabulary words than their hearing peers at the same level. deaf children make the same types of errors and learn language elements in the same sequence as hearing children. deaf children make more errors, such as pronoun reversal, than hearing peers at the same level.

deaf children make the same types of errors and learn language elements in the same sequence as hearing children

A language skill that seems to particularly depend on school experience is the ability to provide definitions of words (Kurland & Snow, 1997). A definition describes a word in terms of other words. Thus, producing definitions is a completely _____________ use of language. non-literal meaningless decontextualized topic-associating (in contrast to topic-centered)

decontextualized

Evidence for lexical differentiation in bilingual children typically includes ______________. the possibility of processing all speech through one common system degree of overlap between the vocabularies of the child's two languages the use of one set of rhythmic cues to segment words for both languages degree of language mixing

degree of overlap between the vocabularies of the child's two languages

Speakers of Spanish know the difference between fingers and toes and between a watch and wall clock, although the Spanish lexicon does not have different words for these things. This suggests that ___________. 1) adults who have language have nonlinguistic ways of thinking when it suits the task at hand 2) If language is the medium of thought, then acquiring language should have consequences for developing thought 3) differences among languages do not seem to completely determine differences in thoughts. 4) differences in the languages acquired might result in differences in the cognitive processes of the speakers of those languages

differences among languages do not seem to completely determine differences in thoughts.

When asked to perform tasks such as reading real words or reading pseudowords pseudowords (e.g., words like 'mard' that are pronounceable and could be English words), the level of activation in different brain regions of normal readers is _______________. the same as that of dyslexic readers different when compared to dyslexic readers

different when compared to dyslexic readers

All of the following sound productions EXCEPT ________________ involve the phonological rule of voicing assimilation (that is, when two consonants are together in a word, they match in terms of voicing). Finals sound in bugs Dovetail Pazghetti

dovetail

Children with _______________ are particularly competent conversational partners. Compared with typically developing children of the same language level, they are better at maintaining a conversational topic over several turns and are better at repairing or revising their utterances when conversation breaks down. However, older individuals in more demanding communicative tasks do not do as well. Adolescents with _____________ have difficulties using language for social interaction, they perform poorly in referential communication tasks, have difficulty with the kinds of form-function mappings that need to be controlled in order to mark politeness appropriately, and have difficulty controlling reference in narrative production. SLI hearing impairment Down syndrome Fragile X syndrome autism

down syndrome

Language development may lag behind nonlinguistic cognition, as it does in persons with______________, or it may exceed nonlinguistic cognitive abilities, as it does in persons with______________. Down syndrome; Williams syndrome Williams syndrome; Down syndrome

down syndrome; williams syndrome

In Korean, verbs are more frequent and more salient in input than they are in English. Interestingly, it has been found that children acquiring Korean seem to acquire verb and concepts of means/end relations (the kind of things that verbs encode) relatively _______________ in the course of lexical development than children acquiring English do. In contrast, English-speaking children had larger naming vocabularies and also showed a more advanced understanding of object categorization. These findings seem to be consistent with the Whorfian hypothesis (that language provides the categories into which we organize the world.). 1) earlier 2) later

earlier

The low-functioning persons with autism compose about 50 percent of the autistic population. They either do not speak at all or have primarily __________ speech, which is the meaningless repetition of a word or word group previously produced by another speaker. babbling private visual echolalic monotone

echolaic

The following Parent Child interaction illustrate an example of ____________style of parents' elicitations of past-event descriptions from young children. Studies have shown that a parent who provides ________________ scaffolding help the child tell richer narratives. elaborative repetitive

elaboriative

he relation of mean length of utterance (MLU) to age for the three children Adam, Eve, and Sarah is depicted in Figure 6.6. It shows that _______________ faster in morphosyntactic development as measured by MLU than the other two children. For example, _____________ reached an MLU of 3 at the age of 24 months, whereas the other two children reached an MLU of 3 at about 36 months and 38 months respectively. adama sarah eve

eve

In a series of studies, Elena Bialystok has found that bilingual children have an advantage over monolingual children in performing tasks where the presence of distracting information require them to _______________. develop metalinguistic awareness exercise attentional control seek out the rules which are required by the circumstances switch to the other language

exercise attentional control

The "moved object" task is one of experimental tasks that have been widely used to assess children's understanding of ___________________. Sally Anne task is the classic "moved object" task. In this task, children were presented with two dolls, Sally (who has a basket) and Anne (who has a box). Sally puts a marble in her basket, and leaves the room. While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from the basket, and hides it in her box. Finally, Sally returns to the room, and the child is asked three questions: (a) Where will Sally look for her marble? (b) Where is the marble really? (c) Where was the marble at the beginning? The critical question is the question in (a) - if children answer this by pointing to the basket, then they have shown an appreciation that Sally's understanding of the world doesn't reflect the actual state of affairs. If they instead point to the box, then they fail the task, arguably because they haven't taken into account that they possess knowledge that Sally doesn't have access to. The questions in (b) and (c) essentially serve as control conditions; if either of these are answered incorrectly, then it might suggest that the child didn't quite understand what was going on. A study by Baron-Cohen and colleagues (1985) showed that around 85% of typically developing children (aged around four) and children with Down's syndrome (aged around 11), but only 20% of children with autism (aged around 12) correctly answered question (a). For those who failed the task, they consistently say Sally will look for the object where it is (i.e., in the box), not where they saw it placed (i.e., the basket). 1) spatial relations 2) false belief 3) analogical reasoning 4) motion events

false belief

Brooks and Meltzoff (2005) tested 10- and 11-month-old infants' __________________ abilities in an experimental setting. They then assessed these children's language at 18 and 24 months. The children who were better at _____________ at 10 to 11 months had bigger vocabularies at 18 months; at 24 months, they had bigger vocabularies and produced more complex sentences. imperative pointing declarative pointing gaze following electroencephalogram (EEG) coherence language play

gaze following

In a study of language socialization comparing the speech German and American mothers' address to their 2-year-old children, Shatz (1991) observed that ______________ mothers were found to talk more about necessity ("You have to . . .") and obligation ("You must . . .") and to produce more negative statements, whereas the ________________ mothers talked more about intention ("I'm gonna . . .") and possibility ("That can . . .") and asked more questions. 1) German; American

german; american

By the age of 3½ years, children produce passive forms in their spontaneous speech, and the frequency of passives in children's speech continues to grow, even after age 5 (Budwig, 1990). In English, _________________ tend to be used to describe something negative that happened to an animate entity—a person or animal, whereas ________________ tend to be about inanimate things. get passives (e.g., My cat got run over by a bus); be passives (e.g., It can be putten on your foot). be passives (e.g., They [the pieces of] paper] have just been cutten off); get passives (e.g., The boy got punished). Yes/no questions that can be answered with either "yes" or "no."; Wh- questions that begin with wh- words, such as "who," "where," "what," "why," or "when," and also include "how." Wh- questions that begin with wh- words, such as "who," "where," "what," "why," or "when," and also include "how."; Yes/no questions that can be answered with either "yes" or "no."

get passives (e.g., My cat got run over by a bus); be passives (e.g., It can be putten on your foot).

Roger Brown (1957) showed preschool children a picture of a pair of hands kneading a mass of material in a container. He described the picture as "sibbing" to some of the children, as "a sib" to some of the children, and as "some sib" to others. Children interpreted "sib" as describing the action, the container, or the material, respectively, depending on which form they heard. Results like this suggest that children can use __________________. general attention and learning processes as the basis of word learning their understandings of the conversational process and the intentions of their conversational partners to support word learning conceptual understandings as support for word learning grammar as a clue to word meaning

grammar as a clue to word meaning

Phonological development may be affected by blindness. Blind children make more errors than sighted children in producing speech sounds that have _______________ articulatory movements (such as /b/, /m/, /f/), but they are not different from sighted children in their production of speech sounds produced by _____________ articulatory movements (such as /t/, /k/, /h/). This suggests that visual information, such as lip configuration, contributes to phonological development in sighted children (A. Mills, 1987). highly visible; nonvisible nonvisible; highly visible

highly visble; nonvisible

Camaioni and Perucchini (2003) distinguished two kinds of pointing behavior in 11-month-olds: pointing for ________ purposes (e.g., the baby points at something he wants) and pointing for ________ purposes (e.g., the baby points at something just to get another person to look at what he is looking at). They found that children's use of declarative pointing was related to their understanding of other minds, whereas imperative pointing was not. declarative; imperative imperative; declarative

imperative; declarative

The meanings expressed by children's 2-word utterances ____________. are largely restricted to descriptions of inanimate objects. include several kinds of basic relations among actors, objects and actions. cannot be deduced due to children's limited expressiveness. are just as complex as the meanings expressed in the adult language.

include several kinds of basic relations among actors, objects and actions.

Maye, Werker, and Gerken (2002) set out to test the hypothesis that __________________. They gave 6-and 8-month-old English-learning infants two different types of experience hearing sounds along the /d/-/t/ continuum. Some infants received a bimodal distribution of experience (as in the dotted line in the figure below) and heard sounds near the endpoints more frequently than they heard sounds in the middle of the range. Other infants received a unimodal distribution of experience (as in the solid line in the figure below) and heard sounds in the middle more frequently than sounds at either end. Next, the infants' abilities to make the /d/-/t/ discrimination was tested. The infants who heard the bimodal distribution were able to distinguish between /d/ and /t/; the babies who heard the unimodal distribution could not. infants find important clues to language structure in the prosodic characteristics of the speech signal (which is known as the prosodic bootstrapping hypothesis) infants' attention to frequency distribution of acoustic properties of the speech signals in the input affects their speech perception development the perception of the difficult sound contrasts can be improved with training newborns can distinguish utterances in their native language from utterances in another language.

infants' attention to frequency distribution of acoustic properties of the speech signals in the input affects their speech perception development

When children move from one language community to another, they typically acquire the language of that new community as a second language. Both children and adults acquiring a second language have been described as going through a period of ____________, which is a systematic and rule governed system, but it is not the same systematic and rule-governed system as the target form of the new language.. developmental errors language transfer errors nonverbal communication interlanguage use

inter-language use

Many children have difficulty reading only because they do not receive the amount and type of instruction they need. The whole language approach to reading _________________. involves explicit instruction in letter names and sounds involves first teaching children correspondences between whole printed words and their sounds involves providing children with interesting materials to read and interesting experiences to pair with literacy experiences involves explicit instruction in the alphabetic principle

involves providing children with interesting materials to read and interesting experiences to pair with literacy experiences

The Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), the average length of children's utterances counted in morphemes, ____________________. It is calculated by first collecting a speech sample of a child interacting with an adult, and then dividing the total number of morphemes by the total number of utterances in a speech sample. is a simple way to describe children's grammars. is a good predictor of children's grammatical abilities. is not a very good predictor of children's grammatical abilities. directly correlates with age: all typically developing children are at the same MLU at the same age.

is a good predictor of children's grammatical abilities.

Towards the end of the chapter, the author suggests that the best method of reading instruction may be one in which instruction ___________________. focuses on comprehension monitoring focuses on building up a large sight word vocabulary is based on the alphabetic principle is individually tailored to the skill level of the child

is individually tailored to the skill level of the child

Although English has both an aspirated /p/ sound as in 'speak' and an unaspirated /p/ sound as in 'peak', the form p takes depends on the sound that precedes it, and English speakers automatically produce the correct form. There is never a case in which two words differ only in the use of aspirated /p/ or unaspirated /p/. Because aspiration is never the basis for a contrast between two words in English, aspiration ___________ a distinctive feature in English and it does not carry meaning. Is Is not

is not

Which of the following is considered contextually flexible word use (in contrast to context-bound word use)? At the age of 12 months, Adam was found to use the word "duck" only when he was hitting one of his toy yellow ducks off the edge of the bathtub (Barrett, 1986). He never said "duck" while playing with these toy ducks in other situations, and he never said "duck" while looking at real ducks. Jenny said "no" while pushing a drink away, while crawling to a step she was not allowed to climb, and while refusing a request by her mother (Harris and colleagues, 1988). Jacqui said "no" only when refusing something that was offered by her mother (Harris and colleagues, 1988). Allison produced the word "car" at the age of 9 months, but she said "car" only when she was looking out her apartment window at cars on the street below (L. Bloom, 1973). She did not say "car" when she saw a car close up or when she saw a picture of a car in a book.

jenny said no while pushing a drink away, while crawling to a step she was not allowed to climb, and while refusing a request by her mother (Harris and colleagues, 1988).

A usage-based account of phonological development emphasizes the role of _____________ in the child's development of phonological representations. the child's active problem-solving efforts language input and language use the biological factors underlying the human motor capacity to produce speech learning the ranking of constraints that applies in the language one is acquiring imitation and reinforcement

language input and language use

Lifelong bilinguals who use both languages in everyday life have been found to show _____________ age-related decline in cognitive control (Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004), and among elderly patients with dementia, those who were bilingual showed symptoms of dementia 4 years _____________ than did monolinguals (Bialystok, Craik, & Freedman, 2007). less; later less; earlier more; later more; earlier

less;later

Bates et al. (1988) followed 27 children from the age of 10 months to 28 months, collecting data on several aspects of the children's language production and comprehension along the way. They then analyzed these data to see which aspects of development were related and which were not. They found that measures of the children's _____________ at ages 13 months and 20 months were strongly related to measures of their ______________ at 2 years. grammatical development; lexical development lexical development; grammatical development ability to combine words in sentences; ability to combine elements in symbolic play ability to combine elements in symbolic play; ability to combine words in sentences

lexical development; grammatical development

Box 9.1 presents some expository texts produced by English-speaking children in fourth, seventh, and eleventh grade. These examples illustrate developmental changes in all of the following except _______________. lexical density (i.e., the ratio of content words to total words) lexical innovation (i.e., coining novel words such as when a child says 'try to be more rememberful, Mon") lexical complexity (i.e., the frequency of polysyllabic words) lexical diversity (i.e., the number of different words used)

lexical innovation (i.e., coining novel words such as when a child says 'try to be more rememberful, Mon")

Children who are described as having specific language impairment (SLI) have ____________. cognitive delays or disorders sensory delays or disorders limited language development in a variety of areas a deficit in theory of mind understandings

limited language development in a variety of areas

When a child hears a new word 'cup' and try to learn it, how does the child know that it is the cup that is being labeled rather than the cup's handle, the cup's color, the material the cup is made of, or the contents of the cup? Or maybe the word being uttered in the presence of a cup is not a label at all but a command to do something, like drink. This potential problem that the child faces is known as the _____________. word segmentation problem mapping problem syntactic labeling problem the problem of word extension

mapping problem

Spelke and Tsivkin (2001) tested the hypothesis that _______________ uses a particular language by training bilingual adults in both math facts and historical facts in one of their languages and then testing their knowledge of those facts either in the language of training or in the bilinguals' other language. They found that historical facts were retrieved with equal accuracy and speed regardless of the match between the language of training and the language of test, but math facts involving exact calculations over 4 were retrieved faster and with greater accuracy if the language of training and test were the same. 1) analogical reasoning 2) mathematical thinking 3) thinking for speaking 4) autobiographical memory 5) moral reasoning

mathematical thinking

Compared with mental-age-matched children without autism, children with autism show both similar vocabulary growth and similar understandings of word meanings. However, children with autism do not use words that refer to _________________, such as believe, figure, idea, and guess. individuation mental states perceptual salience physical motivation

mental states

The language delays characteristic of SLI are not even across domains of language. The areas of greatest weakness for children with SLI are ______________________. morphology and syntax vocabulary development articulation pragmatic development

morphology and syntax

Box 10.1 illustrates the kind of grammatical construction produced by deaf adolescents who are orally educated with either oral or total communication methods. The particular type of syntactic errors made by these deaf adolescents suggests that ________________________. deaf children's limited ability to acquire spoken language results in their being less communicative than their language-learning peers once those peers have begun to talk oral vocabulary development in deaf children is delayed and proceeds more slowly than vocabulary development in hearing children by the babbling stage, deaf infants differ from hearing infants in both the quantity and the quality of sound production most deaf children do not fully acquire the grammar of the spoken language.

most deaf children do not fully acquire the grammar of the spoken language

The only reported difference between blind and sighted children in the rate of grammatical development is a delay in blind children's acquisition of verbal auxiliaries—the "helping verbs" such as can, will, do (Landau & Gleitman, 1985). This delay may result from the observation that __________. Studying language development in special populations provide insight on how aspects of cognitive and social development relate to language development. blind children have fewer words for objects that can be seen but not touched, such as "moon" or "flag", and more words for things associated with auditory change, such as "piano, drum, and bird". mothers of the blind children used more direct imperatives (such as "Take the doll") and fewer yes/no questions (such as "Can you take the doll?") than did mothers talking to sighted children. achieving joint attention is more difficult for blind children than sighted children. d. blind children show a greater use of social routines and unanalyzed, formulaic speech than sighted children do

mothers of the blind children used more direct imperatives (such as "Take the doll") and fewer yes/no questions (such as "Can you take the doll?") than did mothers talking to sighted children.

By age 24 months, children start to refer to absent objects and events and to use language imaginatively, as in pretend play. These first references to past events are the beginning of ______________. joint attention development narrative development register development collective monologues

narrative development

A child who responds by saying "I like trucks" after her mother says "Eat your peas!" has demonstrated which of the following? a non-contingent response a contingent response a violation of the maxim of quality private speech

non-contingent response

Which of the following observations provides evidence for the many-to-many relationship between linguistic form and communicative function (e.g., a single linguistic form can be used for different functions or the same function can be expressed by different linguistic forms)? when there are conflicts, boys frequently issue directives and make threats; whereas girls tend more to try to negotiate a settlement. one 2-year-old girl used simple imperatives in expressing requests to other 2-year-olds at preschool, but she usually modified her imperatives by adding "Please" in making requests to 3-year-olds, and she used questions when making requests of 4-year-olds. higher SES mothers ask more question than do lower SES mothers and children from 18 months to 5 years of age show the same pattern of difference (P. L. Harris, 2007) . later-born children produce more contingent responses in conversation than same-aged firstborn children do, even though their linguistic skills are not more advanced (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998). Question 3

one 2-year-old girl used simple imperatives in expressing requests to other 2-year-olds at preschool, but she usually modified her imperatives by adding "Please" in making requests to 3-year-olds, and she used questions when making requests of 4-year-olds.

Which of the following is true about Open and Closed class words in language? closed class words are content words and open class words are function words. open class words are content words and closed class words are function words. open class words are verbs and adjectives and closed class words are nouns. Knowledge of language is knowledge of a system that allows speakers to produce an infinite number of different sentences from a finite inventory of words. Knowledge of language is not knowledge of a list of sentences from which to select as the occasion demands.

open class words are content words and closed class words are function words.

A child is fussing and staring towards a favorite blanket out of her reach. Her mother notices the child's distress and fetches the blanket of the child. This child has effectively engaged in what kind of communicative act? a perlocutionary act an illocutionary act a locutionary act a narrative act conversational discourse

perlocutionary act

In some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, the same sound or sound combination uttered in different tones can be different words. For example, /bā/ produced with a high tone that neither rises nor falls means "eight," and /bá/ produced with a rising tone means "to pull" (C. N. Li & Thompson, 1977). Here is the question, the brackets or slashes before and after a sound as in the previous Chinese examples indicate that the sound is written in _______ Secret code Phonetic transcriptions Mandarin

phonetic transcription

Around 18 months of age, children appear to have developed systematic ways in which to alter the sounds of the target language so that they fit within the repertoire of sounds they can produce. These systematic transformations are called _________________.

phonological processes

All of the following hypotheses EXCEPT _________________ about the nature of the underlying deficit in children with specific language impairment are consistent with the suggestion that the cause of SLI lies not in the children's environment but in some characteristic of the children themselves. Each of the hypotheses concerning the underlying cause of SLI has some empirical support, but so far no single hypothesis has been able to account for the full range of phenomena that characterize SLI. deficits in nonlinguistic cognition deficits in innate grammar deficits in the ability to perceive, store, or process language input poverty of stimulus (that is, linguistic input)

poverty of stimulus (this is. linguistic input)

An area of relative strength in the language development of children with Down Syndrome is_____. syntactic development. lexical development. use of narrative discourse. pragmatic development.

pragmatic development

Paul Grice (1975) proposed that conversation is guided by a spirit of cooperation that involves adherence to several conversational maxims. According to Paul Grice's Conversational Maxim of ________________, utterances should be as informative as the situation requires, but the contribution should not convey more information than is needed. For example, a father asked his daughter who was playing with a doll, "Which is your favorite animal?" The child did not verbally respond and continued playing with a doll; the child did not supply the information requested. As such, this is a violation of the Maxim of ________________ because the child was obligated to supply a response but did not take her turn to talk. quality quantity relevance manner

quantity

Using the preferential looking paradigm, Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff (1991) presented 13- to 15-month-old children with a sentence like "She's kissing the keys." As the children heard this sentence, two videotaped scenes were presented simultaneously on two different screens. On Screen A, a woman was kissing keys and holding up a ball. On Screen B, the same woman was kissing a ball and holding up keys. Babies looked more at the matching event on Screen A when they heard, "She's kissing the keys!" This result could only have emerged if infants were processing the sentence as a sentence as opposed to individual words as both videos contained a "she," the action of "kissing," and "keys", but "kissing keys" was depicted in only one scene. In other words, the children in this study who are just beginning to talk have demonstrated ____________. ability to find associations between the words of the sentences that they hear. comprehension of the relational meanings in multi-word combinations. knowledge that words together carry a meaning beyond the meaning of each word individually sensitivity to the meanings that the grammatical morphemes such as '-ing' and '-s" carry

sensitivity to the meanings that the grammatical morphemes such as '-ing' and '-s" carry

The rates at which children develop Theory of Mind understandings is closely related to their rates of language development, and among typically developing children, the more linguistically advanced are also more advanced in performance on Theory of Mind (ToM) understanding tasks. To explain this correlation between language and ToM, Jill de Villiers (2005) suggests that mental representation of false belief requires a certain kind of ____________ structure—one that allows one false proposition to be embedded in another true proposition. For example, in the sentence "Little Red Riding Hood believes that her grandmother will answer the door", the statement that "her grandmother will answer the door" is false, but the whole sentence is true. 1) relative clause 2) sentence complement 3) coordinate sentence 4) subordinate sentence

sentence complement

Among the following two word utterances that children would produce, _______ expresses the relational meaning of "action + location"? crayon big sit chair out chair put it table

sit chair

Parents (and others) teach children what to say ("Say Please"; "Say you're sorry"), prompt children ("What's the magic word?" "What do you say when you hurt someone?"), and directly praise children for appropriate speech and reprimand them for socially inappropriate speech. These observations suggest that ________________ is influenced by caregivers' active instruction of their children in particular forms of language use. the development of prerequisite cognitive abilities narrative development sociolinguistic development 'theory of mind' development

sociolinguistic development

Language productivity (or generativity) refers to the fact that ____________. speakers and hearers have the capacity to produce and understand an infinite number of novel sentences. children produce language spontaneously. researchers have produced (or generated) a large body of research about language structure. children's skill in producing language is typically behind their skill in comprehending it.

speakers and hearers have the capacity to produce and understand an infinite number of novel sentences.

Neils and Aram (1986) compared the incidence of language disorders in the immediate families of children with and without language impairment. They found that, on average, 20 percent of the family members of children with language impairment also had some language impairment, compared with a 3 percent incidence of language impairment among the family members of unimpaired children. This finding seems to suggest that ____________________. specific language impairment may have a genetic basis the deficit underlying specific language impairment is a deficit in processing rapidly presented stimuli. morphemes having low phonetic substance are most challenging for children with specific language impairment something about the innate language acquisition device in children with SLI may be impaired some children may show a purely grammatical SLI, whereas other children show deficits that also include phonological memory

specific language impairment may have a genetic basis

Research on bilingual education programs in the U.S. has shown that ________________________. students will succeed with any kind of bilingual education program, and the details of its implementation do not matter. the best way to motivate bilingual students to achieve academically is through single-language (English-only) language programs. supportive dual language programs in which children are instructed in both their home language and also English lead to higher academic performance. bilingual programs prevent children from learning either language well.

supportive dual language programs in which children are instructed in both their home language and also English lead to higher academic performance.

Sometime around 6 to 9 months of age, the quality of infants' vocalizations changes, and the infants start to babble. What emerges is canonical, or reduplicated, babbling. Canonical babbling is distinguished from the vocalizations that precede it by the presence of true_________________, that are typically produced in reduplicated series of the same consonant and vowel combination, such as [dada]. The appearance of canonical babbling is a major landmark in the infant's prespeech development. Consonants Vowels Syllables Words

syllables

Words are arbitrary ____________ that can be used to refer to things. Many behaviors communicate meaning but are not _________ and therefore are not words. Babies' crying because they are hungry, dogs' barking because they need to go outside, and adults' shivering because they are cold all convey information, but neither the cries, the barks, nor the shivering are words because none is a ___________. object(s) symbol(s) sequence(s) of sounds letter(s)

symbols

In alphabetic systems such as English (and Russian, Korean, and many more), the symbols (i.e., the letters) correspond to phonemes. This letter-phoneme correspondence is known as _____________. phonological recoding the alphabetic principle family literacy phonics instruction

the alphabetic principle

Sénéchal and LeFevre (2001) carried out an experiment to tease out the role of socializing the literacy behaviors through exposing children to books and the role of directly teaching children reading skills to support later literacy acquisition. They separately measured how much direct teaching of reading and writing parents did and also how much exposure to books they provided their preschool children. These two behaviors were sufficiently independent that the children could be classified into four groups: (1) high teaching and high reading, (2) high teaching but low reading, (3) low teaching and high reading, and (4) low teaching and low reading. The development of these children in terms of emergent literacy at the beginning of grade 1, reading skill at the end of grade 1, and reading skill at the end of grade 3 is depicted in Figure 9.8. The results suggest that ___________________. literacy is a set of cultural practices that is transmitted from one generation to the next in pairs of identical twins, if one twin has particular difficulty with phonological awareness tasks, the other twin is also likely to have difficulty children who are initially good readers improve at a faster rate than children who are initially poor readers the benefit of direct teaching shows primarily in grade 1, whereas the benefit of being read to persists

the benefit of direct teaching shows primarily in grade 1, whereas the benefit of being read to persists

A child speaks a low prestige heritage language at home and receives schooling in a second, high prestige language. The child has many friends in school and desires to become an integrated member of the larger community. Which of the following is TRUE about this child? the child is at risk of losing her first language in a process of attrition the child will likely become a very balanced bilingual the child will always be at a disadvantage speaking the community language all of these statements are true of this child

the child is at risk of losing her first language in a process of attrition

Box 10.4 include some examples of sentences produced by a 16-year-old child with SLI. One salient feature of the language use in these examples is that _______________________. the child with SLI adds grammatical morphemes to his utterances at the two- and three word utterance stage various subsystems of the child with SLI may be delayed to differing degrees, thus disrupting the usual synchrony of the various components of language development the child with SLI produces six- and seven-word utterances that are still missing some grammatical morphemes. the child with SLI has a deficit in phonological memory, that is, the ability to repeat a meaningless sequence of sounds (known as the nonword repetition task) Question 22

the child with SLI produces six- and seven-word utterances that are still missing some grammatical morphemes.

Oral language development outcomes in deaf children with cochlear implants are extremely variable. The children who seem to do best are ______________________. those who have a means of communication (e.g., ASL) with their families prior to implantation the children who have the greatest residual hearing before the surgery Children born deaf to parents who cannot sign and who have been discouraged from learning sign language to communicate with their child those deaf children whose language environment from birth is completely oral

the children who have the greatest residual hearing before surgery

It's been observed that by 18 months, children hearing a novel word will look around for a novel object rather than take the novel word as a label for something familiar that is in view. This observation may provide support for children's use of __________________ to solve word-referent mapping problem. the whole object assumption the taxonomic assumption the mutual exclusivity assumption the principle of conventionality

the mutual exclusivity assumption

Payne (1980) followed four children from the same family that moved to Philadelphia when the children were 3, 5, 6, and 8 years old. Payne examined the children's speech 5 years later, when they were 8, 10, 11, and 13, respectively, and she found that the 10- and 11-year-olds had the strongest Philadelphia accents. The 8-year-old and the 13-year-old had fewer features of the Philadelphia dialect. The results of this study suggests that ___________________. the rapid naming task can be used to assess the ability to rapidly retrieve and produce known words. learning to read an alphabetic writing system affects phonological awareness By the age of 14 or 15, adolescents start to move away from the peer group dialect and toward the more prestigious form of speech, especially in formal situations. the particular accent of their caregivers that children acquire is not permanently fixed, but may be altered due to peer influence.

the particular accent of their caregivers that children acquire is not permanently fixed, but may be altered due to peer influence.

The taxonomic assumption, which holds that words refer to things that are of the same kind, is a language-specific principle that is supposed to help children solve ______________ the word segmentation problem the mapping problem the syntactic labeling problem the problem of word extensio

the problem of word extension

Semantic bootstrapping refers to ____________. the observation that children initially use verbs in a narrower range of syntactic structures that the language allows, probably because they don't know the full meaning of the verbs they use. the hypothesis that because many properties of a language follow from the setting of one parameter, the number of parameters to set is limited. the process by which children figure out grammar by assigning grammatical structure to sentences based on their meanings. the hypothesis that what the child achieves in acquiring a language is an inventory of words and an inventory of constructions/structures in which these words can participate.

the process by which children figure out grammar by assigning grammatical structure to sentences based on their meanings.

The course of sign language development in deaf children who are exposed to sign from birth is _____________ the course of spoken language development (Goldin-Meadow, 2006). 1) the same as 2) different from

the same as

Jia and Aaronson (2003) have documented ________________for Chinese immigrant children in New York City. They found that children who were under the age of 9 years when they immigrated reported preferring to speak in English over Mandarin after 1 year and were more proficient in English, as measured by several tests of grammatical knowledge and translation, by the end of 3 years. Children who were over the age of 9 years when they immigrated maintained their preference for Mandarin and remained more proficient in Mandarin than English over the 3 years of the study. stages of using different communicative strategies the percentage of children performing at average monolingual levels the switch in language dominance the cutoff between successive and simultaneous bilinguals

the switch in language dominance

In a study on lexical development by Gelman and Markman (1985), four-year-old children were presented with picture sets such as Figure 5.6 below. When they were instructed "Find the fep one," they would pick (b). But when they were instructed "Now find the fep," they would pick (c). These children seemed to know the difference between 'fep' as an adjective in the former instruction and 'fep' as a common noun in the latter. These responses suggest that 4-year-olds can use _____________ to distinguish between words that imply a contrast between members of the same category (adjectives) and words that do not imply such a contrast (common nouns). phonological memory the syntax of a sentence lexical gap correspondences between the speech they hear and the accompanying nonlinguistic context

the syntax of a sentence

Consider the following narrative produced by a 4-year-old based on a picture book with no text (Karmiloff-Smith, 1986, p. 471). "There's a little boy in red. He's walking along and he sees a balloon man and he gives him a green one and he walks off home and it flies away into the sky so he cries." Here is the question. The main problem in this narrative is ______________, because without the book, a listener can't tell to whom the different "he/s" refer. the use of pronouns the grammaticality of each clause the heavy use of 'and' to link clauses together the lack of gender-typed language style

the use of pronouns

Speakers of different language formulate experience for linguistic expression in quite different ways, depending on the type of their native language. In some languages such as English, verbs of motion encode the manner of the motion; in other languages such as French, motion verbs encode path. While English speakers have the option of not expressing manner by saying that the dog enter the house, they tend to say 'The dog ran into the house'. Similarly, while French speaker could have said that the dog was running when it entered the house, they tend to say 'Le chien est entre dans la maison encourant' (literally, The dog entered the house runningly). According to Dan Slobin (2001), this provides support for his _______________________. In other words, speakers of different language may attend to different information about a particular experience/event and encode such information for the purposes of talking about that experience/event. 1) theory theory 2) thinking for speaking hypothesis 3) idea of language as the medium of thought 4) idea that linguistic input provides a push to cognitive development

thinking for speaking hypothesis

The average reading level of deaf high school graduates is roughly the fourth to sixth grade (Marschark & Spencer, 2003). According to a view by Wilber (2000), the deaf children who perform at the highest level in reading are ___________. those who learn to lip read Orally trained deaf children those who have deaf parents and acquired sign from infancy children who are identified as deaf at a younger age

those who have deaf parents and acquired sign from infancy

Studies of vocabulary development that directly compare bilingual and monolingual children typically, but not always, suggest that bilingual children have smaller vocabularies in each of their languages than do monolingual children of the same age. However, their ______________________ (i.e., all the concepts for which they have a word in at least one language) are larger than their vocabularies in either language and compare favorably to that of monolinguals. total vocabularies total conceptual vocabularies translation equivalents profile effects total amount of input

total conceptual vocabularies

A typical 3-year-old will not appreciate that when Little Red Riding Hood knocks on her grandmother's door she expects her grandmother but really will be greeted by the wolf. This is because that these young children do not reliably show ___________________. 1) understanding that other people have mental states 2) autobiographical memory 3) understandings of false belief 4) understanding of spatial similarity

understandings of false belief

Linguistic competence is the ability to understand and produce well formed sentences; while communicative competence include abilities to ___________________. use language for multiple communicative functions (pragmatics), participate in conversation and relate a past event (discourse knowledge), and use language in a manner that is appropriate to the social situation and valued by your social group (sociolinguistic knowledge). to perform such communicative functions as referring to objects, requesting objects, refusing something that is offered to them, and so on. take turns, initiate and maintain topics, repair communication breakdown, respond contingently, and adapt one's speech to their listeners' needs. produce syntactically more advanced utterances when children initiate conversations than whey they respond to another's prior speech. Question 2

use language for multiple communicative functions (pragmatics), participate in conversation and relate a past event (discourse knowledge), and use language in a manner that is appropriate to the social situation and valued by your social group (sociolinguistic knowledge).

Jusczyk, Friederici, Wessels, Svenkerud, and Jusczyk (1993) presented American and Dutch 6- and 9-month-old babies with American and Dutch words. At 9 months, but not at 6 months, the American infants listened longer to the American words, and the Dutch infants listened longer to the Dutch words. When only the prosodic contours of the words were presented, there were no preferences, because English and Dutch have _______________________. This result suggests that, by 9 months, infants have learned something about the kind of sound patterns that characterize their language. very similar prosodic characteristics very different prosodic characteristics

very similar prosodic characteristics

The feature of sound production that differentiates the final sound in the words 'bugs' and 'bikes' is called Manner of articulation Place of articulation Voicing Asipiration

voicing

All of the following except _____________ present evidence that children's early use of gesture predicts language development. the number of different objects that the child points at early in communicative development predicts the size of the child's comprehension vocabulary later on. The age at which children produce gesture + speech combinations (e.g., saying the word "eat" and pointing to a cookie) predicts the age at which they first produce two-word utterances. when a child pointed to a cat, his mother said, "Yes, that's a cat," and when a child pointed to his baby sister and said "sleeping," his mother said, "Yes, baby's sleeping". children who were high in the use of declarative pointing at 11 months were later more advanced in language than children who were low in the use of declarative pointing

when a child pointed to a cat, his mother said, "Yes, that's a cat," and when a child pointed to his baby sister and said "sleeping," his mother said, "Yes, baby's sleeping".

Constructivist and Nativist accounts of language development DISAGREE about which of the following ____________________. whether or not a child is born knowing their native language. whether or not a child must receive adequate amounts of input from adults. whether or not a child is born with language-oriented biases that help them use input from adults to learn their native language. the two accounts agree about all the above items.

whether or not a child is born with language-oriented biases that help them use input from adults to learn their native language.

Children who are acquiring English tend to combine content words before they add grammatical morphemes to their utterances, leading to the telegraphic quality of children's early word combinations. By contrast, children acquiring Turkish add grammatical inflections to nouns and verbs, producing two morpheme utterances, before they combine content words (Aksu-Koç & Slobin, 1985). This contrast in grammatical development most likely result from the crosslinguistic difference in ________________. 1) the rate at which children acquire language 2) how much adults talk to children 3) whether the language has a rich and regular morphology 4) the particular nouns that children know 5) the nature and extent of modifications made in speech addressed to children

whether the language has a rich and regular morphology

According to Vygotsky, there are basic thought processes that do not require language, and there are higher mental processes that do require language. Thus, according to Vygotsky, language is a tool used for thinking. In particular, some kinds of thinking are possible only by those _______________, and, therefore, there are some kinds of thinking that only humans can do. 1) who can do mathematical calculation 2) who do not remember very much what happened before they were 3 or 4 years old 3) who acquired their second language after their primary school years 4) who have language

who have language

Which of the following is NOT an example of a nonliteral use of language? sarcasm metaphors yes/no questions idioms irony

yes/no questions